CYTOLOGY

DR MUNDIH NOELAR
DR AKAWA ARASMOSE
DR EBAH BECKELY
DR LYONGA KHARIM
OUTLINE
PART I
 Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
 The Plasma Membrane
 The Cytoplasm
PART II
 The Nucleus
 Cell Growth and Reproduction
OVERVIEW OF THE
CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
  English scientist Robert Hooke first observed plant cells with a crude
microscope in the late 1600s
 Since the late 1800s, cell research has been exceptionally fruitful and
provided us with four concepts collectively known as the cell theory:
1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
2. The activity of an organism depends on both the individual and the
collective activities of its cells.
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the biochemical
activities of cells are dictated by the relative number of their specific
subcellular structures
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis

 The trillions of cells in the human body include over 200

different cell types that vary greatly in shape, size, and function
 Spherical fat cells, disc-shaped red blood cells, branching nerve
cells, and cubelike cells of kidney tubules
 cells also vary greatly in length—ranging from 2 micrometers
(1/12,000 of an inch) in the smallest cells to over a meter in
the nerve cells that cause you to wiggle your toes.
 A cell’s shape reflects its function. For example, the flat, tilelike
epithelial cells that line the inside of your cheek fit closely
together, forming a living barrier that protects underlying
tissues from bacterial invasion.
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARIOTIC
CELLS
 All cellular organisms fall under two natural groups
known prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 These terms refer to the differences in location of
the genetic material
 In prokaryotes (pro= before, karyon= nucleus) the
DNA is not enclosed by nuclear membranes. e.g
bacteria
 In eukaryotes (eu= true, karyon = nucleus) then
DNA is enclosed in a nuclear membrane e.g
protoctists, fungi, plants, animals
FEATURE PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

Organisms bacteria Protoctists, fungi, plants, animals

Cell size 0.5um diameter 10-100um diameter

Form unicellular multicellular

Cell division Binary fission no spindle Mitosis, meiosis; spindle formed

Genetic material Circular DNA free in cytoplasm; no Linear DNA with proteins and RNA to
chromosomes form chromosomes
Protein synthesis 70s ribosomes (smaller) 80s ribosomes (larger)

organelles Few, without membranes Many membrane bound

respiration mesosomes mitochondria

THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 fluid mosaic model
 The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin
(7–10 nm) structure composed of a double layer, or
bilayer, of lipid molecules with protein molecules
dispersed in it.
 The proteins, many of which float in the fluid lipid
bilayer, form a constantly changing mosaic pattern;
hence the name of the model.
fluid mosaic model
 The lipid bilayer, which forms the basic “fabric” of the membrane, is
constructed largely of phospholipids, with smaller amounts of
cholesterol and glycolipids.
 Each lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecule has a polar “head” that
is charged and is hydrophilic (hydro = water, philic = loving), and
an uncharged, nonpolar “tail” that is made of two fatty acid chains
and is hydrophobic (phobia = hating).
 The majority of membrane phospholipids are unsaturated (like
phosphatidylcholine), a condition which kinks their tails (increasing
the space between them) and increases membrane fluidity.
 fluid mosaic model
 . Glycolipids (gli″ko-lip′idz), phospholipids with attached
sugar groups, are found only on the outer plasma membrane
surface and account for about 5% of the total membrane
lipid.
 Their sugar groups, like the phosphate-containing groups of
phospholipids, make that end of the glycolipid molecule polar,
whereas the fatty acid tails are nonpolar.
 Some 20% of membrane lipid is cholesterol, which wedges
its platelike hydrocarbon rings between the phospholipid tails,
decreasing their orderliness and increasing the mobility of the
phospholipids
fluid mosaic model
 About 20% of the outer membrane surface contains
lipid rafts, dynamic assemblies of saturated
phospholipids (which pack together tightly) associated
with unique lipids called sphingolipids and lots of
cholesterol.
 These quiltlike patches are more stable and orderly and
less fluid than the rest of the membrane, and can
include or exclude specific proteins to various extents.
 Because of these qualities, lipid rafts are assumed to be
concentrating platforms for molecules needed for cell
signaling. (Cell signaling is discussed.)
 Two distinct populations of membrane
proteins:integral and peripheral.
 Proteins make up about half of the plasma membrane
by mass
 responsible for most of the specialized membrane
functions
 Integral proteins: firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer.
Some protrude from one membrane face only, but
most are transmembrane proteins that span the entire
width of the membrane and protrude on both sides
Transmembrane proteins
 Mainly involved in transport.
 Some cluster together to form channels, or pores,
through which small, water-soluble molecules or ions
can move, thus bypassing the lipid part of the
membrane.
 Others act as carriers that bind to a substance and then
move it through the membrane.
 Others are receptors for hormones or other chemical
messengers and relay messages to the cell interior (a
process called signal transduction).
Peripheral proteins,
 Not embedded in the lipid.
 Attach loosely to integral proteins or membrane lipids and
are easily removed without disrupting the membrane.
 Include a network of filaments that helps support the
membrane from its cytoplasmic side.
 Some are enzymes.
 Others are involved in mechanical functions, e.g changing cell
shape during cell division and muscle cell contraction, or
linking cells together.
The glycocalyx
 Used to describe the fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate-rich area at
the cell surface.You can think of your cells as sugar-coated.
 It is enriched both by glycolipids and by glycoproteins
secreted by the cell.
 Provides highly specific biological markers by which
approaching cells recognize each other.
 E.g a sperm recognizes an ovum (egg cell) by the ovum’s
unique glycocalyx,
 Cells of the immune system identify a bacterium by binding to
certain membrane glycoproteins in the bacterial glycocalyx.
Specializations of the Plasma
Membrane
 Microvilli (mi″kro-vil′i; “little shaggy hairs”)
 Membrane Junctions
Microvilli (mi″kro-vil′i; “little shaggy
hairs”)
 Minute, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane
that project from a free, or exposed, cell surface.
 Increase plasma membrane surface area tremendously
 found on the surface of absorptive cells such as
intestinal and kidney tubule cells.
 Have a core of actin filaments. (Actin is a contractile
protein, but in microvilli it appears to function as a
mechanical “stiffener.”)
Cell junctions
 SEE HISTOLOGY
Membrane Transport
 Substances move through the plasma
membrane in essentially two ways—passively
or actively.
 In passive processes, substances cross the
membrane without any energy input from the
cell.
 In active processes, the cell provides the
metabolic energy (ATP) needed to move
substances across the membrane.
Passive transport
 Two main ways;
 Diffusion
 filtration
Diffusion
 is the tendency of molecules or ions to scatter evenly throughout
the environment.
 Recall:
 All molecules possess kinetic energy and are in constant motion. As
molecules move about randomly at high speeds, they collide and
ricochet off one another, changing direction with each collision. The
overall effect of this erratic movement is that molecules move away
from areas where they are in higher concentration to areas where
their concentration is lower, so we say that molecules diffuse along,
or down, their concentration gradient.
 The greater the difference in concentration between the two areas,
the faster the net diffusion of the particles.
Simple diffusion.
 Nonpolar and lipid-soluble substances diffuse
directly through the lipid bilayer
 oxygen, carbon dioxide, and fat-soluble vitamins.
 Because oxygen concentration is always higher in
the blood than in tissue cells, oxygen continuously
diffuses from the blood into the cells, whereas
carbon dioxide (in higher concentration within the
cells) diffuses from tissue cells into the blood.
Facilitated diffusion.
 Certain molecules, notably glucose and other
sugars, amino acids, and ions are transported
passively even though they are unable to pass
through the lipid bilayer. Instead they move through
the membrane by a passive transport process
called facilitated diffusion
 the transported substance either (1) binds to
protein carriers in the membrane and is ferried
across or (2)moves through water-filled protein
channels.
Carriers.
 A carrier is a transmembrane integral protein that shows
specificity for molecules of a certain polar substance or class
of substances that are too large to pass through membrane
channels, such as sugars and amino acids.
 Although it was initially believed that the integral proteins that act as carriers
either flip-flopped or physically crossed the membrane like ferryboats, the
most popular model for this process indicates that changes in the shape of the
carrier allow it to first envelop and then release the transported substance,
shielding it en route from the nonpolar regions of the membrane (Figure 3.7b).
Essentially, the binding site is moved from one face of the membrane to the
other by changes in the conformation of the carrier protein.
Channels.
 Channels are transmembrane proteins that serve to
transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous
channels from one side of the membrane to the other.
 Binding or association sites exist within the channels, and the
channels are selective due to pore size and the charges of the
amino acids lining the channel.
 Some channels, the so-called leakage channels, are always
open and simply allow ion or water fluxes according to
concentration gradients.
 Others are gated and controlled (opened or closed) by
various chemical or electrical signals.
Osmosis. (oz-mo′sis; osmos =
pushing).
 The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a
selectively permeable membrane Even though water is
highly polar, it passes via osmosis through the lipid
bilayer .
 Water also moves freely and reversibly through water-
specific channels constructed by transmembrane
proteins called aquaporins (AQP).
 Aquaporins are particularly abundant in red blood cells
and in cells involved in water balance such as kidney
tubule cells
 The extent to which water’s concentration is
decreased by solutes depends on the number,
not the type, of solute particles, because one
molecule or one ion of solute (theoretically)
displaces one water molecule.
 The total concentration of all solute particles
in a solution is referred to as the solution’s
osmolarity (oz″mo-lar′ĭ-te).
 The ability of a solution to change the shape or
tone of cells by altering their internal water volume
is called tonicity (tono = tension).
 Solutions with the same concentrations of
nonpenetrating solutes as those found in cells
(0.9% saline or 5% glucose) are isotonic (“the
same tonicity”).
 Solutions with a higher concentration of
nonpenetrating solutes than seen in the cell (for
example, a strong saline solution) are hypertonic.
 Solutions that are more dilute (contain a
lower concentration of nonpenetrating
solutes) than cells are called hypotonic.
Active Processes
 Active transport,
 Vesicular Transport (exocytosis and
endocytosis)
Active transport,
 like carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion, requires
carrier proteins that combine specifically and reversibly
with the transported substances.
 Facilitated diffusion always honors concentration
gradients because its driving force is kinetic energy.
 In contrast, the active transporters or solute pumps
move solutes, most importantly ions (such as Na+, K+,
and Ca2+), “uphill” against a concentration gradient.
 To do this work, cells must expend the energy ofATP.
 Primary active transport.
 the energy to do work comes directly from
hydrolysis of ATP
 The most investigated example of a primary
active transport system is the operation of the
sodium-potassium pump (Figure 3.10), for
which the carrier is an enzyme called Na+-K+
ATPase.
Secondary active transport.
 transport is driven indirectly by energy stored in ionic
gradients created by operation of primary active
transport pumps.
 Secondary active transport systems are all coupled
systems; they move more than one substance at a time
 symport system (sym = same):If the two transported
substances are moved in the same direction,
 an antiport system (anti = opposite, against):transported
substances cross the membrane in opposite directions.
(“cell-forming material”)

CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm (“cell-forming material”)
 is the cellular material between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus.
 It is the site where most cellular activities are
accomplished.
 The electron microscope has revealed that it
consists of three major elements: the cytosol,
organelles, and inclusions.
 The cytosol (si′to-sol) is the viscous,
semitransparent fluid in which the other
cytoplasmic elements are suspended.
 It is a complex mixture with properties of both
a colloid and a true solution.
 Dissolved in the cytosol, which is largely water,
are proteins, salts, sugars, and a variety of other
solutes
 the nonmembranous organelles, lack
membranes. Examples are the cytoskeleton,
centrioles, and ribosomes.
 However, most organelles are bounded by a
membrane similar in composition to the
plasma membrane (minus the glycocalyx),
 This membrane enables such membranous
organelles to maintain an internal environment
different from that of the surrounding cytosol
Mitochondria (mi″to-kon′dre-ah)
 are threadlike (mitos = thread) or sausage-shaped membranous
organelles
 In living cells they squirm, elongate, and change shape almost
continuously.
 are the power plants of a cell, providing most of its ATP supply.
 The density of mitochondria in a particular cell reflects that cell’s
energy requirements, and mitochondria are generally clustered
where the action is.
 Busy cells like kidney and liver cells have hundreds of mitochondria,
whereas relatively inactive cells (such as unchallenged lymphocytes)
have just a few.
Mitochondria (mi″to-kon′dre-ah)
 enclosed by two membranes
 The outer membrane is smooth and featureless,
 the inner membrane folds inward, forming shelflike
cristae (krĭ′ste; “crests”) that protrude into the
matrix, the gel-like substance within the
mitochondrion
 aerobic cellular respiration (a-er-o′bik)
 They contain their own DNA and RNA and are
able to reproduce themselves
Ribosomes (ri′bo-sōmz)
 Ribosomes are small, dark-staining granules
composed of proteins and a variety of RNA called
ribosomal RNA.
 Each ribosome has two globular subunits that fit
together like the body and cap of an acorn
 Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.
 Some float freely in the cytoplasm; others are
attached to membranes, forming a complex called
the rough endoplasmic reticulum
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(en″do-plaz′mik re-tik′u-lum;
 “network within the cytoplasm”)
 Extensive system of interconnected tubes and
parallel membranes enclosing fluid-filled cavities, or
cisternae (sis-ter′ne), that coils and twists through
the cytosol.
 Continuous with the nuclear membrane and
accounts for about half of the cell’s membranes.
 There are two distinct varieties of ER: rough ER
and smooth ER.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum is a
ribosome-studded membrane system.
 Its cisternae act as sites for protein
modification. Its external face acts in
phospholipid synthesis.
 Vesicles pinched off from the ER transport the
proteins to other cell sites.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is in
communication with the rough ER and consists
of tubules arranged in a looping network.
 Its enzymes (all integral proteins forming part
of its membranes) play no role in protein
synthesis. Instead, they catalyze reactions
involved with the following processes:
 Lipid metabolism, cholesterol synthesis, and
synthesis of the lipid components of lipoproteins
(in liver cells)
 Synthesis of steroid-based hormones such as sex
hormones (testosterone-synthesizing cells of the
testes are full of smooth ER)
 Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats (in
intestinal cells)
 Detoxification of drugs, certain pesticides, and
carcinogens (in liver and kidneys)
Golgi apparatus (gol′je)
 Consists of stacked and flattened membranous sacs,
shaped like hollow dinner plates, associated with
swarms of tiny membranous vesicles.
 Tis the principal “traffic director” for cellular proteins.
 Its major function is to modify, concentrate, and
package the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER.
 The transport vesicles that bud off from the rough ER
move to and fuse with the membranes at its convex cis
face, the “receiving” side of the Golgi apparatus.
 Inside the apparatus, the proteins are modified:
Some sugar groups are trimmed while others
are added, and in some cases, phosphate
groups are added.
 The various proteins are “tagged” for delivery
to a specific address, sorted, and packaged in at
least three types of vesicles that bud from the
concave trans face (the “shipping” side) of the
Golgi stack.
 Vesicles containing proteins destined for
export pinch off from the trans face as
secretory vesicles, or granules, which
migrate to the plasma membrane and
discharge their contents from the cell by
exocytosis
Lysosomes (“disintegrator bodies”)
 Lysosomes are spherical membranous
organelles containing digestive enzymes
 Large and abundant in phagocytes, the cells that
dispose of invading bacteria and cell debris.
 Lysosomal enzymes can digest almost all kinds
of biological molecules.
 They work best in acidic conditions and thus
are called acid hydrolases (hi″drah-la′siz).
Lysosomes function as a cell’s
“demolition

crew”
by Digesting particles taken in by endocytosis, particularly ingested bacteria,
viruses, and toxins

 Degrading worn-out or nonfunctional organelles

 Performing metabolic functions, such as glycogen breakdown and release

 Breaking down nonuseful tissues, such as the webs between the fingers and
toes of a developing fetus and the uterine lining during menstruation

 Breaking down bone to release calcium ions into the blood

 Lysosomal rupture results in self-digestion
of the cell, a process called autolysis
(aw″tol′ĭ-sis).
 Autolysis is the basis for desirable
destruction of cells.
Peroxisomes (pĕ-roks′ĭ-sōmz;
“peroxide bodies”)
 Are membranous sacs containing a variety of
powerful enzymes, the most important of which
are oxidases and catalases.
 Oxidases use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify
harmful substances, including alcohol and
formaldehyde. However, their most important
function is to neutralize dangerous free radicals,
highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons
that can scramble the structure of biological
molecules.
 Oxidases convert free radicals to hydrogen
peroxide, which is also reactive and dangerous but
is quickly converted to water by catalase enzymes
 peroxisomes look like small lysosomes
 they are self-replicating organelles formed by a
simple pinching in half of preexisting peroxisomes.
 Unlike lysosomes, they do not arise by budding
from the Golgi apparatus.
The cytoskeleton, “cell skeleton,”
 An elaborate series of rods running through
the cytosol.
 This network acts as a cell’s “bones,” “muscles,”
and “ligaments” by supporting cellular
structures and providing the machinery to
generate various cell movements
 Three principal types
 microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
Assignmnent:
 Describe the different portions of the
cytoskeleton
 Describe the cellular extensions and
distinguish between them, giving examples
of their locations and functions in the
human body
PART II
THE NUCLEUS AND CELL
DIVISION
THE NUCLEUS
nucleus (nucle = pit, kernel).
 The nucleus can be compared to a computer,
design department, construction boss, and
board of directors—all rolled into one.
 Contains the instructions needed to build
nearly all the body’s proteins.
 Additionally, it dictates the kinds and amounts
of proteins to be synthesized at any one time
in response to signals acting on the cell.
 Most cells have only one nucleus, but some, including
skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells, and some
liver cells, are multinucleate (mul″tĭ-nu′kle-āt);
 all of our body cells are nucleated. The exception is
mature red blood cells, whose nuclei are ejected before
the cells enter the bloodstream.
 These anucleate (a-nu′kle-āt; a = without) cells cannot
reproduce and therefore live in the bloodstream for
only three to four months before they begin to
deteriorate.
 three recognizable regions or structures:
 the nuclear envelope (membrane),
 nucleoli,
 and chromatin
the nuclear envelope
 A double membrane barrier separated by a fluid-filled
space (similar to the mitochondrial membrane).
 Outer nuclear membrane continuous with the rough ER
of the cytoplasm and studded with ribosomes on its
external face.
 Inner nuclear membrane lined by the nuclear lamina, a
network of lamins (rod-shaped proteins of the
intermediate filament class), that maintains the shape of
the nucleus and acts as a scaffold to organize DNA in
the nucleus
 At various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope
interconnect to form the edges of nuclear pores.
 An intricate complex of proteins, called a pore complex, lines
each pore forming an aqueous transport channel and
regulating the entry and exit of large particles into and out of
the nucleus.
 The nuclear envelope encloses a jellylike fluid called
nucleoplasm (nu′kle-o-plazm) in which other nuclear elements
are suspended.
 Like the cytosol, the nucleoplasm contains dissolved salts,
nutrients, and other essential solutes.
Nucleoli (nu-kle′o-li; “little nuclei”)
 dark-staining spherical bodies found within
the nucleus. They are not membrane
bounded.
 Typically, there are one or two nucleoli per
nucleus, but there may be more.
 Sites where ribosome subunits are
assembled
chromatin (kro′mah-tin)
 composed of about 30% DNA, which is traditionally called
our genetic material,
 about 60% globular histone proteins (his′tōn),
 and about 10% RNA chains, newly formed or forming.
 When a cell is preparing to divide, the chromatin threads coil
and condense enormously to form short, barlike bodies called
chromosomes (“colored bodies”).
 Chromosome compactness avoids entanglement and
breakage of the delicate chromatin strands during the
movements that occur during cell division.
Cell Growth and Reproduction

THE CELL LIFE CYCLE

The Cell Life Cycle
 encompasses two major periods:
 Interphase, in which the cell grows and
carries on its usual activities,
 and cell division, or the mitotic phase,
during which it divides into two cells
Interphase
 Period from cell formation to cell division
 stage between cell divisions
 Interphase is divided into G1, S, and G2 subphases
 (the Gs stand for gaps before and after the S
phase; S is for synthetic). In all three subphases, the
cell grows by producing proteins and organelles;
 however, chromatin is reproduced only during the S
subphase
 During G1 (gap 1), the cell is metabolically active,
synthesizing proteins rapidly and growing vigorously.
 The most variable phase in terms of length.
 In cells that divide rapidly, G1 typically lasts several
minutes to hours;
 In those that divide slowly, it may last for days or even
years.
 virtually no activities directly related to cell division
occur.
 However, as G1 ends, the centrioles start to replicate in
preparation for cell division.
 During the S phase, DNA is replicated,
ensuring that the two future cells being created
will receive identical copies of the genetic
material.
 New histones are made and assembled into
chromatin. One thing is sure:
 Without a proper S phase, there can be
no correct mitotic phase.
 The final phase of interphase, called G2, is brief.
 Enzymes and other proteins needed for division
are synthesized and moved to their proper sites.
 By the end of G2, centriole replication (begun in
G1) is complete.
 The cell is now ready to divide.
 Throughout S and G2, the cell continues to grow
and carries on with business as usual.
Cell Division
 Mitotic
 meiotic
 cell division, also called the M (mitotic) phase of the
cell life cycle ,
 involves two distinct events: mitosis (mi-to′sis; mit
= thread; osis = process), or division of the nucleus,
and cytokinesis (si-to-kĭ-ne′sis; kines =
movement), or division of the cytoplasm.
 A somewhat different process of nuclear division
called meiosis (mi-o′sis) produces sex cells (ova
and sperm) with only half the number of genes
found in other body cells.
Mitosis
 The series of events that parcel out the
replicated DNA of the mother cell to two
daughter cells
 four phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
 a continuous process, with one phase
merging smoothly into the next
Prophase
 – the first and longest stage of mitosis
 Early prophase – chromatin threads
condense into chromosomes
 Chromosomes are made up of two threads
called chromatids
 Chromatids are held together by the
centromere
 Centriole pairs separate from one another
 The mitotic spindle forms
 Late prophase – centrioles continue moving
away from each other
 Nuclear membrane fragments
 Metaphase – the second stage of mitosis
 Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell
 Centromeres are aligned along the equator

 Anaphase – the third and shortest stage of

mitosis
 Centromeres of chromosomes split
 Telophase – begins as chromosomal movement
stops
 Chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell uncoil
 Resume their thread-like extended-chromatin form
 A new nuclear membrane forms

 Cytokinesis – completes the division of the cell

into two daughter cells
G0
 Cells that permanently cease dividing are
said to be in the G0 phase.
Checkpoints
 Regulatory proteins act as checkpoints to
control the phases of the cell cycle
 Cancer cells result from cells that lack
these control mechanisms and hence
replicate widely and these cells become
harmful to the host
MEIOSIS
 Gamete formation in both sexes involves
meiosis (mi-o′sis; “a lessening”),
 consists of two consecutive nuclear
divisions, and its product is four daughter
cells instead of two, each with half as many
chromosomes as typical body cells.
 some events of meiosis I are quite different
from those of mitosis
 Meiosis accomplishes two important tasks:
 (1) It reduces the chromosomal number by
half and
 (2) it introduces genetic variability.
Meiosis I
 In prophase of meiosis I, an event never seen in mitosis (nor
in meiosis II for that matter) occurs.
 The replicated chromosomes seek out their homologous
partners and pair up with them along their entire length
 This alignment takes place at discrete spots along the length
of the homologues a process called synapsis,
 little groups of four chromatids called tetrads are formed.
 During synapsis, a second unique event called crossover
occurs.
 Crossovers, also called chiasmata (singular:
chiasma), are formed within each tetrad as the
free ends of one maternal and one paternal
chromatid wrap around each other at one or
more points.
 Crossover allows an exchange of genetic
material between the paired maternal and
paternal chromosomes.
 During metaphase I,
 the tetrads line up randomly at the spindle
equator; that is, either the paternal or
maternal chromosome can be on a given
side of the equator.
.
 During anaphase I,
 the sister chromatids representing each
homologue behave as a unit–almost as if
replication had not occurred–and the
homologous chromosomes (each still
composed of two joined sister chromatids)
are distributed to opposite ends of the cell
 when meiosis I is completed, the following conditions exist:
Each daughter cell has
 (1) two copies of one member of each homologous pair
(either the paternal or maternal) and none of the other, and
 (2) a haploid chromosomal number (because the still-united
sister chromatids are considered to be a single chromosome)
but twice the amount of DNA.
 Because meiosis I reduces the chromosome number from 2n
to n, it is sometimes called the reduction division of meiosis.
Meiosis II
 Mirrors mitosis in every way, except that the
chromosomes are not replicated before it begins.
 the sister chromatids in the two daughter cells of
meiosis I are simply parceled out among four cells.
 Because the chromatids are distributed equally to
the daughter cells (as in mitosis), meiosis II is
sometimes referred to as the equational division of
meiosis
assignment
 Distingusih between Mitosis and Meiosis