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COURSE TITLE:
ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF VOCATIONAL
/ TECHNICAL EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: TVE 815
Concept- Administration
Administration is basically concerned with the formulation of the objectives, plans and policies.
A good administration in place will ensure the success of an enterprise.
Definition: According to Theo Haimann, “Administration means overall determination of
policies, setting of major objectives, the identification of general purposes, and laying down of
broad programmes and projects”.
According to Newman “Administration means guidance, leadership & control of the efforts of
the groups towards some common goals.”

Concept - Organization

DEFINITION: According to Etzioni, (1964) “Organizations are social units (or human
groupings) deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals”.

From the above definition, it can be understood that organizations are seen as social units or
human groupings, which indicates that individuals are the basic elements of organizations. Thus,
the first key element of this definition is the fact that organizations are groups of individuals.
Another element is deliberate construction that is, organizations are deliberately constructed for
accomplishing specific objectives. The third element is the goals, organizations are established
for the accomplishment of specific goals.

An organisation is a group of people working together to achieve the specified goal. A manager
play a central role in grouping the people and activities, establishing authority and responsibility
and interacting with people for the achievement of the organisational goal. He performs the
functions of planning, organising, directing and controlling for smooth functioning of the
organisation. Moreover, continuous influence of dynamic environment on the organisation
requires new managerial techniques to manage these changes.
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Vocational and Technical Education (VTE)

Vocational education is education that prepares people for a skilled craft. Vocational education
can also be seen as that type of education given to an individual to prepare that individual to be
gainfully employed or self employed with requisite skill. Vocational education is known by a
variety of names, depending on the country concerned, including career and technical education,
or acronyms such as TVET (technical and vocational education and training; used by UNESCO)
and TAFE (technical and further education). TVE refers to all forms and levels of education
which provide knowledge and skills related to occupations in various sectors of economic and
social life through formal, non-formal and informal learning methods in both school-based and
work-based learning contexts. To achieve its aims and purposes, TVE focuses on the learning
and mastery of specialized techniques and the scientific principles underlying those techniques,
as well as general knowledge, skills and values.

A vocational school is a type of educational institution specifically designed to provide

vocational education.

Vocational education can take place at the post-secondary, further education, or higher education
level and can interact with the apprenticeship system. At the post-secondary level, vocational
education is often provided by highly specialized trade schools, technical schools, community
colleges, colleges of further education (UK), vocational universities, and institutes of technology
(formerly called polytechnic institutes).Definition of Vocational and Technical Education
Vocational and Technical Education: Vocational education or technical and vocational education
is a term used comprehensively to refer to the educational process to which involves, in addition
to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, skills and knowledge
relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life.

Technical Education: This is the form of education which is offered at the upper secondary level,
lower tertiary institutions (e.g. polytechnic) to prepare middle level (technical and middle
manager, etc), and as the university and the HND levels to prepare, engineers, businessmen,
managers and technologists for higher management positions. Technical education includes
general education, technical studies and related skills training. The concept of Vocational
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Education aims at equipping individuals to use their heads and hands in order to survive in a
world that is essentially work-oriented. Words and terms such as vocation, job, work,
occupation, profession, career, education, vocational training, prevocational training, Vocational
Education, e.t.c need to be thoroughly understood in order to appreciate the various forms of
Vocational Education as we have it today.

Scope/Structure of VTE in Secondary School System in Nigeria

The National Policy’s aims and objectives on career oriented as enshrined in the NPE document
are designed to achieve both technological and economic advancement of Nigeria. Thus, at the
junior level (JSS) seven programme areas of pre-vocational education have been identified. Each
of these programme areas is treated in an integrated basis at the JSS level while opportunity is
given to students at the senior secondary level (SSS) to concentrate on three components of each
programme in the first year of the SSS. This is intended to allow the students to have a more in-
depth study and preparation for not only the SSS final examination, but also for entry into the
world of work or further studies.

The following are the structures of pre-vocational and vocational subjects in Nigerian secondary
schools as contained in the 2004 edition of the NPE. They are all elective subjects except
Introductory Technology (Basic Technology) which has been listed as a core subject at the JSS
level.
Pre-Vocational Electives (Junior Secondary School (JSS) Level)
1. Agricultural Science
2. Business Studies
3. Home Economics
4. Local Crafts
5. Computer Education
6. Fine Arts (Culture and Creative Arts)
7. Music
8. Introductory Technology
Vocational Education Electives (Senior Secondary School (SSS) Level)
1. Agricultural Science
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2. Applied Electricity
3. Book-keeping and accounting
4. Building Construction
5. Auto Mechanics
6. Commerce
7. Computer Education
8. Electronics
9. Clothing and Textiles
10. Food and Nutrition
11. Home Management
12. Metal Work
13. Technical Drawing
14. Wood Work
15. Shorthand
16. Typewriting
17. Fine Arts
Philosophy and Objectives of Vocational and Technical Education
Vocational Education has a philosophical and historical framework or foundation. The
philosophical framework has to do with a general understanding of the values, concepts,
fundamental beliefs and purpose of vocational education. While the historical framework is a
summary record of significant events and developments in vocational education in Nigeria. This
unit will present both frameworks to you. A good understanding of this will enhance your
appreciation of the concept of vocational education. Generally, philosophy has to do with an
understanding of values, concepts, fundamental beliefs and purposes. The national policy on
education (2004) states that the philosophy and values of education in Nigeria include the
following:
i. Integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen.
ii. Respect for the work of the individual.
iii. Faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions.
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iv. Moral and spiritual values in interpersonal and human relations v. Shared responsibility for
the common good of the society and;
vi. Social, cultural, economic, scientific and technological progress. (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004). The philosophy of technical and vocational education in Nigeria hangs mainly on
the above stated philosophy of education. This implies that any programme that will qualify as
“education” in Nigeria should not just offer “certificates” but must be work-oriented. This will
go a long way in solving under-employment/un-employment and the attendant problems. It will
also empower the graduates to become relevant producers of goods and services as well as
become sensible consumers of same.

Objectives of Vocational and Technical Education

The aims and objectives of technical and vocational education are to:
a) Provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and business particularly at
craft, advanced craft and technical levels;
b) Provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial
and economic development;
c) Give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who shall be self-reliant
economically; d) provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and
solution of environmental problems for the use and convenience of man;

e) Enable our young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing
complexity of technology;

f) Give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies. It is

important to mention here that aspects of vocational education should be part of basic primary,
junior secondary and senior secondary school education.

At the post secondary level, institutions that offer technical and vocational education include
tertiary technical institutions such as science and technical colleges, polytechnics, monotechnics,
colleges of education (technical) and universities. It is also important to note that vocational
education should be part of the on-going mass literacy campaigns, adult education, non-formal
education as well as special education for the physically challenged e.g. the blind, deaf, dumb.
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This is to ensure that such programmes are relevant and meaningful to the individuals
(recipients) and to the society generally.

Funding of Vocational and Technical Education Programmes

The funding of education generally is supposed to be the responsibility of the various tires of
government. However, because of the enormous cost implications, the blue print on education
(2004:60) states that: The financing of education is a joint responsibility of the Federal, State and
Local Governments and the private sector. In this connection, government welcomes and
encourages the participation of local communities, individuals and other organizations. This is
particularly true for vocational education. We as a nation generally need to actually invest more
on vocational education; not just on paper but in practice.

The document further states that sectoral bodies such as the Education Tax Fund (ETF) have
been established to respond to the funding needs of education. In addition, other funds from
which the burden of financing education can be eased are:

i. Industrial Training Fund (ITF).

ii. National Science and Technology Fund (NSTF).

iii. Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF).

Apart from the above stipulations, sources of funding for vocational education can be classified
into two:

1. External Sources: This refers to sources outside the various institutions. These include the
various tiers of government. Such funds can be in the form of budgetary allocations, donations,
subsidies, various funds and grants, e.g. Education Trust Fund (ETF), NSTF, PTF etc. It could
also be in the form of aids from foreign countries and organizations e.g. UNICEF.

2. Internal Sources: This refers to sources within the various institutions. These include: levies,
launching programmes, donations, fees from sandwich, remedial and consultancy services,
contributions from Alumni Associations, business outlets such as school canteens, bookshops,
cybercafe, business centres, mechanical workshops, farms etc.
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It is however pertinent to note that government remains the major financier of education.
However there is need for philanthropic organizations, private company‟s non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and individuals to get more actively involved in vocational education if
the nation is to make headway in this direction.
Development of Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria
The historical development of vocational education in Nigeria will be presented under the
following sub-headings to make it easier for you to understand.
i. Vocational Education in the Pre-colonial Era
ii. Vocational Education in the Colonial Era
iii. Vocational Education in the Post-Colonial Era
i. Vocational Education in the Pre-Colonial Era
According to Ali (2000), before the introduction of formal, western education in Nigeria, at
about 1892, different ethnic groups were already “training” young men and women in various
occupations, trades as well as production of different materials and services such as: brewing,
building, carving, spinning, fishing, hair-dressing, pottery, mining, herbalism, agriculture,
goldsmithing, iron-smithing, etc. This was done at family and sometimes community levels.
Appropriate character training and disposition were also taught. This was the era traditional
vocational education.
At this time, certain skills, trades or vocations were traceable to or said to “run” in particular
families, ethnic groups, villages, etc. Each tried to be perfect in and jealously guard the skills or
occupations for which they were known.

During the era of traditional vocational education, people generally engaged in vocations such as
various types of farming (poultry, snail, livestock, etc), fishing, hunting, carving, carpentry,
sculpturing, painting, building, decoration, catering, boat-making, mat-making, dyeing, hair
plaiting, barbing, traditional medicine, trading, etc. During this period, skills, knowledge,
competencies and attitudes were inculcated in the youths in two major ways:

i) Informal and;

ii) Non-Formal Methods

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i)Informal Traditional Vocational Education: Here the teaching team comprised of parents,
senior siblings and relatives. It appeared that some children unconsciously acquired special
vocational skills by just being part of specific families or villages while other children also
unconsciously acquired relevant vocational skills in their families such as house-keeping, hair-
plaiting, baby-care, cooking, vegetable farming, trading and so on, for the girls; or hunting,
fishing, livestock-keeping, barbing, traditional medicine, gold smiting, etc. for the boys. At the
time it was almost mandatory that all children born into a family should learn their fathers’ crafts
(for the male children), or mothers’ vocation (for the female children). Young men and women
were thus identified and traced to specific lineages as a result of the type of craft or vocation they
practiced.

ii) Non-Formal Methods: According to Evans (1981) quoted in Ekpenyong (2005), in nonformal
(out of school) education, there is a conscious effort on the part of both the source of information
(e.g. parents, relatives or master craftsmen) and the learners to promote learning. This was
mainly achieved through the apprenticeship system.

Apprenticeship: This refers to a system whereby youths usually from the age of 12 were sent or
bonded or apprenticed to relatives, family friends or master craftsmen or women to learn a
special vocation or trade for a given period of time. The duration of training varied from trade to
trade. During the training period, the apprentice usually lived with and served the master’ or
mistress’s household while the latter provided him with shelter, food, clothing, religious, civic as
well as moral training along with the specified vocational training. The apprenticeship system
could be informal, less formal or formal. During the pre-colonial era, the informal method was
mostly practiced. At that time, the apprenticeship system was more like an institution guarded by
customs, traditions and sometimes rituals. After the specified period of time, the apprentice
would be set free with a kind of ceremony as well as basic requirements or materials for starting
off on his own.

Generally, the teaching method during the era of traditional vocational training included direct
instructions, demonstrations, and question asking among others. While the learners had to listen,
observe, respond to and ask questions, as well as engage in practicals at appropriate time. The
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formal method of apprenticeship is still practised today though it is not as domincent or popular
as it used to be.

It is important to mention that during this time, the Birom people of Plateau State and their
counterparts at Awka in Anambra State were famous in blacksmithing, the “Benis” were famous
in bronze and Ivory carving, Abia State and environs were famous in “Akwete” weaving, Bida
people were famous barbers, etc. Some of these crafts are still traceable to these respective
communities till date.

It is equally pertinent to state that during that era, the society really appreciated and valued the
dignity of labour. Vocational training then was highly relevant to societal needs, goals and
values. Oranu (1995) quoted in Ile, Asoegwu and Chukwugbo (2005) asserted that before the
advent of the white man in Nigeria, labour and hard work were glorious and highly esteemed.
However, the white-collar jobs of the white men gradually but systematically paved the way for
the erosion of the dignity of labour. It appears that gradually, the functional and valuable
traditional vocational training that our fore-fathers worked so hard to establish was relegated to
the background, as it was referred to as “blue collar” job and considered inferior to “white
collar” jobs that merely involved the use of “pen and paper”.

ii Vocational Education in the Colonial Era

Formal education came into Nigeria in 1842 when the Christian missionaries arrived Badagry in
Lagos with the primary aim of evangelizing the natives through the instrument of literary
education. This type of education was less expensive and less demanding in terms of human and
material resources though less relevant to the needs of the people. They considered literary
education as essential element to the spread of Christianity. This was a kind of dislocation to the
already thriving traditional vocational education in Africa. This is because going to school then
did not seem to specifically emphasize the various skills in agriculture, hunting, trading,
weaving, etc. Rather students merely acquired reading and writing skills. Our former British
colonialist equally came with a system of education that did not meet the needs of the colonized
people of Africa.
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What we have said earlier does not imply that vocational education was totally ignored during
the colonial era. The British government and the missionaries actually made some efforts at
developing vocational education. A summary of such efforts include:

For instance, as early as 1842, the mission school at Behule, (Abeokuta) had workshops for
blacksmithing, wheel wrights, carpentry and shoe-making.

In 1876, the first technical school in Nigeria (the Roman Catholic Agricultural School) was
established at Topo near Badagry.

By 1905, the Hope Waddle Training Institute in Calabar had included vocational subjects such as
tailoring, carpentry, printing, agriculture, etc, to other crafts and literary subjects taught in the
school.

In 1909, an institution at Nassarawa (Northern Nigeria) was established which operated

vocational and technical programmes. Book-binding, carpentry, weaving, etc were taught.

The 1920 – 21 witnessed the Phelps-Stokes Commission Reports on Education in Africa. This
document was a positive landmark as it made positive recommendations on vocational and
technical education.

In 1925, the memorandum on the education policy in British Tropical Africa and a subsequent
government white paper on it was published. Among other things, the white paper provided that:

a. Education should be adopted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the
various peoples,

b. Technical and industrial training should be provided in government workshops provided a

proper instructor was available.

It is pertinent to note that little or nothing was done to implement this policy as general education
continued to be emphasized.

In 1944, there was a Ten Year Development Plan which proved defective. It dismissed further
development in vocational and technical education claiming that a big trade school or a technical
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college was not necessary at that stage. It‟s Its reasons were that such a school would be
extremely expensive to build and equip; would require large European and African staff and that
there would be no great demand for the products when trained. Of course, this was far from the
truth.

Subsequently another Ten – year development and welfare plan was put in place in 1946. The
1946 Ten-Year Development and Welfare Plan for Nigeria was a “miracle” for vocational
technical education because it contained an official statement by the colonial administration that:
- Technical Education is of much importance that a separate plan has been made for it outside the
general education plan. The shortage of properly trained artisans and technicians is at present one
of the limiting factors of any real and rapid development. Unless quick action is taken to provide
facilities for proper training for such men, there must be a serious log in the work of
development.

The importance of quick action is therefore obvious. (Nigerian Official Report, 1946 as quoted in
Ekpenyong, 2005).

- The 1946 Ten-Year Development Plan proposed that three trade centres be established at Yaba,
Enugu and Zaria/Kaduna. It was also proposed that craft centres be established in all provinces
of the Federation.

1949 witnessed another major breakthrough in the development of vocational technical

education when a two-man committee on Technical Education presented a report that led to the
establishment of the Nigerian College of Arts and Technology with branches at Enugu (East),
Zaria (North) and Ibadan (West).

- In 1959, the Ashby Commission was set up in preparation for the nation’s independence. Their
report was submitted in September 1960 just before the independence and gave a positive push
to the development of Vocational Education.

Meanwhile from 1900, various colonial government departments and private firms were
operating in-house/on-the jobs vocational training programmes for their workers or prospective
workers. Participants were sponsored by the employers or admitted with a view to being
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employed on successful completion of the training. Such government departments or

corporations include:

1. Nigerian Railway Training School (1901).

2. Government Survey School, Lagos, (1908).

3. Marine Department Training School, (1928).

4. Public Works Department (PWD) Training School (1931).

5. Post and Telecommunications Training School (1931).

Some private establishments and companies also organized special training courses that were
deigned designed to meet specific existing and predictable man-power needs within their
respective organizations. Such establishments include John Holt, United African Company
(UAC), United Trading Company (UTC), Paterson and Zochonis (PZ), Shell BP, etc.

iii. Vocational Technical Education in the Post-Colonial Era .

By October 1960, when Nigeria gained her independence, it was obvious that the so-called
education we inherited from the British government was not adequate to the societal and
economic needs of Nigeria. It was clear that the old the inherited British literary curriculum
would not meet the educational and economic challenges of the emerging Nigerian nation.

Consequently, vocational education began to receive the much needed attention in the proposed
proposes national curriculum through the 1969 National curriculum conference. The Ashby
Commission was a major landmark in the development of vocational education in Nigeria. To
closely study how the Ashby report affected them, the three regions resolved to do so by setting
up regional commissions or committees as follows:

a) The Dike Committee for the Eastern region.

b) The Banjo Commission for the Western region.

c) The Oldman Commission for the Northern region.

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The reports of the various committees led to the advancement of Vocational Education in their
respective regions. This is because the reports attracted financial aids from the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) that was used for the establishment of
vocational technical institutions in the three regions respectively. The reports also re-echoed the
need to replace the “grammar” and “high” schools with “comprehensive” schools because the
latter would offer a broader curriculum comprising both general and vocational subjects - such as
science, agriculture, technical studies, business studies, etc. This was implemented with the
assistance of USAID.

A panel on comparative Technical Education which published its reports in 1966, recommended
the need for a national plan for vocational and technical education in Nigeria. Its
recommendation made the National Educational Research Council (NERC) to organize and
sponsor a critical curriculum conference in 1969, as earlier indicated. This was followed by a
seminar in 1973 which culminated in the formulation of the National Policy on Education in
1977 (revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004 respectively). This blue print on Education in Nigeria gave
due attention to the issue of vocational education. The seminar, in addition to other
achievements, led to the establishment of the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in
1976.

It is pertinent to point out that in the 1960s, vocational education was primarily in the hands of
voluntary and private individuals and agencies. However, by the 1970s, government’s
participation in the establishment of vocational technical institutions was on the increase.
Government’s achievements towards the development of vocational education in Nigeria after
the independence include the following:

Establishment of a specialized ministry - The Federal Ministry of Science and Technology

Introduction of departments of vocational technical education in some universities (though
relatively few).

Establishment of some universities of technology, agriculture, etc. Establishment of technical

colleges, polytechnics and colleges of education (Technical).
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Establishment of monotechnics such as Petroleum Training Institute (PTI), Mettallurgical

Training Institute (MTI), etc.

The Technical Teacher Training Programme (TTTP) The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) - 1973

The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) – 1987

The National Open Apprentice Scheme (NOAS) The School on Wheel Scheme (SWS) The
Waste-to-Wealth Scheme (WWS).

The Disabled Work Scheme (DWS).

The National Business and Technical Education Board (NABTEB).

Till date, efforts are still being made (though more in principle than in practice) to give
vocational education its pride of place in the country‟s educational system. Most of these efforts
do not meet with full implementation, funding and adequate monitoring. Others appear to be
sabotaged and crippled so that they hardly achieve the purpose(s) for which they were initiated.

However, there is a ray of hope for vocational education as a result of its functionality and
relevance to any nation, particularly Nigeria.

The Role of Vocational and Technical Education in National Development

When vocational technical education has been adequately invested upon, intelligently articulated,
and properly executed it should be able to meet the following economic needs and expectations
of the nation and its citizens.

1. Development of individuals who are equipped with the requisite knowledge and skills for
productive work life;

2. Development of individuals who are capable of meeting modern technological challenges.

3. Development of a pool of competent and reliable technical manpower capable of being

mobilized in times of national and economic emergency and crisis.

4. Development of the youths, with right attitudes, skills and aptitudes towards work;
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5. Equipping of the youth with requisite knowledge and skills for paid employment or self-
employment.

6. Preparing the youths for meeting community, state and national human resource needs.

7. Enabling the individuals to choose and perfect knowledge and skills in those vocational areas
for which they have interests and aptitudes.

8. Enabling individuals to develop sound economic reasoning and make good economic
decisions, in the production and/or consumption of goods and services;

9. Enabling youths to relate their knowledge, skills and expertise to the needs of their local
communities.

10. Preparing industrial managers/Chief Executive Officers who are capable of meeting the
technological and managerial complexities of a modern industrial society.

11. Establishing and maintaining a functional link between school and industry in matters
affecting vocational education and the world of work. (adapted from Ekpenyong and Nwabuisi
2001).

Generally this will inject vibrancy into the economy by increasing productivity while checking
unemployment and inflation. In the long run the Gross Domestic Product (GPD) of the nation
will also step up the living standards of the people.

Characteristics of Vocational and Technical Education

The features or characteristics of anything are marks of identity for that thing. They refer to those
distinguishing and special traits that make something whatever it is and different from all other
things no matter how similar. Vocational education has some clearly noticeable features that
should make it what it is expected to be. In other words in TVE the following features should
prevail:
1) The training environment for Vocational Education should replicate the working environment
itself; or the actual working environment (same tools, machines, tasks, procedures, operations,
etc).
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2) The training should be directly and specifically job-oriented; i.e. each task should be done in
the same way it is expected to be done at the place of work.
3) The trainees (students) should be specifically trained on the manipulative and thinking habits
required in the real working situation.
4) This type of education should help the students to maximize their interests, abilities, aptitudes
and potentials. Consequently training should be given to those who need it, want it and are able
to benefit from it.
5) Adequate repetitive training in tasks and experiences from the place of work should be used to
establish the right habits of doing and thinking to the degree necessary or acceptable for
employment.
6) The teacher should be a master of the knowledge and skills that he teaches.
7) The training should be continued to the point where the students acquire a productive ability
with which they can gain and retain an employment.
8) A vocational education programme must strive to meet the requisite market demands for
labour (acceptable standard) in a given occupation. There should also be enough room for
improving set standards.
9) Education and training should be given on actual jobs not just on simulated and pseudo jobs.

10) Vocational education curriculum contents should be generated by masters and successful
practitioners of the occupation; not from ordinary theorists.

11) Vocational education and training should emphasize functional and specific body of content
materials relevant to each occupation.

12) Vocational education should meet the peculiar training needs of any group whenever and
however they require it; and hope to benefit maximally from it.

13) The training in vocational education should consider the peculiar characteristics of those it
serves – in terms of choice of instructional methods and personal relationship with them.

14) The administration of vocational education should be elastic, fluid and flexible. Unnecessary
rigidity should be avoided.
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15) Vocational Education is capital intensive. Therefore, the funds invested in training must at
least be adequate for good training to be done.

Problems of Vocational Education in Nigeria.

Generally, problems refer to constraints, difficulties, challenges, hindrances or obstacles. The
problems of vocational education therefore refer to those factors or issues that affect the rapid
development of technical and vocational education in Nigeria.
The problems include the following:
1) Wrong Perception of Vocational Education.
The general Nigerian public tends to give wrongly perception to vocational education.Some
seem to think of it as education for under- achievers, unintelligent people, school drop outs, and
the less-privileged. It has also been wrongly perceived as a “dirty” kind of education due to its
practical nature. These wrong perceptions are traceable to our colonial days and lead to the next
problem.
2) Societal Stigma.
As can be seen from the points above, vocational education has for some time now seemed to
have received negative stigma. For instance, parents would rather have their wards and children
study more “prestigious” and “glamorous” courses such as medicine, law and engineering.

3) Lack of Vocational Guidance and Counselling.

Lack of adequate vocational guidance has made it difficult to correct wrong perceptions pupils
have about vocational education to be removed at the right time, remove the consequent societal
stigma. There is therefore, strong need to mount vocational guidance and counselling
programmes for the public and in various academic institutions for appropriate enlightenment on
the subject.

4) Financial Constraints.

Technical and vocational education is a capital intensive discipline. Hence it is if its benefits to
the learners and the nation are to be easily evident, then adequate amount of funds must be made
available for its execution. These should adequately meet the cost of personnel, building,
equipment, laboratories, studios, demonstration farms, etc.
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5) Lack of Physical Resources.

These include basic infrastructure, such as buildings, laboratories workshops and studios. Most
schools that offer vocational education courses are not provided with enough appropriate
equipment and materials for training. Most of the so called studios and laboratories, instructional
materials are just a caricature of what they should be. Sometimes, appropriate materials are
available but no teachers or instructors to use for instruction.

6) Government Policies.

Initially, government policies on education reflected the already discussed societal

misconceptions and stigma – regarding vocational education as it was considered inferior. to
secondary. Although the current National Policy on Education (2004), places emphasis on
vocational education implementation, education its it does not reflect the enthusiasm expressed
in the policy document.

7) Dearth of Qualified Vocational Personnel.

A walk round most of the Nigeria’s vocational training centres, technical colleges and even
tertiary institutions would show that these institutions are not adequate in the quality and quantity
of personnel. This situation is partly responsible for the low quality of graduates coming out of
them. Some of the teachers that were sent abroad in the early 1980s for vocational training under
the TTTP programme never returned. Some that returned took up more lucrative jobs in other
establishments; others established enterprises of their own; thus the incident of lack of qualified
vocational teachers continues to affect the nation. As a result of the versatile nature of vocational
education, graduates from this area find it easy to secure employment in various establishments
or become self-employed, instead of remaining in the classroom to train others. This tendency is
often worsened by poor remuneration and unattractive working conditions of teachers. This has
continued to affect vocational education negatively.
Presently, only a few federal universities offer full-blown technical and vocational education
programmes and even some of the few, are yet to mount PhD programmes in this specialized
field of study thereby compounding the problem further. In some institutions, some machinery
and equipment supplied several years ago are still lying waste-in their various crates or
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containers – unopened and unused due to lack of qualified personnel to operate, service or repair
them.
8) Lack of Power Supply.
In some parts of the country, effective vocational education is hindered by lack of or inadequate
power supply to run the necessary equipment and machines. Moreover, sometimes the necessary
spare parts for servicing and repairing the equipment are not readily available. Lack of water
supply can equally pose a problem in some technical institutions.
9) Poor Student Motivation.
It is common to find that in some TVE institutions, the laboratories, studios and workshops are
often not used. Those that are in use at all, are used rather infrequently and rigidly as enough
time usually is not allocated for practicals while students are often not allowed to use the
laboratories at their spare time. All these lead to poor motivation, lack of confidence and
uncertainty about the students’ ability to succeed or perform well enough on the programme of
the students.
10) The Gap between Institutions and Industry There is need for a functional link, understanding
and co-ordination between institutions and schools. This is because the institutions produce for
the industries. A good TVE curriculum or programme benefits from the linkage between school
and industry. It is the gap between institutions and industry that pretty accounts for the high rate
of unemployment among TVC graduates. This is because students are trained based on
procedures and equipment that are no longer needed in various industries. The students therefore
graduate to discover that they do not actually possess any employable/entrepreneurial skills and
competencies expected of them.
11) Lack of Indigenous Textbooks.
From observation the quality and quantity of indigenous textbooks in vocational education
courses are rather poor. Some of the said textbooks do not have accompanying workbooks to
facilitate practical work. Some of the books are sub-standard and poorly written. Foreign
textbooks are very scarce and even when they are available; they are not only expensive but not
very relevant to the Nigerian situation.
12) Lack of Effective Entrepreneurship Education Entrepreneurship education aims at equipping
students with occupational skills, sharp business acumen and ingenuity to enable them create
 20

employment for themselves and others. It should therefore be an integral part of effective
vocational education. It is not enough to just include “Entrepreneurship” as a course for
vocational education students. The course content and method of delivery should have a practical
orientation to make the programme really beneficial to the students.

13) Insufficient Industrial Work Experience for Student In 1973, the Industrial Training Fund
(ITF) launched the “Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES)”, which was aimed
at B.

PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMME PLANNING

Planning of urban development programme is to be done on the basis of well recognized
principles which should be clearly understood and followed. The main principles are:
i) Programme-planning should be based upon a careful analysis of a factual situation.
ii) Problems for action are selected on the basis of recognized needs of people.
iii) Objectives and solutions are to be feasible and offer satisfaction.
iv) Programme should be permanent and flexible to meet a long-term situation, short-term
changes, and emergencies.
v) Programme should have both balance and emphasis.
vi) Programme should have a definite plan of work.
vii) Programme planning is a continuous and coordinating process.
viii) Programme planning should be educational and directed towards bringing about desirable
change.
ix) Programme planning should have a provision for the evaluation of results.
PROGRAMME PLANNING PROCESS
Three phases involved in programme planning process are:
i) Programme formulation.
ii) Programme execution.
iii) Programme evaluation.
These three phases have the following 8 sub-processes as shown in Fig.1.1
i) Collection of facts and analysis.
ii) Identification of problems.
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iii) Determination of objectives.

iv) Developing the plan of activities.
v) Carrying out the activities.
vi) Continuous checking.
vii) Evaluation of results.
viii) Reconsideration.
Principles for Effective Planning and Scheduling
Mastering planning and scheduling involves more than just setting deadlines and allocating
tasks. It requires applying principles that enhance efficiency, ensure alignment, and adapt to
changing circumstances. Here’s an in-depth look at ten principles that can guide effective
planning and scheduling:
1. SWOT Analysis.
SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) is a strategic tool for
identifying and understanding internal and external factors that could impact a plan or schedule.
 Strengths: Assess what resources, capabilities, or advantages you have that can be
leveraged. For example, if a team has advanced technical skills, these should be utilised
effectively in project planning.
 Weaknesses: Identify areas where there are limitations or challenges. This could be a lack
of specific expertise or resource constraints.
 Opportunities: Look for external factors that could benefit your plan. For instance, market
trends that align with your project goals can provide new avenues for growth.
 Threats: Recognize potential risks that could impact the plan’s success, such as economic
downturns or competitive pressures.
By conducting a SWOT analysis, you can create a plan that capitalises on strengths, mitigates
weaknesses, seizes opportunities, and prepares for threats, thereby making your planning and
scheduling more robust and resilient.
2. SMART Goals.
SMART Goals ensure that objectives are clear and attainable. This framework helps in setting
goals that are:
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 Specific: Clearly define what is to be achieved. For example, instead of saying "increase
sales," a SMART goal would be "increase sales by 15% over the next quarter."
 Measurable: Establish criteria to track progress. This could be sales figures, completion
rates, or performance metrics.
 Achievable: Ensure the goal is realistic, given the resources and constraints. Set goals
that are challenging yet attainable.
 Relevant: Align the goal with broader business objectives. Ensure that achieving this goal
contributes meaningfully to the overall strategy.
 Time-bound: Set a deadline for achieving the goal. This creates a sense of urgency and
helps in planning the schedule around it.
Applying the SMART criteria to your goals makes planning and scheduling tasks that drive
progress and success easier.
3. Prioritisation
Prioritisation involves arranging tasks in order of importance and urgency. Effective
prioritisation ensures that critical tasks are completed first, preventing delays in achieving key
objectives.
 Eisenhower Matrix: This tool helps categorise tasks into four quadrants based on their
urgency and importance:
 Urgent and Important: Tasks that need immediate attention and have significant
consequences if not done.
 Not Urgent but Important: Tasks that contribute to long-term success but do not require
immediate action.
 Urgent but Not Important: Tasks that require immediate attention but do not significantly
impact long-term goals.
 Not Urgent and Not Important: Tasks that are neither urgent nor important and can be
delegated or eliminated.
Prioritising tasks helps in focusing efforts on activities that have the greatest impact, thereby
improving efficiency and effectiveness.
4. Resource Allocation.
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Resource Allocation involves distributing available resources—such as personnel, finances, and

materials—where they are most needed. Effective resource management ensures that resources
are used optimally to achieve project goals.
 Resource Planning: Identify the required resources for each task and ensure availability.
For instance, in a construction project, labour and materials are allocated based on the
project timeline and requirements.
 Capacity Planning: Assess the capacity of resources to handle the workload. Avoid
overloading resources to prevent burnout and ensure sustainable performance.
You can avoid bottlenecks, reduce waste, and enhance overall productivity by accurately
allocating resources.
5. Time Management.
Time Management is crucial for developing a realistic schedule and ensuring tasks are completed
within the set timeframe. According to Zoom Shift, poor time management can lead to wasted
time, decreased productivity, and lost revenue. Here are some techniques you can use to
eliminate these effects:
 Gantt Charts: Use Gantt charts to visualise project timelines, task dependencies, and
milestones. This helps in tracking progress and adjusting schedules as needed.
 Time-Blocking: Allocate specific blocks of time for focused work on individual tasks.
This method helps in minimising distractions and improving productivity.
Effective time management ensures that deadlines are met and projects are completed on
schedule, contributing to overall success.
6. Flexibility and Adaptability.
Flexibility and Adaptability involve being prepared to adjust plans and schedules in response to
unforeseen changes or challenges.
 Contingency Planning: Develop contingency plans to address potential risks and changes.
For instance, if a supplier fails to deliver materials on time, have an alternative supplier
ready.
 Regular Reviews: Continuously monitor progress and make adjustments as needed.
Regular reviews help identify deviations and enable timely corrective actions.
 24

Being adaptable helps manage uncertainties and ensures that the plan remains relevant and
effective under changing conditions.
7. Regular Monitoring and Review.
Regular Monitoring and Review involve tracking progress against the plan and schedule to
ensure that objectives are being met.
 Performance Metrics: Use key performance indicators (KPIs) to measure progress and
assess performance. For example, track project completion percentages or budget
adherence.
 Progress Reports: Generate regular progress reports to provide updates on task status,
achievements, and any issues encountered.
Regular monitoring and reviews enable you to stay on track, address issues promptly, and make
data-driven decisions for continuous improvement.
8. Clear Communication.
Clear Communication ensures that all stakeholders are informed about the plan and schedule,
facilitating alignment and coordination.
 Communication Plans: Develop a communication plan that outlines how information will
be shared with team members and stakeholders. This includes regular updates, meetings,
and feedback mechanisms.
 Documentation: Maintain clear and accessible plan and schedule documentation,
including any changes or updates.
Effective communication prevents misunderstandings, aligns expectations, and enhances
collaboration among team members.
9. Delegation and Empowerment.
Delegation and Empowerment involve assigning tasks and responsibilities to team members
while providing them with the authority and resources to complete them.
 Task Assignment: Delegate tasks based on team members’ skills and expertise. Ensure
that each person has a clear understanding of their responsibilities and deadlines.
 Empowerment: Encourage team members to take ownership of their tasks and make
decisions within their scope of work. Empowered employees are more motivated and
engaged.
 25

Delegation and empowerment enhance productivity, foster a sense of ownership, and ensure that
tasks are completed efficiently.
10. Continuous Improvement
Continuous Improvement involves regularly evaluating and refining planning and scheduling
processes to enhance their effectiveness.
 Feedback Mechanisms: Collect feedback from team members and stakeholders to
identify areas for improvement. Use this feedback to make necessary adjustments to the
planning and scheduling process.
 Lessons Learned: Analyse past projects and tasks to identify lessons learned and best
practices. Apply these insights to future planning and scheduling efforts.
By continuously improving your processes, you can enhance efficiency, adapt to changing needs,
and achieve better outcomes.
Applying these principles to planning and scheduling helps create a structured approach that
drives efficiency, enhances productivity, and ensures successful outcomes. Whether you are
managing a complex project or organising daily tasks, incorporating these principles into your
planning and scheduling efforts will lead to more effective and successful results.
Needs Assessment Strategies for Organizations
Here are some steps to conduct an assessment of a company's needs:
1. Identify and define the organization's needs.
To begin the assessment, find out how the company is performing currently. This can include
reviewing the current processes and finances or asking the employees how they feel the company
is proceeding. For example, the company may require an investment in new technologies to
operate more efficiently or expand its marketing campaigns to reach its target audience better.
Rank the needs by importance to the company's advancement and create a plan for achieving
them.
2. Understand the resources and limitations.
It's necessary to think about the resources and potential limitations of working toward a
company's goal. When setting the goals, assess if the organization has enough resources to
support the objective. For example, the goal may require the company to hire extra staff
members with certain expertise. Hiring and training can cost the company, which means it's
 26

essential to review the budget before committing to recruiting new professionals. Additionally,
think about the potential limitations a company may experience when setting a goal. Generate
solutions to the potential limitations for the company's employees to use if they encounter
challenges.

3. Collect internal information.

Collect the internal information to allow you to determine the company's urgent needs. You can
collect data from different areas in the company, which is micro-level research. Some types of
internal information you can collect are quantitative data, such as sales information, or
quantitative data, like the stakeholder's opinions on their financial investment in the company.
This information can help you determine how the company is currently performing and inform
you how you can change various processes to work toward the desired result.
4. Gather data from external sources.
Gather external information from fields outside of the company. The company might assemble
necessary data through methods, such as surveys, interviews or market research strategies. You
can use these methods with the organization's potential leads and target audience to determine
how they feel about the company and what they might like to see from it. This may also help you
determine how to gain an advantage over the company's competitors and gain their customers.
5. Use the data you've gathered.
The data you acquire may guide you toward the changes the workplace can make to meet its
needs. Organize the information and prioritize the steps to take, and get to know which solution
is right for each need by comparing the various costs and benefits of implementing them. You
can create a report with recommendations on what to do to summarize the data, which can be
helpful when you're presenting your findings to others, such as the company's employees,
stakeholders and customers.
6. Ask for feedback.
Ask others for feedback about your assessment before presenting it. Sharing it with others and
listening to their feedback may help you find potential challenges or limitations you may not
have noticed before when working on it. Consider asking a colleague or manager for their
 27

opinion and if they might add anything else to it or research an area of the company further to
create more actionable steps to accomplish.
7. Share the findings and implement the processes.
After your peers have reviewed your work, share the findings and begin implementing the
processes. You may share your assessment with the organization's stakeholders to explain how
the company plans to use its investment to advance the business toward its goals. Additionally,
you can share with the organization's employees how processes, systems or tools are changing
over the next few weeks, months or years to help accomplish these goals. Then, the company's
professionals clearly understand their tasks and goals and can implement the processes.
Facilities to Accommodate Contemporary Curriculum and Instructional Techniques
Computers, internet surfing, laptops, electronic notebooks, e-readers, computer educational
games, online dictionaries, online encyclopedias, picture dictionaries, talking dictionaries, online
tests, online e-books, audio-video teaching aids for learning various subjects including
languages; PowerPoint slides and games; flash educational games; Lesson relayed on radio
through satellites; lessons on TV relayed by certain TV channels; Educational CDs and DVDs,
projectors; interactive whiteboards also called smart boards etc.