Temperature Inversion

• Under normal conditions, the temperature usually decreases with an increase

in altitude in the troposphere at a rate of 1 degree for every 165 meters.
• This is called normal lapse rate, But on some occasions, the situations get
reversed and the temperature starts increasing with height rather than
decreasing this is known as temperature inversion.
 Ideal Conditions For Temperature Inversion
Favourable Conditions for Temperature Inversion
1. Long winter nights:
Loss of heat by terrestrial radiation from the ground surface during night may
exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.
2. Cloudless and clear sky:
Loss of heat through terrestrial radiation proceeds more rapidly without any
obstruction.
3. Dry air near the ground surface:
It limits the absorption of the radiated heat from the Earth’s surface.
4. Slow movement of air:
It results in no transfer or mixing of heat in the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
5. Snow covered ground surface:
It results in maximum loss of heat through reflection of incoming solar
radiation.
 Types of Temperature Inversion
Temperature inversion occurs in several conditions ranging from ground surface
to great heights.
Thus there are several kinds of temperature inversions.
1. Surface Inversion or Ground Inversion
2. Intermontane Valley Inversion
3. Frontal Inversion
4. Subsidence Inversion or Upper Surface Temperature Inversion
5. Marine Inversion
1. Surface Temperature Inversion /Radiation Inversion
• Surface temperature inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a
colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere.
• This occurs most often on clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by
radiation.
• If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.
• It is very common in the higher latitudes.
• In lower and middle latitudes, it occurs during cold nights and gets destroyed
during day time.
Following conditions are required for ground surface inversion:
1. Long winter nights Cloudless calm skies.
2. Dry air and low relative humidity.
3. Calm atmosphere or slow movement of air.
4. Snow covered surface.
2. Intermontane Valley Inversion
• Sometimes, the temperature in the
lower layers of air increases instead of
decreasing with elevation.
• This happens commonly along a sloping
surface.
• Here, the surface radiates heat back to
space rapidly and cools down at a faster
rate than the upper layers.
• As a result the lower cold layers get
condensed and become heavy.
• The sloping surface underneath makes them move towards the bottom where
the cold layer settles down as a zone of low temperature while the upper layers
are relatively warmer.
• This condition, opposite to normal vertical distribution of temperature, is
known as Temperature Inversion.
• In other words, the vertical temperature gets inverted during temperature
inversion.
• This kind of temperature inversion is very strong in the middle and higher
latitudes.
• It can be strong in regions with high mountains or deep valleys also.
3. Frontal inversion
• It is caused by the horizontal and vertical
movement of air.
• The temperate cyclones are formed by the
convergence of warm westerlies and cold
polar air or easterlies and thus the warm
air overlies the cold air.
• This kind of inversion has a considerable
slope, whereas other inversions are nearly
horizontal.
• In addition, humidity may be high,
and clouds may be present immediately
above it.
• This type of inversion is unstable and is
destroyed as the weather changes
4. Subsidence Inversion/Upper Surface
Temperature Inversion
• A subsidence inversion develops when
a widespread layer of air descends.
• The layer is compressed and heated by
the resulting increase in atmospheric
pressure, and as a result, the lapse
rate of temperature is reduced.
• If the air mass sinks low enough, the
air at higher altitudes becomes
warmer than at lower altitudes,
producing a temperature inversion.
• Subsidence inversions are common over the northern continents in winter
(dry atmosphere) and over the subtropical oceans; these regions generally
have subsiding air because they are located under large high-pressure centers.
• This temperature inversion is called upper surface temperature inversion
because it takes place in the upper parts of the atmosphere.
5. Marine Inversion
• This occurs when cool, moist air that
originates over the ocean is blown on to land
by prevailing westerly winds.
• Marine Inversions occur in places near large
bodies of water, especially in the spring when
the water is the most chilly.
• When air passes over these large bodies of
water, it is cooled by the heat getting
conducted from the air to the water.
• This cold air is then blown inland under the
warmer air that is over the land, thus creating
an inversion.
 Effects of Temperature Inversion
 Temperature inversion determines the precipitation, forms of clouds, and also causes

frost due to condensation of warm air due to its cooling.

1. Dust particles hanging in the air:
Due to inversion of temperature, air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do
not disperse on the surface.
2. Stops the movement of air:
It causes the stability of the atmosphere that stops the downward and upward
movement of air.
3. Less rainfall:
Convection clouds can not move high upwards so there is less rainfall and no
showers. So, it causes a problem for agricultural productivity.
4. Lower visibility: Fog is formed due to the situation of warm air above and cold
air below, and hence visibility is reduced which causes disturbance in
transportation.
5. Thunderstorms and tornadoes: Intense thunderstorms and tornadoes are also
associated with inversion of temperature because of the intense energy that is
released after an inversion blocks an area’s normal convention patterns.
6. Diurnal variations in temperature tend to be very small.
 Pressure Belts of the Earth
Pressure :
• Force exerted by air per unit area is known as pressure.
• Pressure = Force/Area
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called a barometer.
• The unit used for measuring pressure is called millibar.
• Atmospheric pressure is measured as force per unit area.
Important Terms
Pressure Gradient?
• The rate of change of atmospheric pressure between two points on the earth’s
surface is called the pressure gradient.
• Pressure gradient creates pressure gradient force which further causes
movement of air.
Wind: Horizontal movement of air is known as wind. Air always travels from high
pressure to low pressure areas
Isobar: line joining the places of same pressure is known as isobar
Heat Zones of Earth
1. Tropical region(Torrid zone)
2. Temperate Region
3. Polar Region (Cold or frigid zone)
 The Coriolis Effect
• Coriolis force is an apparent force
caused by the earth’s rotation. The
Coriolis force is responsible for
deflecting winds towards the right in
the northern hemisphere and
towards the left in the southern
hemisphere. This is also known as
‘Ferrel’s Law’.
• The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.
• The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar.
• The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind
and the larger is the deflection in the direction of wind.
On the earth’s surface, there are seven pressure belts.
They are:
1. Equatorial Low Pressure belt
2. Northern Sub-tropical High Pressure belt
3. Southern Sub-tropical High Pressure belt
4. Northern Sub-polar Low Pressure belt
5. Southern Sub-polar Low Pressure belt
6. Northern Polar High Pressure Belt
7. Southern Polar High Pressure Belt
 A. Primary Winds
• These are also called planetary wind systems because they blow over larger
areas of the earth.
• They blow in the same direction hence known as invariable winds.
• They blows throughout the year hence known as Permanent winds.
• Types
1. Trade Winds
2. Westerlies
3. Easterlies
1. TRADE WIND:
• These flow from subtropical high-pressure belts to equatorial low-pressure
belts in both hemispheres north and south.
• These are known as Northeast trade winds in the northern hemisphere and
southeast trade winds in the Southern hemisphere.
• Their direction of movement is North-East to South-West (NE to SW) in the
northern hemisphere and South-East to North-West (SE to NW) in the
southern hemisphere.
2. WESTERLIES:
• Westerlies flow from subtropical high-pressure belts to sub-polar low-pressure
belts to both hemispheres North and South.
• Their direction of movement is SW to NE in the Northern hemisphere and
NW to SE in the Southern hemisphere.
• The dominance of land in the northern hemisphere makes westerlies less
effective due to obstruction.
In southern hemisphere they are strong and known by different names:

1. Roaring forties between 40º-50ºS latitudes

2. Furious fifties at 50ºS latitude

3. Shrieking sixties at 60ºS latitudes

• These are on-shore throughout the year on the west coast of continents in
mid-latitudes, hence causing rains over the western coasts.
3. Polar Easterlies
• They flow from polar high-pressure belts to subpolar low-pressure belts in both
hemispheres north and south.
• Their direction is NE to SW in the northern hemisphere and SE to NW in the
southern hemisphere.
• They are stronger and intensified during the winter season and are
responsible for causing blizzards.
 B. Secondary Winds
• Winds that originates with the help of primary winds are known as secondary
winds.
There are two types:
1. Periodic Winds
2. Seasonal Winds
1. Periodic Winds
• Winds that blows during a particular duration or time (day and night) in a
particular parts of earth surface are known as periodic winds.
Types:
1. Sea Breeze
2. Land Breeze
3. Valley Breeze
4. Mountain Breeze
5. Katabatic Wind
6. Anabatic Wind
1. Sea Breeze
• The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently.
• During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea.
• Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the
sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively high.
• Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea
to the land as the sea breeze.
2. Land Breeze
• In the night the reversal of condition takes place.
• The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.
• The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze blows from
land towards sea.
3. Valley Breeze
• In mountainous regions, during the day
the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the
air from the valley blows up the valley.
This wind is known as the valley breeze.
4. Mountain Breeze:
• During the night the slopes get cooled
and the dense air descends into the
valley as the mountain wind. This wind is
known as mountain breeze.
5. Katabatic Winds:
• Katabatic winds are down slope
winds created when the
mountain surface is colder than
the surrounding air and creates
a down slope wind.
6. Anabatic Winds:
• These Winds are upslope winds
driven by warmer surface
temperatures on a mountain
slope than the surrounding air
column.
2. Seasonal Winds
• Winds that blows during a particular season (summer and winter) in a
particular parts of Earth are known as seasonal winds.
e.g, Monsoon Wind.
• Monsoon winds causes monsoon rainfall in India.
Types of Monsoon Rainfall
1. Summer Monsoon Rainfall
2. Winter Monsoon Rainfall
 Indian Monsoon
• The term monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word mawsim or from the
Malayan word monsin meaning ‘season’.
• Monsoons are seasonal winds that blows during a particular season.
• The monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds. They blows from sea to land
during the summer and from land to sea during winter.
• Hence Some scholars have called monsoon winds are land and sea breeze on a large
scale.
• Monsoons are peculiar to Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of Central
Western Africa etc.
• They are more prominent in the Indian Subcontinent compared to any other region.
 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons
• The word Monsoon is mentioned in scriptures like the Rig Veda. But these
scriptures didn’t make any mention of the monsoon mechanism.
• The first scientific study of the monsoon winds was done by Arab traders.
• Arab traders used the sea route to carry out trade with India and monsoon
patterns were of prime importance for them.
• In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab explorer, gave an account of
the reversal of ocean currents and the monsoon winds over the north Indian
Ocean.
• The origin of monsoons is not fully understood.
• It is most studied but least understood phenomenon.
• There are several theories that tried to explain the mechanism of monsoons.
A. Classical Theory of Sir Edmund Halley
B. Modern Theories
1. ITCZ or Air Mass Theory of Flohn
2. Jet stream theory Yest
1. Classical Theory
• In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund Halley explained the monsoon as
resulting from thermal difference between continents and oceans due to their
differential heating.
• Halley, made a hypothesis that the primary cause of the Indian monsoon
circulation was the differential heating effects of the land and the sea.
• According to this concept, monsoons are the extended land breeze and sea
breeze on a large scale.
• There are types of Monsoon:
1. Summer Monsoon
2. Winter Monsoon
• In summer, the temperature and pressure conditions are reversed.
• Now, the huge landmass of Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low-
pressure centre.
• The pressure over the adjacent oceans being high, a sea to land pressure
gradient is established.
• The surface airflow is, therefore, from high pressure oceans towards the low
pressure landmass that causes rainfall in India.
• During winter the huge landmass of Asia (India) cools more rapidly than the
surrounding water bodies (Oceans & Sea) with the result that a strong high-
pressure region develops over the Asian continent & India.
• On the other hand, the pressure over adjacent oceans is relatively lower. As a
result the pressure- gradient is directed from land to sea.
• Therefore there is an outflow of air from the continental landmass towards
the adjacent oceans so that it brings cold, dry air.
 Drawbacks or Limitations of Halley’s Theory
Halley’s concept is criticized on the following lines or limitations
1. It fails to explain the sudden burst of monsoon.
2. Breaks in monsoon.
3. The spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon.
4. The low-pressure areas are not stationary.
5. The rainfall is not only convectional but a mix of orographic, cyclonic, and
convectional rainfall.
6. The rainfall is not continuous.
7. Low pressure region develops in the month of April & May itself but rainfall
starts from June month.
8. Coriolis effect was not considered.
2. Modern Theory: Air Mass Theory
• According to this theory, the monsoon is simply a modification of the
planetary winds of the tropics.
• The theory is based on the migration of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) based on seasons (Summer and winter seasons).
• The southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the northeast
trade winds in the northern hemisphere meet each other near the equator
the meeting place of these winds is known as the Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
 Onset of the South-West Monsoon
• The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the apparent
movement of the Sun.
• During the month of June, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards.
• The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and
start blowing in southwest to northeast direction under the influence
of Coriolis force.
• These winds collect moisture as they travel over the warm Indian Ocean.
• In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25° N latitude and is located in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal.
• The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon Trough.
• The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to the
phenomenon of the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from its
position over the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas.
• The easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in along 15°N latitude only
after the western jet stream has withdrawn itself from the region.
• This easterly jet stream is held responsible for the burst of the
monsoon in India.
• As these winds approach the land, their south westerly direction is
modified by the relief and thermal low pressure over northwest India.
The monsoon approaches the Indian landmass in two branches:
1. The Arabian Sea branch - The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian
Sea.
2. The Bay of Bengal branch - The Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar
deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent.
• The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and
southeast instead of from the south-west direction.
• Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receives heavy and
highest rainfall in the world.
• Annual Average Rainfall of 1100cm occurs in these places.
 Jet Streams
• The Jet Stream is a Geostrophic wind blowing horizontally through the upper
layers of the troposphere, generally from west to east, at an altitude of 11-
12kms.
• Geostrophic meaning which travels perpendicular to pressure gradient force
and parallel to isobars.
• Isobar is the line joining places of same pressure.
• Pressure gradient force is the difference between the pressures of two places.
• The width of this air band can be 160-480km wide and 2-3 Kms thick, with
general speed 300-400 km/hr.
• Jet Streams develop where air masses of differing temperatures meet. So,
usually surface temperatures determine where the Jet Stream will form.
• Greater the difference in temperature, faster is the wind velocity inside the jet
stream.
• Jet Streams extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in both hemispheres.
• Jet streams are meandering mass of air they are also known as Rossby wave.
• Rossby waves forms crest and trough.
• Meandering occurs due to different temperature and Pressure.
 Types of Jet Streams
1. Polar Front Jet Streams
2. Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams
3. Tropical Easterly Jet Streams
4. Polar Night Jet Streams
5. Local Jet Streams
• Permanent Jet Streams – Subtropical jets at lower latitudes and polar front
jets at mid latitudes.
• Temporary Jet Streams – Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet
and Somali Jet (south westerly).
1. Polar Front Jet Streams
• They forms due to front formation.
• Front is a middle area between cold and warm air masses.
• Formed above the convergence zone ( 40-60 degree) of surface polar cold air
mass and tropical warm air mass.
• The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
• It greatly influences climates of regions lying close to 60 degree latitude.
• It determines the path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.
• These move in easterly direction but are irregular.
2. Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams
• Formed above 30-35 latitudes in both hemispheres.
• Move-in upper troposphere to the North of the subtropical surface high-
pressure belt.
• Also known as stratospheric sub polar jet streams.
3.Tropical Easterly Jet Streams

• Develop in upper troposphere above surface easterly trade winds over India
and Africa during the summer season due to intense heating of Tibetan
plateau and play an important role in Indian Monsoon.

4. Polar Night Jet Streams

• Develop in winter season due to steep temperature gradient in the

stratosphere around the poles.

5. Local Jet Streams

• Formed locally due to local thermal and dynamic conditions and have limited
local importance.
 Western Disturbance
• It is an extra tropical storm or
winds originating in the
Mediterranean sea region that
brings sudden winter rain to the
north-western parts of the Indian
sub-continent.
• It is a non-monsoonal precipitation
pattern driven by the westerlies.
• Extra tropical storms are a global phenomenon with moisture usually carried
in the upper atmosphere.
• It causes hailstone type of precipitation in winter in Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi etc.
• It affects agricultural crops in Punjab, Haryana, fruits farming in Himachal
farming and Jammu & Kashmir.
• It affects the weather of India.
 C. Tertiary Winds or Local Winds
• Winds that blow over a small region are known as local winds.
• Local winds are caused by the local differences in temperature and pressure.
• These winds blow between tiny low and high-pressure systems.
• Local geographical features have an impact on them.
• Local winds can be influenced by the proximity to an ocean, a lake, a mountain range
or a Desert.
• The weather and climate of a region can be influenced by local winds.
• Local winds are winds that blow only in a specific location for a limited period of
time, and their effects are felt only in that area.
• Local winds can be classified as warm winds and cold winds based on temperature
and heat zone.
 Local Winds in India
1. Loo Wind
• It’s a Harmful Wind.
• Originates in Thar desert
region due to intense heating
during summer.
• Very hot, dry and dusty wind
blows from the west in the
months of May and June,
usually in the afternoons.
• It blows in the plains of northern India (UP, Bihar, HP, PJ, Delhi etc.) and
Pakistan.
• It is known as very hot as temperature invariably ranges between 45°C and
50°C.
• It may cause sunstroke to people and adversely affects the agricultural crops.
• Very hot Loo wind reduces sucrose or juice content of sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh
and surrounding regions.
• It reduces the weight of sugarcane which further reduces the income of farmers
and sugar industries.
• It further increases farmers suicides.
Note: UP is the largest producer of sugarcane in India but Maharashtra is the largest
producer of sugar per unit area in India.
2. Mango Showers: Helps in pre-ripening of mangoes in Karnataka & Kerala.
3. Cherry Blossom Showers: Helps in coffee plantation in Kerala.
4. Kalbaisakhi & Baradoli Chheerah helps Tee Plantation in Assam and West Bengal.
2. Chinook Wind
• It is a wet and warm wind that originated in
coastal areas of the Pacific ocean and flows
from the southwest direction towards the USA.
• It rains on the western side of the Rocky
mountain and on the eastern side of the
mountain.
• It helps to melt snow, that is why it is also
called a snow eater.
• It benefits farmers east of the Rockies because
it keeps the grasslands free of snow for the
majority of the winter.
• Hence it’s a Beneficial Wind.
3. Sirocco Wind
• It's a hot, dusty and dangerous local wind.
• Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that
originates in the Sahara and blows at the
speed of a hurricane throughout North
Africa and Southern Europe.
• It carries red sand particles from Sahara
desert.
• Near Italy coast these red sand particles
mixes with raindrops and turns its colour to
red hence it is known as Blood Rain bringing
wind.
• The Sirocco provides dusty, dry weather to
northern Africa, storms to the
Mediterranean Sea, and cold, rainy weather
to Europe.
4. Harmattan Wind
• It is dry, hot and dusty wind.
• It originates in the Sahara desert and
blow from the northeast direction
toward Guinea country.
• Near coastal region of this country it
increases temperature and causes
warmer weather which prevents the
development of disease spreading
mosquitoes hence they are known as
Doctor winds.
5. Foehn or Fohn Wind
• This breeze provides a lot of advantages
hence its beneficial wind.
• Foehn is a hot breeze with local significance
in the Alps.
• A strong, gusty, dry, and warm wind blows on
the leeward side of a Alps mountain range.
• The temperature of the wind varies between
15 and 20 degrees Celsius.
• Wind speeds up the ripening of grapes.
• It helps in formation of grasslands and
makes easier for animals to graze by melting
snow.
6. Mistral Cold Wind
• The winds that blow from the Alps over France and into the Mediterranean
Sea are known as the Mistral.
• The Rhine River crosses the Rhine Valley.
• It's very cold and dry, with a howling wind.
• As a result, blizzards are common in southern France.