Beyond the Game: Understanding Why People Enjoy Viewing Twitch

Authors:
Abbie Speed
Alycia Burnett
Camilla M. Owens
Mackenzie Parsons
Dr. Tom Robinson II

Corresponding Author:
Abbie Speed
[email protected]
488 N 1235 W Orem, UT 84057

Affiliation:
Brigham Young University
Address: 360 Campus Dr., Provo, UT 84604

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 Beyond the Game: Understanding Why People Enjoy Viewing Twitch

Abbie Speed
Alycia Burnett
Camilla M. Owens
Mackenzie Parsons
Dr. Tom Robinson II

Abstract

Twitch, an online streaming platform with a particular focus on live-streaming video

gameplay, is experiencing an increase in popularity and viewership, prompting researchers to

explore the experiences of its viewers. Using Q-methodology, this study examined social,

psychological, and logistical aspects of the Twitch platform to identify motivating elements of 43

Twitch viewers. Results identified four distinct groups based on the generated factors: (1)

wannabe gamers; (2) backseat gamers; (3) subscribed lurkers; and (4) social streamers. This

paper discussed the attributes of these groups and evaluated the nuances of Twitch as a platform

to describe and analyze its appeal to these viewers. The results of this study inform the field of

mass media of the unique motivations and behaviors of common groups of viewers. These

authors identified the key elements of appeal for streaming services including Twitch that can

inform professionals and researchers about consumer desires and needs, such as live interaction,

chat functions, background noise, and the development of parasocial relationships.

Keywords: Video games, Streaming, Uses and Gratifications, Twitch, Q-method

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 2

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 3

Beyond the Game: Understanding Why People Enjoy Viewing Twitch

1. Introduction

There are several social media platforms that allow millions of people to gather and

watch video game livestreams, such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitch. During the onset of the

Covid-19 pandemic, viewership numbers vastly increased on these sites as viewers sought social

connection in a world of social distancing [1,2,3]. These sites offer a variety of ways for people

to view different streamers (content-creators) and content, and also offer social functions such as

live-chatting. With the influx of viewers, video game streamers developed new ways to produce

content, increase viewership, and revitalize popular video games such as Among Us and Animal

Crossing on these streaming sites [4,5]. The new viewership of video game streaming platforms

created a space for new types of people to join, especially for the platform Twitch, which is

specifically known to be a gaming site. This raised new questions about the types of people who

watch these types of streams. Specifically targeting Twitch, the following study examined users’

attitudes, opinions, and beliefs about the platform and why they watch Twitch streams.

2. Literature and Theory

While the field of video game research is rich and ever-growing, an area that has not yet

been thoroughly analyzed is online video game-streaming. The impact of popular streamers has

contributed to the growth of video game-streaming through platforms such as Twitch. The

growth of these services can, in part, be attributed to YouTube, which has long served as an

effective platform for game-vlogging—the practice of video blogging while gaming [6,7]. To

provide context regarding the popularity of this phenomenon, Pietruszka [7] identified that as of

April 2016, YouTube game-vlogger PewDiePie had 43,413,994 subscribers and was gaining

more than 125,000 new subscribers weekly. At the time of Pietruszka’s research [7], PewDiePie

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 4

had accumulated more than 12.5 billion views between the nearly 3,000 videos on his channel.

While Youtube remains a popular source of streaming video games, more platforms have

emerged in recent years that are more specifically dedicated to this genre of vlogging. Facebook,

Twitter, Twitch, and Mixer are all major players in the game streaming field; however, many of

these platforms are losing viewership to Twitch— largely due to the limitations of the medium

[8].

Known as the world's leading video game streaming platform [9], in late 2021, Twitch

boasted a daily average of 26.5 million visitors, 106 minutes spent per user, and 8.07 million

active streamers [10]. In 2020, Twitch’s yearly average was 2.12 million active viewers, 8.75

thousand channels, and 6.90 million monthly broadcasters [11]. During the COVID-19 pandemic

of 2020, Twitch’s significance grew, providing individuals with a source of social interaction,

entertainment, and even an alternative online outlet for professional athletes [11] with televised

tournaments, including those for the NBA 2K League. Overall, Twitch has been used to stream

individual video gamers along with E-sports events and tournaments where streamers compete in

real-time playing particular video games.

The video game streaming industry has become a worldwide phenomenon spanning

multiple cultures and languages [9]. One study uncovered part of the social complexity of video

game streaming and discovered that streaming has created new networks for developers and

influencers while shifting expectations of video game design and play and presenting an

uncharted territory for research and understanding [13]. Research has speculated this is a driving

force for the phenomenon of game streaming worldwide, however, further research is still

needed to understand the personal attitudes and behaviors behind viewers' reasons for tuning in.

2.1 Factors of Streaming Popularity

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 5

Researchers have explored elements and factors of the growing popularity of game

streaming, evaluating the reasons why people watch gamers [7], the practice of monetizing

gameplay [14], the emotional aspects of gaming [14], the impact of video game streaming

services on psychological well-being [15], the impact of streaming services on the video game

industry [13], and gender-based harassment in the gaming and streaming community [16] among

other subjects. These topics are of increasing importance as platforms like Twitch continue to

gain subscribers and international acclaim.

Pietruszka [7] noted that persona and presentation are significant factors of video game

vloggers’ popularity and viewership. Self-presentation of a particular vlogger contributes to his

or her reception in the streaming community, demonstrating the definition of “self-presentation”

as defined by Harre [17] being “a display of one’s self as conforming to a certain image of value

and worth” (p. 175). Harre noted that performance is influenced by speech, writing, appearance,

image, and behavior. These elements are utilized by vloggers to impact audience perception of

their self-presentation, specifically their persona and what they represent.

In 2016, Pietruszka examined three of the most popular YouTube video game vloggers to

identify techniques used by vloggers relating to Harre’s “form of performance,” including the

use of evocative word choice, video titles in all caps, catchphrases and repetition in branding,

and creative video thumbnails [7]. Streamers’ popularity, according to these researchers, was

likely driven by the following factors: creative video titles, frequent and positive interactions

with viewers, expressive and vulgar language, and the disclosure of personal information.

Additionally, Taylor [18] pointed out that achieving online notoriety in video game streaming,

much like any other platform, is more difficult than it appears. In order to rank among the most

popular streamers, a streamer must demonstrate superior media production techniques and create

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 6

an engaging persona. They must deliver a strong performance, consistently engage in positive

interactions with viewers, and demonstrate skill in playing video games [18]. Ruberg & Cullen

[14] identified similar techniques such as brand-building, portraying positive emotion, and

keeping viewers entertained. With the constant effort of performing and catering to the viewers,

video game vlogging is essentially a form of affective labor—or an “emotional” labor.

2.2 Theory: Parasocial Relationships

Parasocial relationships exist where a media user watches a media figure and comes to

view their one-way relationship with more intimacy than there actually is [19]. Leith explains

that, while the advent of social media has changed parasocial relationships because it gives the

media viewers more opportunities to communicate with their chosen media figures described as

“parasocial interactions.” However, not all media users will take advantage of these

opportunities, choosing instead to become “lurkers.” Lurkers include individuals who regularly

use a particular site, but do not necessarily interact with other users. This group of people makes

up a large portion of users on sites like Twitch [19].

Part of what allows Twitch to host parasocial relationships so well is through streamers’

ability to connect with their viewers in a celebrity-fan way without appearing too “mainstream”

[20,21]. In fact, because these streamers are less mainstream than more well-known celebrities,

Ferchaud et al. [20] state that social media celebrities “are considered more authentic,

approachable, and influential than mainstream celebrities” (p. 88). The authenticity and

genuineness provided by Twitch streamers spark greater numbers of viewers to begin forming

parasocial relationships, regardless of whether viewers interact with the streamer via chat or are

simply lurkers.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 7

A study by Kneisel [22] found that most Twitch users chose their favorite streamers

based on the streamer’s personality and characteristics rather than the types of games the

streamer played. Yet another study, trying to determine the psychological reasons for Twitch’s

growing popularity, yielded six reasons why viewers preferred Twitch, two of which were

“social interaction” and “sense of a community” [23]. Compounded, these two studies exemplify

the parasocial relationships Twitch users create on the platform.

2.3 Theory: Uses and Gratifications

One of the main areas of interest for video games and live-streaming falls under the

theoretical perspective of uses and gratification (U&G), which examines why people use media

for a certain purpose and gratification [24,25,26]. The U&G theory focuses on the fact that users

are actively in control of their media consumption and know what media they like to be involved

in [25,27,28]. Much of the research around U&G looks at different ways users choose media and

in what ways [26]. Different ways that users are motivated or gratified in their media have been

categorized previously as interpersonal reasons such as to pass time, convenience, information

seeking, entertainment, and social interaction [29,30]. Specifically, these categories have been

labeled as cognitive, affective, personal integrative, social integrative, and tension release

[25,27]. Past research has evaluated the theory from a variety of subjects in communication such

as television [31,32], social networks like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube [33,29], personal

communication [34], live-streaming [24,35], and gaming [23,36,37].

Within the live-streaming and gaming areas, uses and motivations are connected to the

time spent streaming and playing as well as large motivations of social communities [38,36]. In

terms of the platform Twitch, Gros and associates [35] found that the more time spent on Twitch,

the more users were motivated by the social aspect of the platform. They also discovered the

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 8

highest terms of motivations for users were based on entertainment value and information

seeking such as learning new gaming techniques. Information-seeking motivations are also a

gratification within genre types of games, in which action games were found to be one of the

most motivating genres [37]. However, Hilvert-Bruce and colleagues [23] found social

interaction was the most consistent motivator for live-game streaming on Twitch. One of the

strongest motivators for Twitch users is the social aspect and the ability to chat [23,37]. The

social interactivity allows for community-building motivations and is also a driving force for

increased viewership and donations to streamers [37]. Additionally, despite the fact that video

games are traditionally an active experience, an element of passivity in terms of interaction has

also been observed in terms of purposes and uses for viewers [39].

With the nuances of Twitch being a streaming and monetary platform, much of the

existing research has examined the motivations of Twitch users from a streamer aspect or

through active users that subscribe and follow, along with paying for the platform [36,37]. Few

studies have looked at the motivations and attitudes of viewers in general since the platform

allows for paid and non-paid viewing. Limitations on motivations and gratification from the

aspect of U&G may reveal further information and the types of gratifications from other users of

Twitch.

As Twitch is a burgeoning platform, there remains an inadequate concourse of research

regarding the uses and gratifications of users, the impact of the medium, and the logistics of the

platform. Previous studies have found viewers may develop a parasocial relationship with

streamers, similar to celebrities, or with the larger online Twitch community [20,23]. Others

indicate users may frequent Twitch for uses beyond social interaction, including entertainment or

education on particular game-related topics [37]. However, there is still much to be explored on

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 9

Twitch. Studies into streaming platforms like Twitch would better inform researchers on how

and why gamers communicate through the medium. Researchers would benefit from conducting

an analysis of why viewers or subscribers engage with Twitch and other video game streaming

services.

As video game-streaming continues to evolve, there is a need to understand the growing

audience of platforms like Twitch. This study proposes to examine audience’s opinions and

beliefs regarding this medium through the following research questions:

RQ1: What are the attitudes, opinions, and beliefs of Twitch viewers?

RQ2: What unique themes and groups emerge among these Twitch viewers?

3. Method

The purpose of this study was to determine the attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and unique

personality characteristics of Twitch viewers. To best reach this objective, Q-methodology was

selected because the method provides a “foundation for the systematic study of subjectivity”

[40]. Introduced by William Stephenson in 1953, Q-methodology is a behavioral research

approach that utilizes factor analysis to measure and reveal the subjectivity of any situation [41].

This process involves the use of a research tool called a Q-sort, which requires an individual to

rank-order (i.e., “most like me” to “least like me”) a group of statements that represent a

particular domain of subjectivity called a concourse [42]. For this study, the statements centered

on the idea of “Why I enjoy viewing Twitch.” The concourse was made up of actual statements

individuals made when expressing their opinions about viewing Twitch. The statements were

found in previous research studies about Twitch and similar streaming platforms

[35,23,36,37,43], gaming Facebook groups, Instagram comments, anonymous online surveys,

and interviews conducted by the researchers, and included streamer-friendly terminology and

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 10

references familiar to the Twitch community. A total of 157 statements were collected and

placed into five different themes: parasocial relationships, relationships, entertainment, comfort,

and gaming. Parasocial relationships focused on statements involving the relationship a viewer

perceived with the streamer as well as other aspects involving the streamer that motivated

viewers to watch or engage in their streams. Relationships included statements focused on the

perceived friendships and communities on Twitch, beyond the relationship between a streamer

and viewer. Entertainment included statements involving escapism, boredom, and other

diversion-related motivations for viewers. Comfort included statements centered on relaxation,

background noise, and other non-stimulating uses of streaming. Lastly, gaming included

statements that addressed viewers using Twitch for video game-related aspects on Twitch. Once

the statements were placed into categories, a team of graduate students, who were trained in the

method and procedure of the study, narrowed statements into a representative sample of 40 total

statements.

The participants for the study included 43 individuals between the ages of 18 and 40 who

reported using Twitch on a weekly basis. Once the sample was selected, participants conducted

their Q-sorts by reading through each of the 40 statements and ranking them on an 11-point scale

ranging from “least like me” (-5) to “most like me” (+5). Upon completion, the researchers

conducted individual interviews with each person to probe further into their decision-making

process and to allow them to express their thoughts and feelings about why they ranked the

statements as they did. The interviews used a structured questionnaire with the following

questions: (1) Why did you select these two statements as being most like you?; (2) Why did you

select these two statements as being least like you?; and (3) What other comments do you have

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 11

about any of the remaining statements? The average time to complete the Q-sort and interview

was approximately 30 minutes.

Results of Q-sorts were found through the PQMethod software program, and an analysis

of the information was conducted. For a factor to be reportable, the factor needed to have at least

two significant participant factor loadings at .01 level of significance. Positive and negative z-

scores of each statement and z-scores of +/-1.0 were considered as significantly representing the

most liked and least like statements for participants grouped together in factors.

After the factors were formed, the researchers interpreted the factor results by providing a

detailed description of the participants' attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. The information gathered

from the personal interviews was used to add breadth and depth to the explanation of the factors.

4. Results

Q-methodology was used to identify groups of like-minded thinkers who watch and

participate on the platform. The factor analysis of the Q-sorts, characterized by generalized

typologies, revealed four significant factors: The Wannabe Gamers, The Backseat Gamers, The

Subscribed Lurkers, and The Social Streamers. These factors represent different types of people

who watch Twitch because of the focus on minority and majority opinion perceptions. Although

factor names were not used by the subjects during the study, the researchers believed they

captured the essence of the factors. The following paragraphs describe the factors in detail.

4.1 Factor 1: The Wannabe Gamers

Factor 1 was defined by 17 statements (see table 1) from which multiple aspects were

identified as to why peoples’ purposes for using Twitch. This group loves watching Twitch,

participating in chat, and meeting new people as illustrated by their strong disagreement with the

statements “I often get bored while watching Twitch,” and “The chat is just too distracting.”

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 12

However, this group primarily uses Twitch to immerse themselves into a video game and to

discover a game’s playability before purchasing it. This is shown by the agreement that “Using

Twitch has helped me find games I wouldn’t have otherwise found,” and the disagreement with

“Twitch never helps me learn about new game strategies, tricks, and tactics.” Because of their

“try before you buy” mindset, this factor was named the Wannabe Gamers.

During an interview, a Wannabe Gamer supported this “try before you buy” idea by

saying, “I don't want to just buy a game not knowing if it's good or not. I like to watch someone

play it, and then decide if it’s actually something I'd like to buy,” and another added, “It's just

easier if I can watch it. I can watch the games I'm interested in – that I want to play – and I can

watch someone who's way better at it.” Wannabe Gamers get their video game “fix” vicariously

by watching other gamers play, indulging in nostalgia for old, familiar games as well as learning

about new games and strategies.

Wannabe Gamers are comfortable supporting those streamers financially, which was

represented by the high disagreement of the statement, “I feel uncomfortable with giving

streamers money just for playing games.” A Wannabe Gamer elaborated on this by saying,

“They put a lot of time and effort into doing them, so it's like you're paying them for their time.

You should pay them. It just seems right.” Few of the interviewees expressed comfort in

providing monetary support for streamers, therefore, this unique trait was significant to

understanding the legitimacy that Wannabe Gamers attach to Twitch streaming.

Wannabe Gamers use Twitch as a way to relax, separate from the world, and connect

with the streamers while they took in the video game’s content. This was shown via their

positive responses to the statements, “I watch Twitch to relax and unwind,”; “While I’m on

Twitch, I can forget about family, school, work, and other things,”; and “I like to use Twitch

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 13

because streamers make me feel better.” They use the entertainment aspect of Twitch to focus on

games and escape from the real world, which was emphasized by one Wannabe Gamer, who

said, “When I would have a stressful day, I would just chill and watch a streamer.” Connecting to

the streamers playing specific video games is a secondary appeal to this group. Another

Wannabe Gamer said, “I watch someone because I like their personality. I like them, and it’s fun

seeing them play certain kinds of games.” Ultimately, Wannabe Gamers like to go on Twitch for

the game, but they stay on Twitch for the streamer.

Table 1
Factor 1 Significant Positive and Negative Statements with Z-scores
No. Statement z
score
32 I watch Twitch to get my video game fix when I can’t play. 1.983
34 Twitch helps me better decide which video game I want to play. 1.851
1 I like to use Twitch because streamers make me feel better. 1.407
26 It feels good listening to streamers play games. I like having it going on in the 1.406
background.
17 I enjoy meeting new people with a common interest in video games. 1.123
25 I watch Twitch when I want to relax or unwind. 1.086
35 Using Twitch has helped me find games I wouldn’t have otherwise found. 1.058
29 While I’m on Twitch, I can forget about family, school, work, and other things. 1.053
39 I watch Twitch because of the nostalgia I feel about the games. 1.008
13 I’m uncomfortable with how close people feel with streamers who are complete -1.146
strangers to them in real life.
23 Using Twitch makes me feel lonelier -1.260
11 I don’t care about what streamers have to say about their lives. -1.268
14 I feel uncomfortable with giving streamers money just for playing games. -1.301
30 Twitch is a gaming site and should focus on gaming. -1.319
19 The chat is just too distracting. -1.416
36 Twitch never helps me learn about new game strategies, tricks, and tactics. -1.548
28 I often get bored while watching Twitch. -1.641

4.2 Factor 2: “The Backseat Gamers”

Factor 2 was identified through the unique assortment of 14 statements (table 2) which

primarily focused on gameplay, much like Wannabe Gamers, but with a notable aversion to the

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 14

interactive elements of the platform. This group is not interested in supporting streamers, or in

engaging with the chat or online community. Because of their love of playing video games and

their aversion to participating in the Twitch community, this factor was named the Backseat

Gamers.

These participants have no desire to support the streamers or develop any relationships

with streamers or other viewers. This was exemplified by one Backseat Gamer who said, “I’m

looking for the gameplay experience in a game. I’m not looking for the personality. The

personality is irrelevant to me. I just want to go see somebody playing the game, and oftentimes

I’ll search for no commentary ‘cause I don’t want to deal with people’s crap.”

Of the four factors, the Backseat Gamers identify the least with the “Twitch community”

and do not communicate in the chat. This was based upon their agreement with the statement “I

really hate the random drama that happens in the chat” and “The Twitch community feels very

fake to me because everyone chats anonymously.” Several Backseat Gamers felt like the

“community” contained dramatic strangers, not genuine friends. One Backseat Gamer

specifically stated, “No, they’re not my real friends. That’s not because I don’t like them, it’s just

because I acknowledge the superficiality of that relationship.” This factor does not use Twitch to

form a social connection because they see Twitch solely as a source of entertainment for

anonymous people.

Despite their intense dislike for chat drama, The Backseat Gamers enjoy watching Twitch

whenever they needed a video game “fix.” This trait inspired the “backseat” moniker of the

group title, indicating their desire to vicariously participate in the gaming experience. They love

to play games on their own but often used Twitch when they do not have time to play. One

participant stated, “I love playing video games but I don’t have the time to sit and play, so I put it

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 15

on in the background, and I can be productive and still be invested in games I love.” The

Backseat Gamers use Twitch, not for their love of online social interaction, but for their love of

playing video games, even when they can not physically play themselves.

Table 2
Factor 2 Significant Positive and Negative Statements with Z-scores
No. Statement z
score
22 I really hate the random drama that happens in the chat. 1.667
14 I feel uncomfortable with giving streamers money just for playing games. 1.511
18 I don’t like to participate in the chat, but I like watching. 1.436
32 I watch Twitch to get my video game fix when I can’t play. 1.429
21 The Twitch community feels very fake to me because everyone chats 1.153
anonymously.
27 I hate the tournaments and watching people compete. 1.113
8 To me, streamers are like celebrities. -1.005
30 Twitch is a gaming site and should only focus on gaming. -1.113
6 I feel really close with the streamers I watch, even if I haven’t met them. -1.214
29 While I’m on Twitch, I can forget about family, school, work, and other things. -1.584
20 I feel like the people I chat with on Twitch are my real friends. -1.663
5 I don’t care about the games; I just want to watch the streamers I like. -1.721
37 I watch Twitch because I want to become a streamer. -1.822
38 I actually don’t play video games, but I like watching other people play. -1.873

4.3 Factor 3: “The Subscribed Lurkers”

In this factor, participants were defined by 12 statements (see table 3) that showed these

people enjoy specific streamers but prefer not to get involved with the platform. Based on the

statement they agreed with the most, “I don’t like to participate in chat, but I like watching,” it is

clear these people prefer to be entertained passively. Because of their loyalty to specific streamer

personalities and a preference for anonymity and inactivity on the platform, this group was

named the Subscribed Lurkers. During their interview, one of the Subscribed Lurkers identified

this terminology themselves by saying, “I’m more of a lurker than a participant… I prefer to

keep myself and my face as anonymous as possible.”

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 16

These individuals disagreed with the statement, “I feel like the people I chat with on

Twitch are my real friends.” This demonstrates the Subscribed Lurkers’ complete lack of interest

in the chat and that they do not spend any time getting to know the other players or making

friends with them. Individuals in this factor often disliked the chat, with one participant stating,

“I don’t chat with them, and they’re not my friends.” These Subscribed Lurkers do not want to

communicate or be known on the platform; they simply want entertainment.

The need for entertainment for these Subscribed Lurkers was built upon the high

agreement for the statement, “I only watch specific streamers because they are funny or have an

exciting personality.” They also enjoy when their favorite streamers would collaborate with other

players on streams. One Subscribed Lurker said, “It’s more fun to watch because [the streamer]

gets their friends involved, and I love watching them.” Although this group maintains a safe

distance from connecting with the chat, Subscribed Lurkers develop a parasocial relationship

with their favorite streamers. They regularly return or subscribe to their favorite streamers,

creating a bond as they listen to and watch those streamers. Rather than search for content by

the game, as do the Wannabe Gamers and Backseat Gamers, the Subscribed Lurkers search by

the streamer. They look for all types of content from a particular streamer and watch recordings

from the same streamers if they are not available live. This is shown when one Subscribed

Lurker said, “When I can’t watch Twitch live, I go back and watch all the VODs (video on

demand) of my favorite streamer.”

The statement, “Twitch is a gaming site and should only focus on gaming” had the

highest disagreement in Subscribed Lurkers because these people do more than watch games;

they listen to and watch a variety of content available on the site. This content includes channels

such as ‘Just Chatting’ streams or other types of collaborative games like Dungeons and

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 17

Dragons or Magic the Gathering. As an interesting antithesis of statements given by members of

the Wannabe Gamers, one Subscribed Lurker said, “I enjoy the variety on Twitch, but I go for

the person, not the game.”

Table 3
Factor 3 Significant Positive and Negative Statements with Z-scores
No. Statement z
score
18 I don’t like to participate in the chat, but I like watching. 2.190
7 I only watch specific streamers because they’re funny or have an exciting 1.764
personality.
25 I watch Twitch when I want to relax or unwind. 1.709
6 I feel really close with the streamers I watch, even if I haven’t met them. 1.403
26 It feels good listening to streamers play games. I like having it going on in the 1.140
background.
22 I really hate the random drama that happens in the chat. 1.048
34 Twitch helps me better decide which video game I want to play. -1.249
33 I don’t like when streamers do collabs because it feels fake. -1.375
32 I watch Twitch to get my video game fix when I can’t play. -1.558
20 I feel like the people I chat with on Twitch are my real friends. -1.675
37 I watch Twitch because I want to become a streamer. -1.848
30 Twitch is a gaming site and should only focus on gaming. -1.930

4.4 Factor 4: The Social Streamers

Participants in Factor 4 had a strong social motivation for viewing, and even creating,

streams on Twitch and thus were named the Social Streamers. This factor was defined by 14

statements (see table 4) which involved many of the social and community-focused statements in

the study. Social Streamers enjoy the live, interactive aspects of the platform, demonstrated by

the high scoring of the statements, “I love to interact with my favorite streamers,” and “I like that

streams are live because I can react and interact with the streamer in real-time.” That social

interaction is crucial to this group, exemplified by one Social Streamer who described the

viewer-streamer interaction “feeling [like] you’re hanging out with friends and playing a game.”

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 18

During the interviews, several of these participants revealed they were also streamers

themselves. While the term “streamer” is most often used to describe the role of content-creator,

viewers themselves often use this word themselves, referring to the act of viewing and

participating in the live video as “streaming.” This factor name included the term“Streamers”

because they regularly engaged in both viewing and content-creating. One Social Streamer

explained, “I appreciate when my friends watch me stream… because they want to support my

community and my growth as a streamer and a player.” Because these Social Streamers enjoy

consuming and creating content on Twitch, they are more sensitive to the social and communal

aspects of the streams that they watched.

The most significant highly scored statement, “I like to watch my real-life friends stream

on Twitch” indicates that this group is strongly motivated to view Twitch streams as a

continuation of an established offline relationship. One Social Streamer said, “I really am just

hanging out with my friends. I want to support them and what they're trying to do.”

The online community on Twitch is an important appeal to this group, as was mentioned

by an additional participant who said, “I think I view Twitch most as a community, you meet

new people that are similar to you, you get to make friends, you get to support each other.”

Online relationships, both between viewers and streamers and between fellow viewers, are a

priority to the Social Streamers. To that end, an interview quote revealed that the Social

Streamers are attentive and receptive to the chat function during streams. They stated, “the

purpose of [Twitch chats] is to come together to support each other to be a very active and

positive community.”

Social Streamers also have a love of video games and are drawn to Twitch as a platform

to build a social community based on that shared interest. One participant said that “the [Twitch]

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 19

community is a gaming site, but especially for small streamers, it’s [a place] where we support

our community and our friends in what we like to do.” The desire for mutual support and

interaction in the Twitch community set the Social Streamers apart.

Table 4
Factor 4 Significant Positive and Negative Statements with Z-scores
No. Statement z
score
24 I like to watch my real-life friends stream on Twitch 2.028
4 I love to interact with my favorite streamers. 1.841
15 I like that streams are live because I can react and interact with the streamer in 1.575
real time.
16 Twitch helps me feel like I’m part of an international community. 1.508
2 I like to go to the same streamer, see how they are, and participate in the chat. 1.410
3 I want to support the streamers that I watch. 1.407
17 I enjoy meeting new people with a common interest in video games. 1.038
8 To me, streamers are like celebrities. -1.046
36 Twitch never helps me learn about new game strategies, tricks, and tactics. -1.057
29 While I’m on Twitch, I can forget about family, school, work, and other things. -1.060
27 I hate the tournaments and watching people compete. -1.119
23 Using Twitch makes me feel lonelier. -1.340
31 I get really frustrated watching streamers who really suck at the game. -1.841
38 I actually don’t play video games, but I like watching other people play -1.860

5. Discussion

The results of this study provide compelling insights into the motivations and opinions of

Twitch viewers, shedding light on both the successes of the platform and the potential areas of

improvement for developers. Additionally, the findings of this study could apply to the field of

mass media and communication in furthering the understanding of streaming audiences as a

whole.

Results from Wannabe Gamers provide insights about individuals who use Twitch to

seek information and entertainment. Individuals within the Wannabe Gamers define themselves

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 20

as "gamers” and use Twitch as a way to inform their gaming decisions of what to play, how to

play, and to see those who are capable players of video games. Such purposes stem from a self-

described need to improve their gaming skills. These individuals support streamers with their

time and monetary resources. For individuals within the Wannabe Gamers, entertainment comes

from the personality and likability of the streamer. Additionally, their original intentions for

using Twitch are founded on scouting out new video games to determine a game’s likability and

playability. In essence, this group seeks to try out new video games before purchasing them for

themselves. However, their interest in looking for new games to play serves as a gateway for

staying on Twitch due to the likeability and personality of the streamer they are viewing.

Like the Wannabe Gamers, the Backseat Gamers are composed of “gamers.” They use

Twitch to get their video game “fix” when they don’t have the time to play. Unlike the Wannabe

Gamers, the Backseat Gamers don't necessarily use Twitch in order to find new games or tips

and tricks for playing, but rather for entertainment value, similar to Subscribed Lurkers. Adverse

to Forbes’s [3] claim that people turn to gaming sites like Twitch to “both entertain…and [to]

maintain their social connections,” the Backseat Gamer spurned any kind of desire for sociability

on Twitch and focused solely on entertainment value. As such, members of the Backseat Gamer

represent a blend of both Wannabe Gamer and Subscribed Lurkers. They don’t care for the

social aspect, especially when it gets in the way of their game or turns dramatic, but they do love

watching the games that they enjoyed playing. This sheds light on how Twitch’s social aspect

can be repulsive to some users, despite studies showing an increased desire for socialization on

gaming sites like Twitch [3,4,5].

From the literature, it is not surprising to find evidence of the Subscribed Lurkers because

of the existence of parasocial relationships with online content creators. Leith [19] describes how

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 21

not all media users will take advantage of communicating with public figures in the social media

age, and instead lurk. The analysis of these lurkers who enjoyed subscribing to specific streamers

enhances what has been previously stated about viewers’ parasocial connection with social

media influencers because they are authentic [20] and have an entertaining and fun personality

[22]. The “background” use of Twitch for this group, which includes those who did not strictly

consume video-game-related content, introduces an interesting component in viewers of

streaming services. The engaging nature of the streamers provides an appeal to listen and

casually view the content on Twitch, which may be applicable to their use of additional

streaming services. Because they silently lurk, they do not care about the community on Twitch;

they prefer to support streamers in a strictly anonymous capacity.

The Social Streamers provide a unique insight into the social use of Twitch. This

particular group demonstrates the benefit of the unique social capabilities that the live-streaming

platform provides with the interactive chat and stream. While the literature indicates the presence

of socially-motivated viewers [13], this study revealed the high importance of interest in the

video game content in conjunction with the streamer-viewer interaction as a motivation for this

factor. It is the combination of the common interest in video games and the attraction of the

streamer that most appeals to the Social Streamers, indicating that a large appeal of Twitch is its

unique combination of these aspects.

This finding suggests the emergence of streaming platforms as an extension of social

media, meaning that sites like Twitch provide a key outlet for large-scale social interaction

between streamers and viewers, or between viewers themselves. The preference to interact with

the chat among this group is especially significant in this respect. Using Twitch, streamers

cultivate a following and an online community like a social media platform. Viewers express

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 22

support, opinions, suggestions, requests, even criticism via chat in real-time as the streamers

produce content tailored to their live audience. The participants’ favorable attitudes toward the

chat function and providing monetary or other forms of support to streamers indicate the

importance of a loyal community to many Twitch users.

During the study, many participants from the Backseat Gamers and the Subscribed

Lurkers commented on their strong dislike of Twitch’s chat function, in opposition to Social

Streamers’ appreciation for the chat as a social outlet. Several participants stated that Twitch’s

chat was “distracting” and “obnoxious” and one participant called it superficial and even

described it as “YouTube chat on crack.” As a result, participants who felt that Twitch’s chat was

too distracting mentioned that they would go to YouTube for a Twitch streamer’s highlights as a

way to get the same type of content without the distracting drama of Twitch’s chat function.

Such insights provide streamers, communication professionals, and developers with a

deeper understanding of viewers’ behaviors and intentions for using the streaming platform,

which may, in turn, help them with generating more personalized content.

5.1 Limitations and Future Research

Due to the nature of the small Q-sort sample, a limitation of this study is the small

number of significant participants that defined each factor. Most of the participants did not score

highly enough in any of the four factors to be included in the data analysis. These researchers

accommodated this limitation by conducting in-depth interviews with each participant to build

upon the understanding of the attitudes, beliefs, and opinions of each viewer, thereby increasing

understanding of viewers’ use of Twitch. Through these interviews, it was discovered that there

is a vast difference in participants’ opinions and engagement with “small” streamers (streamers

with a relatively small following and amount of subscribers) and “big” streamers (streamers with

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 23

thousands of viewers and subscribers), particularly involving their activity with the chat. Because

of this discrepancy, many participants felt that their statements depended heavily upon which

category of streamer, small or big, was being viewed.

Another limitation to this study was the broad inclusion of general Twitch viewers as

participants varied from viewing Twitch semi-regularly on a weekly basis to avid viewers who

logged on regularly, multiple times a week. Additional studies into Twitch viewers would benefit

from narrowing the criteria for participants to include only those in the avid-viewer category who

watched Twitch multiple times a week to increase the potential significance in each factor. This

study did not ask about specific monetary investments to Twitch, which may provide more

insights to future research on how monetarily subscribed viewers may differ in opinions. Future

research should address monetary aspects, and should also address the difference between

engagement and parasocial relationships with big and small streamers, as was mentioned in

several interviews. Lastly, additional studies should be conducted on the physical and logistical

use of the app, particularly regarding how and why the chat function is used between these

factors.

References

[1] Statista, Number of active streamers on Twitch worldwide from January 2018 to February

2021. https://www.statista.com/statistics/746173/monthly-active-streamers-on-twitch/, 2021

(accessed 13 September 2021).

[2] M. Á. López-Cabarcos, D. Ribeiro-Soriano, J. Piñeiro-Chousa, All that glitters is not gold,

The rise of gaming in the COVID-19 pandemic, J. Innov. Knowl. 5 (4) (2020), 289–296.

https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-journal-innovation-knowledge-376-pdf-S2444569X20300408

[3] Forbes, Council post: How the gaming industry has leveled up during the pandemic.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 24

https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2021/06/17/how-the-gaming-industry-has-

leveled-up-during-the-pandemic/, 2021 (accessed 13 September 2021).

[4] The Guardian, Among us: The video game that has shot 100 million players into Outer

Space. https://www.theguardian.com/games/2020/nov/29/among-us-video-game-100-million-

outer-space, 2020 (accessed 20 September 2021).

[5] The Washington Post, The games that got us through the pandemic.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/video-games/2021/06/02/video-games-covid-19-pandemic/,

2021 (accessed 20 September 2021).

[6] H. Mahini, M. Dehghan, N. Hamidreza, A.M. Rahmani, GaMe-PLive: A new game theoretic

mechanism for P2P live video streaming, Int. J. Commun. Syst. 29 (6) (2015), 1187-1203.

10.1002/dac.3085

[7] M. Pietruszka, Watching people playing games: A survey of presentational techniques in

most popular game-vlogs, Res Rhetor. 3 (4) (2016), 54-69. https://doi.org/10.17380/rr.2016.4.4

[8] The New York Times, Why Twitch is still the king of live game streaming.

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/15/business/tech-video-game-streaming-twitch.html, 2019

(accessed 13 September 2021).

[9] X.Y. Xu, X.R. Luo, K. Wu, W. Zhao, 2021. Exploring viewer participation in online video

game streaming: A mixed-methods approach, Int. J. Inf. Manag. 58, 102297.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102297

[10] TwitchTracker, Twitch Growth. https://twitchtracker.com/statistics, 2021 (accessed 20

September, 2021).

[11] TwitchTracker, Twitch Achievements Through the Years.

https://twitchtracker.com/statistics, 2020 (accessed 13 September 2021).

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 25

[12] Washington Post, From courts to consoles: With live sports canceled, pro athletes join the

streaming surge. https://www.washingtonpost.com/video-games/esports/2020/03/30/athletes-

streaming-twitch-video-games-coronavirus/, 2020 (accessed 13 September 2021).

[13] M.R. Johnson, J. Woodcock, The impacts of live streaming and Twitch.tv on the video

game industry, Media Cult. Soc. 41 (5) (2019) 670-688.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443718818363

[14] B. Ruberg, A.L. Cullen, Feeling for an audience: The gendered emotional labor of video

game live streaming, Digit. Cult. Soc. 5 (2) (2020) 85-102. https://doi.org/10.14361/dcs-2019-

0206

[15] C.Y. Chen, S.L. Chang, Moderating effects of information-oriented versus escapism-

oriented motivations on the relationship between psychological well-being and problematic use

of video game live-streaming services, J. Behav. Addict. 8 (3) (2019) 564–573.

https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.34

[16] B. Ruberg, A.L. Cullen, K. Brewster, Nothing but a “titty streamer”: Legitimacy, labor, and

the debate over women’s breasts in video game live streaming, Crit. Stud. Media Commun., 36

(5) (2019) 466-481. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2019.1658886

[17] R. Harre, Situational rhetoric and self-presentation. Lang. Soc. Sit, Springer, (1985) 175-

186

[18] T.L. Taylor, Watch Me Play: Twitch and the Rise of Game Live Streaming,

Princeton Press, 2018.

[19] A. Leith, Parasocial cues: The ubiquity of parasocial relationships on Twitch, Commun.

Monogr. 88 (1) (2021) 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2020.1868544

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 26

[20] A. Ferchaud, J. Grzeslo, S. Orme, J. LaGroue, Parasocial attributes and YouTube

personalities: Exploring content trends across the most subscribed YouTube channels.

Comput. Hum. Behav. 80 (2018) 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.041

[21] M.S. Mickles, A.M. Weare, Trying to save the game(r): Understanding the self-disclosure

of YouTube subscribers surrounding mental health in video-game vlog comments. South.

Commun. J. 85 (4) (2020) 231-243. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2020.1798494

[22] A. Kneisel, Exploring live streamers: Parasocial relationships, fan culture, and monetary

motivations, [master’s thesis]. Texas Tech University, 2021. https://ttu-

ir.tdl.org/handle/2346/87885

[23] Z. Hilvert-Bruce, J.T. Neill, M. Sjöblom, J. Hamari, Social motivations of live-streaming

viewer engagement on Twitch, Comput. Hum. Behav. 84 (2018) 58–67.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.013

[24] J. Dux, J. Kim, Social live-streaming: Twitch. TV and uses and gratification theory social

network analysis, Comput. Sci. Inf. Tech. 47 (2018). 10.5121/csit.2018.80305

[25] E. Katz, J.G. Blumler, M. Gurevitch, Uses and gratifications research, The Public Opin. Q.

37 (4) (1973) 509-523.

[26] S.S. Sundar, A.M. Limperos, Uses and grats 2.0: New gratifications for new media. J.

Broadcast. Electron. Media 57 (4) (2013) 504–525.

https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2013.845827

[27] A.M. Rubin, Uses and gratifications, in L.N. Robin, M.B. Oliver (Eds.) The SAGE

Handbook of Media Processes and Effects, Sage Publications, 2009, pp. 147-159.

[28] T.E. Ruggiero, Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Commun. Soc. 3 (1)

(2000) 3-37. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0301_02

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 27

[29] P. Haridakis, G. Hanson, Social interaction and co-viewing with YouTube: Blending mass

communication reception and social connection, J. Broadcast. Electron. Media 53 (2) (2009)

317-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150902908270

[30] Z. Papacharissi, A.M. Rubin, Predictors of internet use. J. Broadcast. Electron. Media 44 (2)

(2000) 175-196. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4402_2

[31] J. Cortese, A.M. Rubin, Uses and gratifications of television home shopping. Atl. J.

Commun. 18 (2) (2010) 89-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870903554924

[32] A.M. Rubin, Television uses and gratifications: The interactions of viewing patterns and

motivations, J. Broadcast. Electron. Media, 27 (1) (1983) 37-51.

https://doi.org/10.1080/08838158309386471

[33] C.M. Cheung, P.Y. Chiu, M.K. Lee, Online social networks: Why do students use

Facebook? Comput. Hum. Behav. 27 (4) (2011) 1337-1343. 10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.028

[34] Q. Wang, E.L. Fink, D.A. Cai, Loneliness, gender, and parasocial interaction: A uses and

gratifications approach, Commun. Quart., 56 (1) (2008) 87–109.

https://doi.org/10.1080/01463370701839057

[35] D. Gros, B. Wanner, A. Hackenholt, P. Zawadzki, K. Knautz, World of streaming.

Motivation and gratification on Twitch, Soc. Comput. Soc. Media Hum. Behav. (2017) 44–57.

10.1007/978-3-319-58559-8_5

[36] M. Sjöblom, J. Hamari, Why do people watch others play video games? An empirical study

on the motivations of Twitch users, Comput. Hum. Behav. 75 (2017) 985–996.

10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.019

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503

 28

[37] M. Sjöblom, M. Törhönen, J. Hamari, J. Macey, Content structure is king: An empirical

study on gratifications, game genres and content type on Twitch. Comput. Hum. Behav. 73

(2017) 161–171. 10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.036

[38] William A. Hamilton, Oliver Garretson, and Andruid Kerne. 2014. Streaming on Twitch:

Fostering participatory communities of play within live mixed media. In Proceedings of the

SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Toronto, Ontario, Canada),

Association for Computing Machinery, New York, 2014.

https://doi.org/10.1145/2556288.2557048

[39] T. Smith, M. Obrist, P. Wright, Live-streaming changes the (video) game. In Proceedings of

the 11th European Conference on Interactive TV and Video (Como, Italy), ACM, New York,

2013, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1145/2465958.2465971

[40] S.R Brown, A primer on Q methodology, Operant Subj. 16 (3) (1993) 91–138.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244998835_A_Primer_on_Q_Methodology

[41] S. Watts, P. Stenner, Doing Q methodology: theory, method and interpretation, Qual. Res.

Psychol. 2 (1) (2005) 67-91. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088705qp022oa

[42] R.M. Cross, Exploring attitudes: The case for Q-methodology, Health Educ. Ress. Theory

Pract. 20 (2004) 206-13. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg121

[43] D. Westwood, M.D. Griffiths, The role of structural characteristics in video-game play

motivation: A Q-methodology study, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. (2010) 581-585.

http://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0361

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4077503