OCEANOGRAPHY

• Hydrosphere is very important part of earth and Biosphere.

Hydrological Cycle:
• Circulation of water between water bodies, atmosphere and Lithosphere is
known as hydrological Cycle.
 Ocean Relief Features
• Ocean reliefs or ocean landforms are formed due to tectonic, volcanic,
erosional and depositional processes.
• Ocean relief features are divided into two categories:
1. Major relief features
2. Minor relief features
 1. Major Ocean Relief Features
 It includes Four major divisions:
1. The Continental Shelf
2. The Continental Slope
3. The Continental Rise
4. The Deep Sea Plain or The Abyssal Plain
 1. Continental Shelf
• Continental Shelf is the gently
sloping seaward extension of continental
plate or main landmass.
• The average depth of the continental shelves
will be 100 fathoms (182m).
• The average width of continental shelves is
between 70 – 80 km.
• The Continental shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the
margins like the coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc. [Ocean –
Continent Convergence and Ocean – Ocean Convergence].
• It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern coast of USA. On the contrary,
the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500
km in width.
 Importance of Continent Shelves
1. Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves.
2. They provide the richest fishing grounds.
3. They are potential sites for economic minerals [20% of the world production
of petroleum and gas comes from shelves.
4. Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules; concentric layers of iron and
manganese hydroxides) etc. are good sources of various mineral ores like
manganese, iron copper, gold etc.
 2. Continental Slope
• The continental slope connects the
continental shelf and the ocean basins.
• It begins where the bottom of the
continental shelf sharply drops off into
a steep slope.
• The depth of the slope region varies
between 200 and 3,000 m.
• The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents and start
of oceanic crust.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
 3. Continental Rise
• Materials that transports down by continental
slopes will be deposited at higher depths and
gives rise to continental rise.
• With increasing depth the continental rise
becomes virtually flat and merges with
the abyssal plain.
 4. Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain
• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of
the ocean basins.
• These are the flattest and smoothest
regions of the world.
• It covers nearly 70% of the ocean floor.
• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000
m.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained
sediments like clay and silt.
 Minor Ocean Relief Features
1. Seamounts
2. Guyots
3. Trenches
4. Canyons
5. Islands
6. Coral Reefs
7. Mangroves
8. Submerged Volcanoes
9. Sea Arches
10. Sea Stacks & Stumps
 Minor Ocean Relief Features
1. Seamount:
• It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not
reach the surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be
3,000-4,500 m tall.
• The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands [Hotspot] in the
Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
2. Guyots:
• The flat topped mountains (seamounts) are known as guyots. They are similar to
plateaus on lands.
• Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean where they are
estimated to number around 10,000.
3. Trench:
• Deepest part of ocean is known as trench.
 The Mariana Trench of the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the
deepest trench with, a depth of more than 11 kilometres.
 They are associated with active volcanoes and strong
earthquakes (Deep Focus Earthquakes like in Japan).
 The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an
almost continuous ring along the western and eastern margins of the
Pacific.
 This makes them very significant in the study of plate movements.
4. Canyon:
• Stepped valleys are known as canyon.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best known canyon in the world.
• Oceanographer Canyons near England.

5. Island:
• Land that surrounded by water from all four sides is known as Island.
 Coral Reefs
• Corals are invertebrate animals belonging to a large group of colourful and
fascinating animals called Cnidaria.
• Coral reefs consists microscopic animal polyp and microscopic plant algae.
• Group of polyps is known as coral.
• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral
“polyps”.
• Zooxanthallae an unicellular algae lives inside the tissue of poly and provides
corals to corals.
• When the coral polyps die, they looses the colour and looks like white skeleton it
is also known as coral bleaching.
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral Islands
 Types of Coral Reefs
 The three main types of coral
reefs are:
1. Fringing Reef
2. Barrier Reef
3. Atoll
 1. Fringing Reef
• The most common type of reef is the
fringing reef.
• This type of reef grows seaward directly
from the shore.
• They form borders along the shoreline and
surrounding Islands.
 2. Barrier Reefs
• Barrier reefs away from coast
or Islands.
• Generally they are separated
from land by an water body.
• e.g. Great Barrier Reef in
Queensland of Australia.
 3. Atoll
• These are low Islands found
in the tropical oceans
consisting of coral reefs
surrounding a central
depression.
• It forms when the Island
submerges inside the water.
• Atolls are usually circular or
oval, with an open lagoon in
the centre.
 Coral Reefs in India
 India has four coral reef areas:
1. Gulf of Mannar
2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
3. Lakshadweep Islands
4. The Gulf of Kutch
 Facts
• Indonesia has the largest coral reef area in the world.
• India, Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Chagos have the maximum coral reefs in
South Asia.
• The Great Barrier Reef of the Queensland coast of Australia is the largest
aggregation of coral reefs extending to a length of 1,931 kilometres and a
width that varies from 16-322 kilometres.
 Coral Bleaching
• When corals are stressed by
changes in conditions such as
temperature, light, or
nutrients, they expel the
symbiotic algae zooxanthellae
living in their tissues, causing
them to turn completely white.
 Causes of Coral Bleaching
1. Warm Sea Temperature: Coral species prefer to live in waters close to the warm
temperatures which they can tolerate but a slight increase in ocean temperature can
harm corals.
Events like El Nino and marine heatwaves increase the sea temperature and destroy
coral reefs.
2. Extreme low tides: Extreme events of low tides exposes the corals to solar and
ultraviolet radiations which can induce coral bleaching.
3. Ocean Acidification: Oceans are the carbon sinks, but more carbon dioxide increases
the acidity of the ocean. This increase in the acidity of ocean water inhibits the
coral’s ability to create calcareous skeletons, which is essential for their survival.
4. Diseases: Species of bacteria like vibrio shiloi inhibits the photosynthesis of
zooxanthellae. These bacteria become more potent at higher sea temperatures.
5. Tourism activities at beaches and inside sea/oceans.
6. Marine Ships
7. Constructional activities at coastal areas like port, airports etc.
8. Volcanic Eruptions
9. Earthquakes
10.Fall of Meteors
 Mangroves
 Geographical Location:
• Mangroves are found only along sheltered coastlines within the tropical or
subtropical latitudes because they cannot withstand freezing
temperatures.
• They share the unique capability of growing within reach of the tides in
salty soil.
 Global Mangrove Cover:
• The total mangrove cover in the world is one 1,50,000 sq kms.
• Asia has the largest number of mangroves worldwide.
• South Asia comprises 6.8% of the world's mangrove cover.
• India's contribution is 45.8% total mangrove cover in South Asia.
 Mangroves in India:
• Coverage: According to the India State of Forest Report, 2021, the mangrove
cover in India is 4,992 sq km, which is 0.15% of the country’s total geographical
area.
• West Bengal has the highest percentage of area under total Mangrove cover
followed by Gujarat and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
• Largest Mangrove Forest: Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove
forest regions in the world. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The forest is home to the Royal Bengal tiger, Gangetic dolphins and Estuarine
crocodiles.
• Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu has a vast expanse of water covered with mangrove
forests. It is home to many aquatic bird species. The second largest mangrove forest
in India and world.
• Bhitarkanika Mangroves: in Odisha created by the two river deltas of River
Brahmani and Baitarani.
• It is one of the most significant Ramsar wetlands in India.
• Godavari-Krishna Mangroves, Andhra Pradesh: The Godavari-Krishna mangroves
extend from Odisha to Tamil Nadu.
• The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, and the Cauvery rivers
contain mangrove forests.
• The backwaters in Kerala have a high density of mangrove forest.
• West Bengal has 42.45% of India’s mangrove cover, followed by Gujarat 23.66%
and A&N Islands 12.39%.
 Movement of Ocean Water
 Ocean water travels through three mediums:
1. Waves
2. Tides
3. Ocean Currents
1. Waves: Formation of crest and trough in a water due to wind energy is known
as wave.
2. Tides: Periodic rise and fall of ocean water due to gravitational pull between
Sun, Moon and Earth is known as Tides.
3. Ocean Current: Movement of warm and cold ocean water in sea and oceans
due to pressure and temperature gradients is known as Ocean Current.
 Types of Ocean Current
1. Cold Ocean Current
2. Warm Ocean Current
 Temperature and Salinity of Ocean Water
• Thermocline
• Halocline
 Marine Resources
1. Biotic Resources
2. Abiotic Resources
 UNCLOS & MARINE ZONES
• International Seabed Authority (ISA)