Networking Fundamentals Study

Materials

Networking
About Network

Computer Network describe as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. By the

term autonomous it’s meant that there should not be any master-slave relationship between the
computers i.e. all the computers should have the resources to work independently. A network is
typically used to exchange information and resources between the devices. The main purpose of
network is to share the data and enhance the overall performance of application by distributing the
computation tasks to various computers on the network.

Advantages of Networking:

Some advantages of networking is as follows

1. Resource Sharing:
The computer resources should be used at its maximum efficiency. When the computers are in a
network, it helps to share resources such as database, processor, hard disk space, scanner, CD-ROM or
software. The resources that can be shared include both the hardware resources and the software
resources. The hardware resources are the hardware devices and the software resources are the files,
folders and other programs.

2. High Bandwidth: -
The speed of data communication is greatly improved when the data is transmitted through the
network. With the network, the speed of communication is improved which will enable any user in any
part of the world to communicate and perform large amount of data transfer in short span of time and at
high Bandwidth.

3. Effective & Efficient Communication: -

The communication between the computers is effective and efficient when they are connected
through the network. The computers make use of the networking software, protocols and the network
devices for communicating between computers. E-mail and Internet are the best example of effective
and efficient communication in a network.

4. High Reliability: -
Network provides high reliability by having alternate resources so that if one processor crashes,
another processor may take its place or if one route fails, another route may become available. It is
possible to assign rights and permission on different resources available for different users .So, through
the resources are shared only the people who have specific rights will be allowed to use them. Hence the
data is reliable. The data sent over the network can be encrypted and hence there are fewer possibilities
of data being trapped as its travels through the network.
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

 Disadvantages of Networking:

Network facilitates useful connectivity and communication, but it also has its own drawback
causing inconvenience to the users. Some of the disadvantages are

1) Setup Costs:
The Network setup requires an investment in hardware and software for planning, designing
and implementing the network. For a small network of two or three systems, it is relatively inexpensive
for network hardware and operating system designed for networks. For a large network, the cost can
considerably much higher.

2) Undesirable Sharing:
Data sharing is useful in sharing the useful information and also the sharing of undesirable data.
The major sharing problems in this regard are with viruses, which are easily spread over the network
and the internet.

3) Data Security Concerns:

If a network is implemented properly, it is possible to greatly improve the security of important
data. In contrast, a poorly secured network puts critical data at risk, exposing it to the potential problems
associated with hackers, unauthorized access and even sabotage

 Classification of Networks
Network

Area Wise Architecture Wise Tropology Wise Communication Medium

LAN Peer - to - peer Bus Wise

Star
MAN Wired (Cable) Wireless
Client / Server Twisted
Wi-Fi
Ring Pair
WAN Cable
Radio
Wave
Co -axial
Tree
Cable
CAN
Bluetooth
Mesh
Fibre
Optic
Cable
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

Area Wise Network Division

 LAN (Local Area Network): -

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another
over a shared network medium. A local Area network is a number of computers connected to each
other by cable in a single location, usually a single floor of a building or all the computers in a small
company. LANs are perfect for sharing resources within a building or campus but are inadequate for
connecting computers from distant sites. Various topologies & various cables are used for
constructing the LAN.

M1 M2 M3

Switch
M4 M5

M6 M6 M8

 WAN (Wide Area network):-

Often a network is located in multiple physical places .Wide area networking combines
multiple LANs that are geographically separate .This is accomplished by connecting the different
LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines ,dial-up phone lines (both synchronous
and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier services. The Internet has become the
largest and least expensive wan in the world .Many companies now from private WANs by way of
encrypted communication over the Internet.
WANs suffer from extremely limited bandwidth. The fastest commercially feasibly wide area
data links are many times slower than the slower local area links, making the sharing of resource’s
over a WAN difficult. Generally WAN links are used only inter-process communication to route
short messages, such as e-mail or WWW traffic.

 MAN (Metropolitan Area network):-

Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
Metropolitan Area network is the network which interconnects large computer networks in
which two or more computers are connected across a campus or a city .This network use wireless
infrastructure or optical fibre connection to link their sites.
The important features of MANs are:-
 A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 to 50Km diameters.
 A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of resources. It is also used to
provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to WAN.
 Because of single provider, it may be able to negotiate lower rates for higher bandwidth.

 CAN (Campus Area network):-

A campus area network or corporate area network (CAN) is a network made up of an
interconnection of local area networks within a limited geographical area. A campus area Network
is larger than a local area network but smaller than a wide area network.
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
Computer Network Models or Architecture
The computer network can be classified into two models. These are:
 Peer-to peer or Workgroup Models
 Client/Server or Domain Models

 Peer - to - peer or Workgroup Models: -

In this type of network model, each computer considers itself as a server or a client. The
computer behaves like a server if it is providing service to other computers in the network. The
same computer acts as a client when it receives service from other computers .In the workgroup
model, the user account information is local to the computer. That is if a user account is created in
Computer A then it can log on to Computer A only. The user cannot log on any other system in the
network since the user account information is local to only that computer.
 Advantages of Peer – to – peer network:-
 This network has its own user account database.
 There is no need for centralized server
 The administration of peer – to – peer network is easy.
 It is cheap and easy to install on a small size network.

 Disadvantages of Peer – to – peer network:-

 Decentralized –No central repository for files and applications. Lack of central organization
makes data hard to find.
 Security- Does not provide the security like a client/server network.

Client 1 Client 2

Peer – to – Peer Network

Model
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

Client /Server or Domain Model

In a Client/Server model client is a computer, which requests for service and server is a
computer system providing the service. The client issues a command and requests the server for the
resource. The server accepts the request and executes the command and provides the requested
resource to the client. In a client server model the client communication with the server by making a
request. The server provides a response by providing the resource requested by the client.
 The function of client computers are:
 It provides user interface
 Translates the user’s requests to the form the computer can understand.
 Sends the requests to the server.
 Wait for the response to the form the user can understand.
 Provide the result to the user.
 The function of server computers are:
 Listen to the client’s query
 Process the query
 Provide the response to the client.

Client / Server Network

Advantages of a Client/ServerModel
network
 Centralized- Resources and data security are controlled through the server. Central file
storage, which allow all users to work from the same set of data and provides easy backup of
critical data.

 Scalability- Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase .You can
increase the size of the network according to your need.
 Intrusive security-Less intrusive security, since a single password allows access to all
shared resources on the network.
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

 Flexibility- new technology can be easily integrated into system.

 Interoperability-All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility-Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.
The interaction between the server and client is in the following order:

1) The user creates a query by running the client software

2) The client then connects to the server.
3) The client sends the query to the server after establishing the connection.
4) The server analysis the query
5) The server computes the response for the same
6) The server sends the results of the query to the client
7) The client provides the results to the user.

In the client server model there is a single centralized administration of the system resources.
The user can log in to any computer in the network irrespective of the computer where the user
created. The centralized database is used to provide authentication for the user.

Comparison between Peer-to-Peer & Client Server

Function Peer-to-Peer Client Server

Size It is the best choice for ten or Limited only by server and
fewer computers network hardware
Security Security is established by the Extensible and reliable resources
user of each computer and user security
Administration Individual users are responsible Centrally located for network
for their own administration control; requires at least one
knowledgeable administration.
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

Topology: -
A network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a LAN that
defines how nodes are connected to one another. A node is an active device connected to the
network, such as a computer or a printer .A node can also be piece of networking equipment’s such
as hob, switch or a router.

Types of Topologies: - There are 5 types of topologies in the network.

a) Bus Topology
b) Star Topology
c) Ring Topology
d) Tree Topology
e) Mesh Topology

 Bus Topology
A bus topology consists of nodes linked together in a series with each node connected long
cable called main backbone. Resistors are used as terminators on both the ends of the central cable
to avoid loss of data due to interference. Many nodes can tap into the bus and begin communication
with all other nodes on that cable segment. A break anywhere in the cable will usually cause the
entire segment to be inoperable until the break is repaired .Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a
linear bus topology.

M1 M3 M5

Terminator Terminator

M2 M4

BUS Topology
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
Advantages & Disadvantages of BUS Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to implement and extend Difficult to administer or troubleshoot
Well suited for temporary networks Limited cable length and number or stations
Cheaper topology to implement Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
Failure of one station does not affect others. Failure of one cable connection can disable the
entire network
Small networks do not require high speeds Large networks fail to pass the signals beyond
certain point with low speed.

 Star Topology: -
A star topology is designed with each node (File server workstations & Peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub or connector .Data on a star network passes through the
hub or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is
common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fibre optic cable.
Star topology is the network topology used in LAN environment.

Hub
Client PC Client PC

Network Printer File Server

 Advantages of Star Topology: -

 Easy to install and wire
 No disruptions to the network while connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

 Disadvantages of Star Topology: -

 Require more cable length than a bus topology.
 If the hub or connector fails, nodes attached are disabled.
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
Ring Topology
The ring topology is used as a simple peer –to – peer LAN topology. Each network
workstations has two connections: one to each of its nearest neighbours to form a physical loop or
ring. Data is transmitted unidirectional around the ring. Each workstations acts as a repeater,
accepting and responding to packets addressed to it, and forwarding on the other packets to the next
workstations, it is generally used for distributed data processing system.

 Advantages of Ring Topology: -

 If one line between any two computers breaks down, alternate routine is possible

 Disadvantages of Ring Topology: -

 Additional of new nodes in the network increases the communication delays.

M1

M2 Ring Topology M4

M3

Tree Topology: -
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of
groups of star configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies
allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable users to configure a network to meet
their needs.

Nodes

Nodes

Concentrator
(Hub)

Backbone Cable

 Advantages of Tree Topology: -

 Point-to point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.

 Disadvantages of Tree Topology: -

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than topologies.

Mesh Topology:-
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
In mesh topology, each computer in the network is connected to every other computer in the
network. This topology is highly reliable since it provides redundant interconnections between
computers .If any one connection between two computers fails, then it is possible to reach the other
system without any difficulty, since there are many redundant connections between them. This type
of topology is expensive to install and difficult to maintain.

System A

System B
System C

System E
System D

Twisted Pair Cable

Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for
instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between
neighbouring pairs. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the
most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.

Unshielded

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable
has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to
help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the
higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six
categories of wire (additional categories are emerging).

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
2 4 Mbps Local Talk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an
RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials
telephone-style connector A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered
Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard
designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

RJ-45 Connector
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you must
place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in extremely
sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair
may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables.

Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires (referred to as
double shield twisted pair).

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its centre. A plastic layer provides insulation between the
centre conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to block any outside
interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly
resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can support greater
cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The
Coaxial Cable
two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters.
In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has been popular in school
networks, especially linear bus networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick
coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the centre conductor.
This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One
disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayonne-Neill-Councilman
(BNC) connector Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector,
barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help
avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.
Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

BNC Connector

Fibber Optic Cable

Fibber optic cabling consists of a centre glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference.
This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also
made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of
moisture and lighting.
Fibre optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens
communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost
of fibber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify.
10BaseF refers to the specifications for fibber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The centre core of fibber cables is made from glass or plastic Fibbers. A plastic coating then
cushions the Fibber centre, and Kevlar fibbers help to strengthen the cables and prevent breakage. The outer
insulating jacket made of Teflon or PVC.

Fiber Optic Cable

There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable has a
larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single mode can provide more
distance, but it is more expensive.

OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model

System 1 (Sender) System 2 (Receiver)

 Networking Fundamentals Study
Materials

Application Protocol
Application Layer (HTTP, FTP, SMTP) Application Layer
(AH/DATA) (DATA)
Data

Presentation Protocol
Upper Layer (SSL, SQL)
Presentation Layer Presentation Layer
(AH/PH/DATA) Data

Session Protocol
(SAP, NETBIOS,
Session Layer PPD) Session Layer
(AH/PH/SH/DATA)
Data

Transport Protocol
Transport Layer (TCP, UDP) Transport Layer
(AH/PH/SH/TH/DATA) (Segment)
Segments

Network Protocol
(IP)
Network Layer Network Layer
(AH/PH/SH/TH/NH/DATA) Packets (Router, Packet, Switch)

Lower Layer Data Link Protocol

(MAC, LLC)
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
(AH/PH/SH/TH/NH/DH/ Frames (Frame, Switch)
DATA)

Physical Protocol
(Binary Code)
Physical Layer Physical Layer
(AH/PH/SH/NH/DH/ Bits (Hub, Repeater)
PH/DATA)

Raw Data Bit (0/1)