0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views15 pages

A Review Saltwater Intrusion in North Africa's Coastal Areas

The review article discusses the issue of saltwater intrusion in North Africa's coastal areas, highlighting the economic and environmental challenges faced due to increased groundwater salinity and seawater intrusion. It emphasizes the need for better data management, scientific capabilities, and rational water governance to address these challenges across the region's diverse aquifers. The paper synthesizes existing research and suggests strategies for sustainable development in the face of ongoing climate change and urbanization pressures.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views15 pages

A Review Saltwater Intrusion in North Africa's Coastal Areas

The review article discusses the issue of saltwater intrusion in North Africa's coastal areas, highlighting the economic and environmental challenges faced due to increased groundwater salinity and seawater intrusion. It emphasizes the need for better data management, scientific capabilities, and rational water governance to address these challenges across the region's diverse aquifers. The paper synthesizes existing research and suggests strategies for sustainable development in the face of ongoing climate change and urbanization pressures.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 15

Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2021) 28:17029–17043

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12741-z

REVIEW ARTICLE

A review: saltwater intrusion in North Africa’s coastal areas—current


state and future challenges
Belgacem Agoubi 1

Received: 9 October 2020 / Accepted: 27 January 2021 / Published online: 1 March 2021
# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
North Africa coastline extends on 8955 km from Mauritania to Egypt. These areas continue to experience population and
economic growth. North Africa coastal aquifers were exposed to an increase in groundwater salinity and seawater intrusion,
which may contribute to economic crisis as a result of freshwater resources crisis. This work aims to explore the status and a
holistic comprehending review of saltwater intrusion extent in the region and future challenges. Results on seawater intrusion in
North Africa, from published papers and grey literature, show a several efforts have been made in understanding this phenom-
enon and developing management strategies in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Mauritania. The most method used
is geochemical data and statistical analysis. Some studies linked geochemical data with geophysical techniques, geographical
information system (GIS), and GALDIT index. Seawater intrusion varies from one country to another according to the aquifer
hydrogeological settings, abstraction rates and aquifer morphology, climate change, urban expansion, and economic develop-
ment. North Africa countries, such as Libya and Mauritania, need, for instance, more expertise and experience on the part of local
researchers. The challenge of inadequate data and a need for a more robust data inventory was stressed. This paper recommends
developing and building scientific capabilities in regional and international partnerships, and adopting rational water governance
for sustainable development.

Keywords Groundwater . Coastal aquifer . Saltwater intrusion . Salinity . North Africa

Introduction continuously subjected to over-abstraction as well as


salinization due to seawater intrusion into aquifers.
Countries of North Africa are facing a major crisis that Studies undertaken in North Africa from Mauritania to
threatens freshwater resources in coastal areas. More Egypt (Toupet 1983; Steyl and Dennis 2010; Mohamed
than 60% of the population is housed in the coastal et al. 2017; Kraus 2013; Kouzana et al. 2009; Agoubi
zones in northern Africa (Hussain et al. 2019) inducing et al. 2013; Abdalla et al. 2010; Alfarrah and
an increasing demand for fresh water resources to meet Walraevens 2018; Bindra et al. 2013; Brika 2018;
the needs for growth economic development (Khater Sefelnasr and Sherif 2014; Eissa et al. 2018) show that
2019; Chen and Al-Maktoumi 2018). Freshwater avail- most coastal aquifers are subject to heavy urbanization
ability per capita in North African countries is below and are exposed to marine intrusion.
500 m 3 /year (Khater 2019; Chen and Al-Maktoumi Seawater intrusion is a substantial problem in coastal
2018). In arid coastal areas, such as North Africa, aquifers around the world. The problem is exacerbated
groundwater is a primary source of freshwater and is where a highly permeable aquifer extends offshore and
in contact with the sea (Bennett et al. 2002). This eco-
system imbalance results in an often significant degra-
Responsible Editor: V. V.S.S. Sarma
dation of the freshwater resource, which is noticeable as
soon as seawater reaches 2% in aquifer (Custodio
* Belgacem Agoubi
[email protected]
1985). Under initial conditions, i.e., before urbanization,
continental groundwater flows towards the coast thus
1
Higher Institute of Water Sciences and Techniques, University of representing the natural flow in coastal aquifer. The hy-
Gabes, Gabès, Tunisia draulic head, sufficiently important in the coastal
17030 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

aquifer, maintains the seawater-freshwater interface in a studies in the North African region. This paper also provides
stable configuration. The transition between freshwater- recommendations on future prospects in light of the chal-
saltwater takes place relatively abruptly and not exceed- lenges that await this region in facing future challenges.
ing a few meters. The saltwater and freshwater are thus
separated by a zone which is often assimilated to an
abrupt interface limiting a wedge of saltwater whose Geographic extent
slope is inclined towards the continent (Bonnet
et al. 1974; Albitar 2007). The spatiotemporal evolution The North Africa region, defined in this study according to
of the transition zone depends on both the following African Union (Fig. 1), comprises 6 countries (Mauritania,
hydrodynamic and aquifer geometric factors (Bear and Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt). This region
Verruijt 1987). Reilly and Goodman (1985) have indi- covers a total surface of over 7,065,441 km2 (Table 1).
cated that the interface hypothesis is acceptable if the North Africa countries are home to over than 200 million
thickness of the transition area is less than one third the people (WBG 2020). They total a coastline of 8955 km
height of the freshwater zone. Nevertheless, in many (Table 1) that stretches over the Atlantic Ocean (Mauritania
aquifers, there is no straightforward interface that sepa- and Morocco), the Mediterranean (Morocco, Algeria, Libya,
rate freshwater from seawater, but there is a large tran- and Egypt), and the Red Sea for Egypt.
sition zone; its thickness depends on the geological and In North Africa, the coastal areas are the most populated. It
hydrodynamic characteristics of the aquifer characteris- is the relative availability of water that determines this distri-
tics such as permeability, diffusivity, and freshwater bution and the density of the population (Khater 2019). North
flow system (Cooper et al. 1964; Custodio 1985). Africa countries were under development. Their economy is
Thus, in coastal aquifers with low hydraulic gradient, based on oil (Algeria, Libya), and mineral wealth such as
the transition zone can extend for several kilometers Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia (Fig. 2). However, the
(Cooper et al. 1964). The thickness of the transition economy of Egypt is based on natural gas, tourism, and agri-
area tends to increase under the influence of external culture. In northern Africa, agriculture is well developed, es-
factors which modify the balance between the freshwa- pecially in coastal areas, to ensure food security while the
ter and the seawater such as tidal effects, over-abstrac- industry is still quite moderate.
tion, barometric pressure (Idowu and Lasisi 2020), aqui-
fer recharge, climate change, and sea level rise (Bear
and Cheng 2010). Geology and hydrogeology overview
Several approaches have been used to highlight saltwater
intrusion (Idowu and Lasisi 2020) and include several The surface water resources available in North Africa are lim-
methods such as geochemistry, groundwater hydrodynamic, ited under Saharan conditions, but a legacy of groundwater
piezometric level, against the sea level rise, and stable isotopes resources remaining from wetter conditions during the late
(Bear and Cheng 2010; Oiro et al. 2018). Other methods in- Quaternary (Pleistocene/Holocene) is a significant asset
clude the use of geophysical techniques (Oloruntola et al. (Hamed et al. 2018). Its climate is Saharan desert influenced
2019), numerical modeling (Van Camp et al. 2014; Idowu by the Mediterranean to the north and the Atlantic to the west.
2017), and geochemical methods (Agoubi et al. 2013; Liu The rains are rare and variable in time and space. Rains are
et al. 2017). However, other authors have used several more important in the extreme north (200 to 500 mm/year)
methods to highlight the salwater intrusion in the same and become weaker in the Saharan zone in the south (50 mm/
area (Idowu 2017; George et al. 2015; Kazakis et al. 2016). year) (Hamed et al. 2018).
In North Africa, marine intrusion has grown in recent de- In North Africa, several transboundary aquifers have been
cades because of the long drought associated with over- identified (Altchenko and Villholth 2013). These aquifers rep-
abstraction and uncontrolled groundwater pumping. Today, resent large groundwater reserves shared between countries.
due to over-exploitation of coastal aquifers, the North Among them, the most important were the northern Saharan
African coasts, which extend over 8955 km, were threatened Aquifer System (NSAS), located north of the Sahara and
by saltwater intrusion (Chen and Al-Maktoumi 2018). shared between Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya over a million
Considering the environmental facts about seawater intru- km2 (OSS 2006). Then, the Nubian aquifer system that spans
sion at the national and regional scale and the risks they pose an over 2,000,000 km2 is shared between Libya, Egypt,
to coastal water resources, especially in arid regions, it is nec- Tchad, and Sudan. In smaller size with an area of 450,000
essary to assess seawater leakage studies in North Africa, km2, the Mourzouk aquifer system is shared between Libya,
which is among the regions most affected by drought and Algeria, Tchad, and Niger. Then, the Jeffara coastal aquifer,
climate change. Therefore, this paper aims to conduct a com- with a surface area of 200,000 km2, stretches over 500 km
prehensive review and critical evaluation of seawater intrusion from the coast north of Gabès in Tunisia to Kohms (Libya)
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17031

Table 1 Geographic
characteristics and resources in Country Area Coastline Population Population Annual Availability, (m3/year
North African countries (WBG (km2) (km) (WBG growth renewable per capita)
2020) 2020) × water
103 resource 1950 2000 2025
(km3)

Mauritania 1,030,700 754 4526 2.7 11.4 -- 4270 2391


Morocco 710,850 1835 36,472 1.2 29.8 3328 1051 771
Algeria 2,381,741 998 43,053 1.5 13.9 1588 442 298
Tunisia 165,150 1148 11,695 1 3.9 1105 407 304
Libya 1,775,000 1770 6777 1.9 0.8 777 143 93
Egypt 1,002,000 2450 100,388 1.8 68.5 3137 1000 716
Total 7,065,441 8955 202,911

(OSS 2006). In the following, an overview of the geology and The main Mauritanian coastal aquifers were Continental
hydrogeology of each country was presented (Fig. 3). Terminal (CT), Boulanouar, Benichab, Trarza, Aleg and
Mauritania comprises five geological provinces: Rgueibat Kaédi, and Alluvium aquifer of the Senegal River Valley.
Dorsal, the Taoudeni Basin, Tindouf Basin, the Mauritanides The exploitable water reserves in these coastal aquifers are
chain, and coastal sedimentary basin (Mohamed et al. 2017). of 953 × 106 m3 with a salinity ranging from 256 to 1423
The coastal basin of Mauritania, set up following the opening mg/l. Morocco has two sea fronts of 3500 km (500 km on
of the Atlantic Ocean, forms a highly developed continental the Mediterranean and 3000 km on the Atlantic). The coastal
shelf affected by strong subsidence controlled by normal area is important due to its size and strategic role in economic
faults bordering the Atlantic basin, on which a stratigraphic development. It is characterized by dense population in addi-
succession was deposited ranging from the Triassic to the tion to multiple economic activities.
Quaternary. The climate is dependent on latitudinal variability Geologically, Algeria is located in the northwestern Africa
and the influence of the Ocean. It is of the Saharan type in the on the Mediterranean Sea. This country is divided into two
north and Sahelian in the south and generally hot and dry. major tectonic units, separated by the South Atlas fault, which
Maximum temperatures exceed 44°C in May–June, while has been strongly affected by alpine tectonic. The Saharan
the minimum can reach 10°C in January–February. platform in the south of Algeria (Saharan domain) is relatively
stable and tectonic impact is less pronounced.
Coastline represents 4% of the territory limits in Algeria. It
is made up of a coastal area and over a length of 1200 km and
a string of Tellian Mountains which contain various basins
and rich interior plains. This set has 2.5 million hectares of
the national useful agricultural area. More than 60% of the
total Algerian population currently lives in the northern coast-
al area.
The complex tectonic has segmented the major geological
units from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic, resulting in signif-
icant number limited compartmentalized aquifer units. The
main coastal shallow aquifers are hosted in recent and quater-
nary unconsolidated Cenozoic sedimentary aquifers in the
coastal plain. The high aquifer permeability’s may be the or-
igin of groundwater vulnerability and induce saline water in-
trusion. Much of the aquifer recharge comes from direct infil-
tration of precipitation.
Tunisia shows five structural zones which translate its po-
sition of transition between the geological units from the
Alpine Origen in the North and African craton in the South.
Hydrogeologically, Tunisia is characterized by deep aquifers
Fig. 1 Location map of North African countries according to African in the south shared with Algeria and Libya. As for the north,
Union (SWAC 2017) surface water (dams and rivers) is the main source of fresh
17032 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

Fig. 2 Geographical extent of North African countries

water. Coastal areas in Tunisia are the most populated in Nile Valley and Nile Delta are the most important regions,
Tunisia. Agricultural, tourist, and industrial activities are po- being the only cultivable regions (with the exception of a few
tential consumers of groundwater. It has a coastline stretching scattered oases) and comprising 99% of the population. The
over 1148 km containing significant aquifers which are threat- Nile Valley stretches for approximately 800 km between
ened by saltwater intrusion. Tunisia is characterized by a Aswan and Cairo.
semi-arid climate over most of its territory and has limited
water resources with variable recharge depending on the year
and uneven spatial distribution. The main coastal aquifers in Saltwater intrusion in north Africa coastals
Tunisia are the Jeffara coastal aquifer; it extends from the areas
Tunisian-Libyan border to the south of Sfax, the Sahel aquifer,
Cap Bon aquifer, Grombalia aquifer, Bizerte, and Jandouba The climate change impacts, such as decreased precipitation
aquifers in the north. and sea level rise, could amplify salinization of coastal aqui-
Libya has two main geographic areas, the Mediterranean fers. Moreover, anthropogenic activities (excessive abstrac-
coastal area and Saharian province. The Libyan coastline tion) could lead to a negative impact on coastal fresh ground-
stretches for 1750 km. The fertile lands are the coastal areas such water. Coastal aquifers provide important quantities of fresh-
as Jeffara plain, Misrata, Gulf of Sirte, and Ben Ghazi. The water. Their overuse affects the quality and quantity of
climate of Libya is semi-arid in the north and arid, dry, and hot groundwater. This induces the dropdown in piezometric levels
aver all territory. Libyan coastal aquifers are the most used to and the saltwater intrusion (Niazi 2002). The salinization of
meet the needs of the population, 90% of which are installed on coastal aquifers is a major hydrogeological risk affecting
the Mediterranean coast, and of economic development, which coastal regions, which are often densely populated and highly
leads to a deterioration in the quality of groundwater and causes dependent on groundwater (Cheng 2003 in Niazi 2002). The
the marine intrusion of coastal aquifers. coastal areas of the Mediterranean basin are particularly sen-
However, the territory of Egypt consists mainly of desert. sitive to this phenomenon. North Africa costal aquifers, from
Only 3.5% of the country’s surface is cultivated and inhabited Mauritania to Egypt, will be the subject as following.
permanently. Most of the Egyptian territory is located within
the wide African desert strip. Of course, Egypt is subdivided
Seawater intrusion in Mauritanian Atlantic coastal
into four major natural regions, the Nile Valley and the Nile
area
Delta; the Western Desert west of the Nile; the Eastern Desert
on east of the Nile River; and the Sinai Peninsula to the
Mauritania has a large coastal area extending from the
northeast.
Nouadhibou in the north to Rosso on the Senegalese borders
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17033

Fig. 3 Geologic maps of northern Africa countries (after Schlüter 2006, modified)

to the south. Coastal area is the most densely populated in the developed continental shelf on which a series of sedimentary
country. It includes the main cities such as the capital layers have been deposited (Fall et al. 2017) and characterized
Nouakchott (holds over 27.1% of the country’s population) by a desert climate under the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.
(Friedel and Finn 2008) and the Nouamghar, Nouadhibou, This plain is experienced a growing population and socio-
and Rosso. The Mauritanian coastal basin forms a highly economic development.
17034 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

The coastal Mauritanian part has been the subject of several and low recharge have led to an imbalance in the freshwater/
works that have raised saltwater intrusion issue (Friedel and seawater equilibrium. This imbalance has produced a fall in
Finn 2008; Mohamed et al. 2017; Littaye and Ould Ahmed the hydrostatic level, an inversion in the direction of ground-
2018; Mohamed et al. 2020). Mohamed et al. (2017) under- water flow, and, finally, marine intrusion (El Stitou Messari
took works on the impact of climate change and et al. 2003; Zouhri et al. 2010).
eutrophication of groundwater in Nouakchott. Littaye and Studies carried out in Morocco such as Lakfifi et al. (2004),
Ould Ahmed (2018) have focused on costal dynamics in Bouya et al. (2011), Bzioui (2004), Hilali et al. (2003), EL
Mauritania. They highlighted that Mauritanian coastal areas Mokhtar et al. (2018), and Zouhri et al. (2010) have highlight-
were threatened by sea level rise. Other studies such as El- ed that coastal areas of Morocco was threatened by saltwater
Raey 2010 have shown that coastal water resources in the intrusion both in Atlantic side and Mediterranean coastal
Nouakchott region are today influenced by climate change areas. Authors have concluded that the increase in water de-
and anthropogenic effects, thus causing a quantitative and mand, together with the impact of the long drought over the
qualitative deterioration of groundwater resources. This issue last years, has given rise to high levels of abstraction from
is highlighted in the Benichab coastal aquifer by Mohamed coastal aquifers, such as those of Sous, Haouz (Rochdane
et al. (2020). They have highlighted that groundwater salini- et al. 2015), the Rhiss-Nekor aquifer of Nador area ( Baite
zation is due to over-abstraction and seawater mixing with a et al. 2018), around Tetouan (Martil-Alila and Smir aquifers)
mean value of 8.42% and groundwater is dominated by NaCl. (Hilali et al. 2003), Rabat (Temara aquifer), and Casablanca
Several methods of saltwater intrusion investigation have (Rharb aquifer) (Zouhri et al. 2010), Foum El Oued (El
been used in coastal Mauritanian coastal areas. Most works Mokhtar et al. 2018); Chaouia coastal aquifer (Lakfifi et al.
undertaken in Mauritian coastal areas have based on water 2004); Mnasra plain (Bouya et al. 2011); Jadida et Oualidia
table measurements (Friedel and Finn 2008; Mohamed et al. (Haddani 2010). The Atlantic oceanic side of Morocco com-
2017; Littaye and Ould Ahmed 2018), chemical indicators prises a large area in the west part of the country. The ad-
(major ions, bromide, 18O, 2H) (Mohamed et al. 2017), and vances of the Meseta divide the coastal area into a series of
sea level rise monitoring (Littaye and Ould Ahmed 2018). sedimentary basins and coastal plains that comprise 20% of
On the basic of these findings, coastal freshwater resources the total surface area of the country (El Stitou Messari et al.
in coastal basin of Mauritania are affected by saltwater. 2003).
Several factors have controlling groundwater salinity; among Most of Morocco’s coastal aquifers, located on the Atlantic
them are natural factors such as drought and sea level rising by coast, are in high demand to meet the needs of the population
1 to 2 m over the last 40 years (Mohamed et al. 2017), in and agricultural activities, which leads to a lowering of the
addition to the excessive pumping as result of population water table. El Mokhtar et al. (2018) indicated that these aqui-
growth. The topography of coastal basin shows a geomorpho- fers undergo remarkable piezometric fluctuations in some
logical depression which runs parallel to the coastline. boreholes. In addition, these aquifers show a salinity which
Nouakchott has an elevation ranging from 1 m below sea level increases towards the coast line.
(−1 m) to 1 m above sea level (+1 m) (Mohamed et al. 2017). Through studies of marine water leakage in the coasts of
This situation further complicates the situation and favors the Morocco, it can be observed that the methods widely adopted
contamination of fresh water in the coastal basin. in the vast majority of studies are geochemical and stable
Figure 4 shows that the coastal zone is entirely contaminat- methods. The results showed that the surface water is highly
ed by saline waters with variable extensions sometimes ex- concentrated and characterized by NaCl water. Some studies
ceeding a few tens of kilometers, especially in the region lo- such as Zouhri et al. (2010), El Alami et al. (2017), and Himi
cated between the aquifers of Benichab and Trarza. et al. (2017) have also adopted the geophysical method using
electrical resistance, analytical methods, and GIS applications.
Morocco: saltwater intrusion state In spite of the important results reached by the researchers,
increased scrutiny of the data on coastal tables remains a ne-
Morocco has two sides of coastal areas, the Mediterranean Sea cessity to increase knowledge and diagnosis of the reality of
in the north and Atlantic Ocean in the west. The Moroccan the coastal tables in Morocco, especially in the Atlantic coast,
coasts have a rich environmental and ecological heritage both which is more vulnerable to seawater intrusion.
in terms of its intrinsic value and its demographic and socio-
economic interest. It is home to a rich and varied environmen- Saltwater intrusion problem in Algeria
tal heritage which provides the freshwater resources at the
base of various economic activities. This explains the human In Algeria, seawater intrusion is a serious problem that
and urban concentration, more and more diffuse, sustained, threatens coastal aquifers (Morsli et al. 2017). A groundwater
and dense in these spaces. El Stitou Messari et al. 2003have salinization of the coastal aquifers such as Annaba and Oran
indicated that, in Morocco coastal areas, high abstraction rates was detected (Saaidia et al. 2017; Djabri et al. 2013;
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17035

Fig. 4 Seawater intrusion map in North African coastal area

Bouderbala et al. 2016). This phenomenon has become more 1994). Their objectives were to understand the effect of ur-
pronounced with climate change, population growth, and es- banization and climate change on water resources using vari-
pecially the increase in the density of populations near the ous geochemical, geophysical, and stable isotope approaches
Algerian coasts. This problem of salinization of coastal aqui- to demonstrate and quantify marine intrusion into coastal
fers is of great importance for any coastal zone such as aquifers.
Algeria, which opens widely to the Mediterranean Sea In Algeria, several works have carried out to highlight sea-
(1200 km of coast) and whose coastal areas constitute large water intrusion such as Imerzoukene et al. (1994), Morsli et al.
food regions. (2017), Saaidia et al. (2017), Djabri et al. (2013), Bouderbala
As a result of excessive exploitation, the coastal aquifers et al. (2016), Moulla et al. (2013), and Steyl and Dennis
could thus be affected by the phenomenon of saltwater intru- (2010). As an indication, the work carried out within the
sion. Works undertaken in the Algerian coastal areas was ini- framework of the intrusion study is based on the analysis of
tiated at the end of the twentieth century (Imerzoukene et al. geochemical and isotopic data of groundwater. Thereby,
17036 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

Morsli et al. (2017) used a multidisciplinary approach (piezo- resorted to interpreting the results using the correlation of
metric data, chemical data, and geophysical method) to dem- major elements with chlorides, the variation of the ratios ionic,
onstrate that intensive pumping associated with the rainfall the calculation of ionic deviations, and saturation indices.
deficit and the lithological nature are the main factor Cap Bon region northeastern was the subject of several
controlling seawater intrusion in Algiers aquifer. At the studies and multiple approaches were used (Kouzana et al.
same way, Saidiaa et al. (2017) have identified seawater in- 2009; Slama et al. 2010; Trabelsi et al. 2013; Zghibi et al.
trusion in the plain of Collo, northeastern Algeria. They have 2019). Chaabane et al. (2018) used a geoelectrical investiga-
indicated that a reversal of hydraulic gradient took place at the tion, using Wenner confguration with a 64-electrode spacing
level of the aquifer and the flow is reversed towards the of 5 m to highlight saltwater intrusion in the Maâmoura re-
continent. gion. Authors provide a conceptual framework for the under-
Studies have shown that the coastal groundwater in Algeria standing of the freshwater–saltwater interface. Zghibi et al.
is under the influence of over-exploitation and suffers from (2019) were coupled ModFlow and MTD models to improve
seawater intrusion (Imerzoukene et al. 1994), especially dur- understanding of seawater intrusion into the Korba aquifer in
ing the dry season and periods of poor rain. The groundwater Tunisia. They indicate that seawater wedge as usual scenario
system suffers from a continuous decrease in the water level is expected to reach 1.8 km from the shoreline.
between 20 to 50 m per decade, which increases the speed of Works undertaken out in Jeffara plain, southeastern
seawater infiltration at the level of coastal areas (WBG 2020). Tunisia, used geochemical data (Kharroubi et al. 2014;
Telahigue et al. 2018; Souid et al. 2017; Trabelsi et al. 2013)
Saltwater intrusion in Tunisian coastal aquifers and geostatistical analysis of geoelectrical data (Agoubi et al.
2013). These works have demonstrate that, in this part of
Tunisia is bordered to the north and east by the Mediterranean tunisia, the Jerba island and Jorf area are the most vulnerable
Sea. It is ranked fourth, after Egypt, Morocco, and Libya, on to seawater intrusion. Boughariou et al. (2018) have undertak-
the basis of the length of coastline (WFB 2006). It is charac- en a work using hydrochemical and statistical studies com-
terized by intense agricultural, tourist, and industrial activities bined with MODPATH numerical model to highlight saltwa-
on its coastal areas accompanied by an urban extension. This ter intrusion in the Sfax coastal aquifer, southeast Tunisia.
has led to a high demand for freshwater to meet the needs of Results indicate that the groundwater quality has deteriorated
economic activities and the expansion of the population. Like due to natural and anthropogenic processes with a different
other Mediterranean countries, Tunisia has initiated a sustain- influence of mineralization factors and revealed seawater in-
able management of its water resources and in particular the trusion by focusing on the most vulnerable areas which are
monitoring of coastal aquifers. Thereby, Tunisia has been Chaffar and Djbeniana. The Bizerte water table in the North is
experiencing seawater intrusion since 1970 and currently the highly stressed, which has resulted in a reversal of the hydrau-
salt load in this unconfined aquifer has peak concentrations of lic gradient and, therefore, the advancement of the salty wedge
5–8 g/L (Kouzana et al. 2009). (Hammami et al. 2017; Ben Ammar et al. 2014).
The last decades have seen a scientific watch and monitor- Tunisia diverted the waters of the abstract river to irrigate
ing work in the coastal zone has multiplied. In southern the agricultural areas in the tribal region and the southern
Tunisia, the Jeffara coastal sheet, which stretches from the suburbs of Tunis. Libya launched the Great Man-Made
Skhira region to the Lybian border, has been the site of several River project, which transports more than 6,000,000 m3 per
studies (Agoubi et al. 2013; Kharroubi et al. 2014; Telahigue day of underground water for agricultural irrigation and meet-
et al. al. 2018; Souid et al. 2017; Trabelsi et al. 2013). Others ing urban needs in coastal areas.
have focused on the eastern Sahel zone of Sfax and Mahdia Based on the foregoing, coastal water resources in Tunisia
(Boughriou et al. 2018). The Cap Bon area was the subject of are among the most studied areas in North African countries.
(Tabelsi et al. 2013; Paniconi et al. 2001; Zghibi et al. 2019; However, it is necessary to evaluate the work results and to
Chekirbane et al. 2013; Chaabane et al. 2018), while the define a knowledge database on this topic in order to better
northern part of Tunisia (Hammami et al. 2017; Ben Ammar manage waterways to ensure sustainable development.
et al. 2014) are focused on northern part of Tunisia.
In Tunisia coastal areas, marine intrusion into coastal aqui-
fers has been demonstrated by geoelectric methods (Agoubi Coastal Libyan aquifer saltwater intrusion
et al. 2013; Chaabane et al. 2018) and major chemical ele-
ments (Trabelsi et al. 2013; Agoubi et al. 2013; Kharroubi Libya is over 90% desert, with most agriculturally productive
et al. 2014; Ben Ammar et al. 2014; Telahigue et al. al. land limited to a strip abutting the Mediterranean Sea.
2018; Souid et al. 2017). To identify the processes and chem- Annually, rain is of 100 mm and arable land amounts to about
ical reactions that govern the salinization of water tables and 2.2 million hectares and represents only 1.7% of the total
determine the limit of marine intrusion, the researchers country’s area (FAO 2011).
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17037

Libya has a coastal area that stretches for 1170 km from the conductivity, Na+ , K+ , Mg2+, Cl−, and SO42−, which
Tunisian border in the west through the capital Tripoli, Gulf of can be attributed to seawater intrusion, where Cl− is the
Sirt to egyptian boarder in the East. This area is the most major pollutant of the Jeffara aquifer. Then, a few old
populated in Libya. Economic activities (agricultural and in- works on Benghazi aquifer were found (Sadeg and
dustrial) are located there. A review of recent works in Lybia Karahanoğlu 2001).
showed thant the main coastal aquifers are the Jeffara Libya has diverted groundwater from inland areas to meet
plain (Abdalla et al. 2010; Gejam et al. 2016; Alfarrah and the needs of coastal areas depending on Great Man-Made
Walraevens 2018), which extends from the Tunisian border to River. But, this experience may have a negative impact on
Tripoli, Green Montain and Sirt (Elhassadi 2008; Gossel et al. the groundwater resources of inland Libyan areas.
2010), and Benghazi region (Al Faitouri et al. 2018). These The available studies have largely used the geochemical
aquifers are in great demand to meet the needs of the popula- approach. More studies on seawater intrusion on the Libyan
tion in the coastal part in the north of the country. coasts are necessary to gain a broader understanding of the
In Libya, several works have been undertaken to highlight phenomenon of salinization of coastal waters with the adop-
the salinization of coastal aquifers and the factors that control tion of diversified and advanced research methods for a more
it (Abdalla et al. 2010; Gejam et al. 2016; Alfarrah and comprehensive knowledge base.
Walraevens 2018; Elhassadi 2008; Gossel et al. 2010; Al
Faitouri et al. 2018; Ekhmaj et al. 2014; El Aswad et al. Saltwater intrusion in Egypt coastal areas
2019; Gejam et al. 2016; Salem et al. 2018).
This work shows that several authors have used multiple Egypt has an important coastal strip extending from its Libyan
approaches and different tools for the study of the intrusion in borders in the west to the border with Sudan on the Red Sea in
the coastal areas of Libya. They resulted in the intense exploi- the East, along a length of 2450 km, and thus ranks first in
tation of fresh water causing a lowering of the water level in North African countries. Egypt was considered one of the
coastal aquifers and causing marine intrusion into most water-rich countries of North Africa (WBG 2020), but the
aquifers. average per capita availability of fresh water has increased
The Jeffara plain and mainly at the level of Capital Tripoli from around 1893 m3 per year in 1959 to around 900 m3 in
the marine intrusion is the developed one (Steyl and Dennis 2000 (El-Raey 2010). This places the country below the water
2010; Alfarrah and Walraevens 2018; El Aswad et al. 2019; scarcity threshold. It is expected that the per capita share of
Gejam et al. 2016; Shleag et al. 2014). The same findings were water will continue to decline to 534 m3 by 2030 (DRS 2010),
also noted for the water tables in the Sirt region (Brika 2018) less than the international water poverty limit, with the expect-
and in the east of the country in the Benghazi area (Sadeg and ed increase in Egypt’s population, which increases competi-
Karahanoğlu 2001). tion for water (Abdel-Dayem 2011).
The city of Derna, in the western part of Libya, is facing Egypt mainly depends on the Nile water for agricultural
severe water shortages due to seawater intrusion (Elhassadi irrigation and economic use. However, the coastal areas,
2008). The saltwater intrusion has steadily increased from where economic activities intensify, depend mainly on
1960 to 2005, a period during which potable water was avail- groundwater, which ranks second after the Nile River in the
able; since 2005, a loss of 75% in well production in this list of water resources in Egypt (Mabrouk et al. 2013).
aquifer system has been observed. Excessive demand on groundwater, excessive abstraction,
Most of works have focused on the region of Tripoli, Al- and climate change (Mabrouk et al. 2013) will lead to the
Jabal Al-Akhdar (Green Montain), and eastern part of the Sirt deterioration of water wealth in coastal areas and exacerbate
Gulf. Almost, the Jefara plain is deeply studied from 2010 the problem of sea water intrusion. Several works have been
(Steyl and Dennis 2010; CEDARE 2014) to 2019 (El undertaken on water salinization in Egyptian coastal areas,
Aswad et al. 2019). Studies undertaken out in this coastal area whether on the Mediterranean coast or the Red Sea. Studies
have used several approaches such us geoschemistry (Alfarrah differ in the used approaches (geochemistry, geophysics,
and Walraevens 2018) and numerical model (El Aswad et al. mathematical modeling, stable isotopes). Then, the common
2019). Impact of pumping rate on seawater intrusion in Jefara goal is to identify areas that suffer from the deterioration of
Plain, Libya, was the subject of CEDARE (2014) and Gejam fresh groundwater as a result of seawater intrusion.
et al. (2016). Shleag et al. (2014) have studied the effect of Thereby, Sefelnasr and Sherif (2014), El-Kiki (2018), and
climate, soil type, and distance from the sea to the seawater Sallam (2018) studied the effect of seawater intrusion on the
intrusion and water quality in Azawia, as part of Jeffara plain. delta region and solutions that help to reduce this
Studies, based on physical and chemical analysis of ground- phenomenon. Studies have demonstrated that the delta
water samples collected from the Jeffara coastal aquifer, indi- region is the most threatened by saltwater intrusion.
cate salinization and pollution of the aquifer. The results Sefelnasr and Sherif (2014) have developed, based on 150
demonstrate high values of the parameters electrical sampled points, a numerical model using FEFLOW in which
17038 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

they combined the effect of increased groundwater pumping, of seawater intrusion in the coastal areas on the coasts of the
due to the possible decline in precipitation and shortage in Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Sinai Peninsula.
surface water resources, with the expected landward shift of The review of seawater intrusion studies along the North
the shore line. Two scenarios were presented, the first with a Africa coastline from Mauritania to the Egypt-Sudan border
0.5 m seawater rise while the total pumping is reduced by reveals some interesting findings. A large number of studies
50%, the second a 1.0-m seawater rise and the total pumping were found on seawater intrusion in most countries such as
is changed (Sefelnasr and Sherif 2014). They concluded that Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria of equal importance,
large areas in the coastal zone of the Nile Delta will be sub- while these studies were in Libya and Mauritania to a lesser
merged by seawater and the coast line, which accelerate the extent, but they are non-existent in the western Sahara region.
marine intrusion into aquifer and the advancement of the sa- The importance and frequency of seawater intrusion studies
line wedge. varies according to the priorities of some countries such as
Others have looked at the impact of the climate changes Libya, Mauritania, and the western Sahara region, which ap-
and their effects on water resources in the Delta area pear to be linked to other more urgent issues such as food
(Mabrouk et al. 2013). Authors consider the decline of the security and economic and political stability (Idowu and
Nile River water levels due to climatic change can affect Lasisi 2020).
groundwater quality in Nile Delta aquifer, and may be at the It was found that important studies related to seawater in-
origin of the marine intrusion in this aquifer. Eissa et al. (2018) trusion in Egypt is in the Nile Delta, while it included separate
have works on saltwater intrusion in Ras El-Hekma, north- areas on the Red Sea costal, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the north-
western Coast, Egypt. They demonstrate that a progressive ern coast on the Mediterranean Sea. Furthermore, studies re-
extension of the seawater intrusion distance has been extended lated to seawater intrusion in Libya covered the areas extend-
from 1700 to 5000 m from the tip of Ras-El Hkema to inland. ing from Al-Jufra Plain from the western region to Misrata. In
Authors confirm that in the model of that seawater intrusion, contrast, studies related to the eastern region were found such
in which hydrogeological and geochemical characterization as Derna and Benghazi (Sadeg and Karahanoğlu 2001;
were combined, saltwater intrusion is caused by the unbalance Elhassadi 2008). Saltwater intrusion studies also covered most
between the pumping withdrawal rates and the natural re- of the Tunisian, Algerian, and Moroccan coasts. In
charge from precipitation. Several studies have been carried Mauritania, most of the founded studies focused on sea level
out in Red Sea coastal aquifers (Gomaa et al. 2017; Isawi et al. rising threatening of the coastal area and groundwater salini-
2016). A great salinization is observed in Sinai coastal area zation (Steyl and Dennis 2010; El-Raey 2012; Mohamed et al.
(Isawi et al. 2016), Marsa Alam and El-Qusier aquifers 2017; Mohamed et al. 2020). Studies have revealed that the
(Gomaa et al. 2017). Authors indicate that hydrochemical re- technique most used is the geochemical method along with
sults reflect variation in water salinities and NaCl water type is statistical techniques and the seawater intrusion index (SWII).
the most dominant that could be the result of seawater mixing. Some studies used geographic information system (GIS)
Likewise, some works carried out in Sharm EL-Shiekh Area, linked to geochemical methods for mapping the extent of sea-
Southern Sinia, such as in Isawi et al. (2016), have shown, water intrusion. Whereas the geophysical approach was
using geochemical data, Saltwater Mixing Index (SMI) and adapted to a lesser extent as it was combined with geochem-
stable isotopes, that the groundwater is contaminated by salt- ical method. Other studies included other techniques such as
water intrusion around 16%. stable isotopes, GALDIT superposition index, and numerical
According to the results, it appears that studies on the ex- modeling techniques.
tent of seawater intrusion along the coastal strip in Egypt have A holistic view of the seawater intrusion study’s findings
included many areas, whether on the Mediterranean coast or shows that seawater intrusion extent varies from country to
the Red Sea as they are mainly focused on the delta region, another (Fig. 4). Seawater intrusion depends of aquifer
which is the most important area in Egypt. The delta region is hydrogeological settings, hydrodynamics, and well abstrac-
considered one of the most important coastal areas exposed to tion rates. It is shown in Fig. 4 that the most saltwater intrusion
sea water leakage as a result of natural factors such as the rise is observed in Nile Delta in Egypt (30 km, after Sefelnasr and
of the sea in Egypt and the excessive exploitation of water Sherif 2014), In Mauritanian costal area, according to Friedel
resources as a result of population density and the low water and Finn (2008), saltwater intrusion exceeds 25 km, and in
level of the Nile Valley. Recent studies have to a large extent Jeffara plain, Libya, the seawater intrusion inland is about 15
used geochemical and isotopic approaches and numerical km, after CEDARE (2014). Nonetheless, at other aquifer in
modeling methods (Isawi et al. 2016; Sefelnasr and Sherif the African coastal region, it does not exceed a few hundred
2014). Other studies have also adopted statistical and statisti- meters. As an indication, according to Agoubi et al. (2013),
cal approaches. Therefore, the Egyptian coasts need more the extension of the marine intrusion in the Jorf aquifer, south-
strategic studies to draw realistic conclusions about the danger eastern Tunisia, is of the order of 1200 m.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17039

From a global view, sightings of seawater intrusion in countries with limited water resources such as Tunisia
North Africa intersect with other sightings in other coastal (Kouzana et al. 2009; Chaieb 2014) and Morocco (Bennani
countries in Africa and worldwide. In this way, the review et al. 1992). Some river water is also used to aquifer.
by Werner (2010) on the saltwater intrusion along the coast- According to Bouchaou (2012) and Bouragba (2011),
lines of Australia concluded that the marine intrusion depends Souss-Massa aquifer in Morocco is recharged using river
on hydrogeological aquifer configuration, exploitation, and water.
sea level rise. A more recent review on saltwater intrusion in According to Comte et al. (2016), the management of
Horn Africa region by Idowu and Lasisi (2020) shows that coastal groundwater poses a further challenge due to its
geochemical techniques coupled with statistical and analytical vulnerability to seawater intrusion and the specific phys-
tools are the most prevalent approaches used. Furthermore, the ical and socio-economic characteristics of the coastal
extents of saltwater water intrusion vary significantly from zone. The review of Steyl and Dennis (2010) is one
location to location but rarely extend beyond a few km inland of the very few works that provide insights on common
in the coastal region. Generally, it can be concluded from issues with regards to groundwater management in
these comparative studies and seawater intrusion review in coastal aquifers of Africa.
different places that each coastal part has its own unique Finally, the studies referred point to the fact that
hydrogeological settings that control the seawater extent more steps in terms of research and management need
(Idowu and Lasisi 2020). to be taken in North African countries. The challenge of
inadequate data and a need for a more robust data in-
ventory was stressed. For instance, more expertise and
Future challenge and saltwater intrusion experience were needed on the part of local researchers.
management In areas where the impact of seawater intrusion is more
apparent, such as Nile Delta in Egypt, Mauritanian
Most of the studies found show that the challenges posed by coastal area, and Jiffara plain in Libya, effective man-
climate variability and change in North Africa are widely rec- agement was suggested to reduce seawater intrusion fu-
ognized (IPCC 2007). In addition, complex natural and an- ture effects (Comte et al. 2016, Ebrahim et al. 2020).
thropological factors negatively affect coastal freshwater, both
quantitatively and qualitatively. While not exhaustive, this
paper pinpointed some general challenges with North Africa Conclusion and recommendations
countries related to seawater intrusion and can amplify fresh-
water costal water salinization. Generally, these challenges This paper reports systematical saltwater intrusion schemes
can be identified in the following: (i) unexpected climate over the North African countries and review experiences.
changes, as temperatures recorded for the month of August This work has compiled information on several cases of salt-
2020 exceeded the usual rate, which portends a complex cli- water intrusion in North Africa. In view of this review’s find-
mate situation that may lead to the lack of rain and its frequen- ings, we can conclude:
cy. (ii) Rising sea levels threaten many low-lying areas of
North Africa. (iii) Rapid population growth. Statistical studies – Coastal areas in North Africa have experienced demog-
indicate that the population of North Africa will double by raphy expansion that increases freshwater demand as well
2050 and this will increase the demand for fresh water, espe- as a quantitative and qualitative degradation of ground-
cially in the more densely populated coastal areas. (iv) The water from coastal aquifers.
acute shortage of fresh water, especially in coastal areas, – The work undertaken in the North African region is quite
threatens a water crisis in most North African countries. numerous and interesting with the exception of the west
To mitigate these challenges and reduce potential risks, Sahara region. The most used methods are chemical anal-
many North African countries have sought to adopt sustain- yses, statistical analysis sometimes coupled with GIS, and
able water management and good governance by taking mea- the GALDIT index. The results were able to highlight the
sures to protect water resources, reduce seawater intrusion, marine intrusion in the majority of coastal areas.
and develop water resources. The available studies indicated – The extent of the marine intrusion differs from one area to
that Manage Aquifer Recharge (MAR) was one of the main another and depends on the hydrogeological parameters
approved solutions (Chaieb 2014; Comte et al. 2016; Ebrahim of the aquifer and its rate of exploitation. The extension of
et al. 2020). MAR is practiced in greatest abundance in North the intrusion of seawater does not exceed a few kilome-
African coastal areas. In a recent review on MAR in African ters in most of the areas studied, but it is too remarkable in
countries by Ebrahim et al. (2020), it was indicated that the Jiffara plain in Libya, the coastal region of Mauritania,
Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt, and Morocco present evidence of and the Nile Delta where the extension exceeds a few tens
MAR implementation. Treated wastewater is used in of kilometers.
17040 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

– The management of coastal aquifers and the fight against Altchenko Y, Villholth KG (2013) Transboundary aquifer mapping and
management in Africa: a harmonised approach. Hydrogeol J 21(7):
marine intrusion in these countries are relatively limited.
1497–1517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-013-1002-3
Some countries show significant experiences in this area Baite W, Boukdir A, Zitouni A, Dahbi SD, Mesmoudi H, Elissami A,
such as the case of Tunisia, Morocco, and Egypt. Sabri E, Ikhmerdi H (2018) Diagnosis of the Ghiss Nekor aquifer in
However, the management of coastal aquifers remains order to elaborate the aquifer contract Wissal. E3S Web Conf 37:
01006. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20183701006
limited in other countries.
Bear J., Cheng A. H. D. (2010). Modeling groundwater flow and con-
taminant transport, theory and applications of transport in Porous
From a future perspective, it is likely that there will be an Media 23, Springer Science+Business Media. https://doi.org/10.
urgent need for North African countries as well as similar 1007/978-1-4020-6682-5_9
Bear J, Verruijt A (1987) Modeling groundwater flow and pollution. D.
regions for a paradigm shift in coastal aquifer management
Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, p 414
in the coming years to protect freshwater resources in light Ben Ammar S, Taupin JD, Zouari K, Khouatmia M, Ben Assi M (2014)
of the challenges of climate change, sea level rise, and in- Etude géochimique et isotopique d’un aquifère phréatique côtier
creased population growth. anthropisé: Nappe de Oussja-Ghar El Melah (Tunisie). Hydrology
in a Changing World: Environmental and Human Dimensions
Finally, partnerships at the regional and international levels
Proceedings of FRIENDWater 2014, Montpellier, France, October
are necessary to enhance research, exchange experiences and 2014 (IAHS Publ. 363, 2014)
focus joint research projects to ensure rational water manage- Bennani A, Lary J, Nrhira A, Razouki L, Bize J, Nivault N (1992)
ment and achieve food security for North African regions that Wastewater treatment of greater Agadir (Morocco): an original so-
will need effective partnership and joint planning for ground- lution for protecting the bay of Agadir by using the dune sands.
Water Sci Technol 25:239–245
water sustainable development. Bennett G, Bredehoeft J, Motz LH (2002). Saltwater intrusion and the
minimum aquifer level in the southern water use caution area: hy-
drologic evaluation section, Southwest Florida Water Management
Author contribution This work is the contribution of the corresponding District.
author. Bindra SP, Abulifa S, Hamid A, Al Reiani HS, Abdalla HK (2013)
Assessment of impacts on ground water resources in libya and vul-
nerability to climate change. Sci Bull Petru Maior, University of
Data and materials availability The data supporting this review are from
Tîrgu Mureş 10(XXVII):2
previously reported studies, which have been cited in this manuscript.
Bonnet M, Moussié B, Sauty JP (1974) L’exploitation des eaux
souterraines en domaine littoral. Exemples des côtes du bassin
Declarations aquitain. Présentation du modèle INTRANS. (in French). BRGM
report n°74-SGN-368-AME. Orléans 1–55
Competing interests The author declares no conflict of interest. Bouchaou, L. (2012). MAR techniques and examples successfully ap-
plied in light of climate change adaptation: case study in Morocco.
In Proceedings of the Conference Presentation—Theme
Opportunities for Managed Aquifer Recharge, Amman, Jordan
Bouderbala A, Remini B, Hamoudi AS (2016) Geoelectrical investiga-
References tion of saline water intrusion into freshwater aquifers: a case study of
Nador coastal aquifer, Tipaza, Algeria. Geofis Int 55:4 México oct./
dic. 2016. https://doi.org/10.19155/geofint.2016.055.4.2
Abdalla R, Rinder T, Dietzel M, Leis A (2010) Seawater intrusion and
Bouragba, L. (2011). Etude de la recharge artificielle des nappes en zone
groundwater quality of the coastal area in Tripoli region, Libya.
semi-aride (Application au bassin du Souss-Maroc). In Study of
EGU Gen Assem 12:EGU2010–11911-2. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Artificial Recharge of Groundwater in Semi-Arid Areas
proceedings2110586
(Application to the Souss-Maroc basin), U.F.R Sciences &
Abdel-Dayem S (2011) Water quality management in Egypt. Int J Water
Techniques; Université de Franche-Comté École Doctorale
Resources Dev 27(1):181–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.
Homme, Environnement: Santé, France.
2010.531522
Bouya B, Faouzi M, Ben Abbou M, Essahlaoui A, Bahir M, Youbi N,
Agoubi B, Kharroubi A, Abida H (2013) Saltwater intrusion modelling in Hessane MA (2011) The coastal aquifer of Mnasra (Gharb,
Jorf coastal aquifer, south-eastern Tunisia: geochemical, Morocco): hydrogeology and hydrodynamic modeling.
geoelectrical and geostatistical application. Hydrol Process 27: Comunicações Geológicas 98:73–81
1191–1199. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9207 Brika B (2018) Water resources and desalination in Libya: a review.
Al Faitouri M, Salloum FM, Muftah AM (2018). Determination of water Proceedings 2018(2):586. https://doi.org/10.3390/
type in Benghazi Plain aquifers by chemical and statistical methods. proceedings2110586
Special Issue for The 2nd Annual Conference on Theories and Bzioui M (2004). Rapport national sur les ressources en eau au maroc Un
Applications of Basic and Biosciences, September, 1st , 2018 water-africa, p94. https://www.oieau.org/eaudoc/system/files/
Albitar A (2007) Modélisation des écoulements en milieu poreux documents/40/203294/203294_doc.pdf. Accessed 22 Sep 2020
hétérogènes 2D / 3D, avec couplages surface / souterrain et CEDARE (2014). Libya Water Sector M&E Rapid Assessment
densitaires. Thèse de doctorat de L’institut national polytechnique Report. Monitoring and Evaluation for Water in North
de Toulouse, France, p 157 Africa (MEWINA) project, Water Resources Management
Alfarrah N, Walraevens K (2018) Groundwater overexploitation and sea- Program, CEDARE.
water intrusion in coastal areas of arid and semi-arid regions. Water Chabaane A, Redhaounia B, Gabtni H, Amiri A (2018) Contribution of
10:143, pp 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020143 geophysics to geometric characterization of freshwater–saltwater
interface in the Maâmoura region (NE Tunisia). Euro-
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17041

Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration 3:26. https:// Friedel MJ, Finn C (2008). Hydrogeology of the Islamic Republic of
doi.org/10.1007/s41207-018-0068-7 Mauritania: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2008-1136.
Chekirbane A, Tsujimura M, Kawachi A, Isoda H, Tarhouni J, Benalaya 32 p.
A (2013) Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater salinization in an Gejam AMS, Riad PHS, Jad MA, Rashed KA, Ali NH (2016) Impact of
ephemeral coastal flood plain: Cap Bon, Tunisia. Hydrol Sci J pumping rate on seawater intrusion in Jefara Plain Plain. J Am Sci
58(5):1097–1110. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.800202 12(3):81–88. https://doi.org/10.7537/marsjas12031611
Chen M, Al-Maktoumi A (2018) Topical collection: coastal aquifers in George NJ, Ibanga JI, Ubom AI (2015) Geoelectrohydrogeological indi-
the Middle East and North Africa region. Hydrogeol J 26:2543– ces of evidence of ingress of saline water into freshwater in parts of
2546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1839-6 coastal aquifers of Ikot Abasi, Southern Nigeria. J Afr Earth Sci 109:
Cooper HH, Kohout FA, Henry HR, Glover RE (1964) Sea water in 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.05.001
coastal aquifers. US Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 1613-C. Gomaa MA, Hussien RA, El-Aassar A-HM (2017) Application of hydro-
Custodio E (1985). Saline intrusion, Hydrogeology in service of Man. geochemical modeling to study seawater intrusion phenomena in the
Memoires of the 18th Congress of the international Assoc. of area between Marsa Alam and El-Qusier, Red Sea Coast, Egypt.
Hydrogeologists, Cambridge. Curr Sci Int 06(04):640–700
Djabri L, Ghrieb L, Guezgouz N, Hani A, Bouhsina S (2013) Impacts of Gossel W, Sefelnasr A, Wycisk P (2010) Modelling of paleo-saltwater
morphological factors on the marine intrusion in Annaba region intrusion in the northern part of the Nubian Aquifer System,
(east of Algeria). Desalin Water Treat 52(2014):10–12 Northeast Africa. Hydrogeol J 18:1447–1463
DRS (2010). Drainage Research Institute: Monitoring and Analysis of Haddani H (2010) Mise en évidence de l’intrusion marine vers les
Drainage Water Quality Project, Drainage Water Status in the Nile aquifères côtiers de la zone comprise entre El Jadida et Oualidia
Delta Yearbook 97/98. Technical, No.52. (Maroc). University Cadi Ayyadh, El Jadida, Morocco, p 44
Eissa M, De-Dreuzy JR, Parker B (2018) Integrative management of Hamed Y, Hadji R, Redhaounia B, Zighmi K, Bâali F, El Gayar A (2018)
saltwater intrusion in poorly-constrained semi-arid coastal aquifer (2018). Climate impact on surface and groundwater in North Africa:
at Ras El-Hekma, Northwestern Coast, Egypt. Groundwater a global synthesis of findings and recommendations. Euro-Mediterr
Sustain Dev, Elsevier 6:57–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2017. J Environ Integr 3:25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-018-0067-8
10.002 Hammami HA, Farhat B, Ben Mammou A, Oueslati N (2017)
Characterization of recharge mechanisms and sources of groundwa-
Ekhmaj A, Ezlit Y, Elaalem M (2014) The situation of seawater intrusion
ter salinization in Ras Jbel coastal aquifer (Northeast Tunisia) using
in Tripoli, Libya. Int Conf Biol Chem Environ Sci (BCES-2014)
hydrogeochemical tools, environmental isotopes, GIS, and statistics.
June 14-15, 2014 Penang (Malaysia)
Hindawi J Chem 2017:8610894, 20 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/
El Alami A, Ouadif L, Baba K, Akhssas A, Bahi L, Hasnaoui MD (2017)
2017/8610894
Geophysical prospecting of groundwater in laaouamra, morocco,
Hilali M, Larabi A, Aharmouch A (2003). Modelisation de l’intrusion
using VES method and GIS. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 12(11):3492–
marine dans l’aquifère de martil (cote Mediterraneenne, maroc).
3499
Tecnología De La Intrusión De Agua De Mar En Acuíferos
El Aswad NA, Mohammad TA, Ghazali AH, Yusoff ZM (2019) Costeros: Países Mediterráneos, IGME. Madrid 2003. ISBN. 84-
Modelling of groundwater pumping scenarios and their impact on 7840-470-8
saline water intrusion in a Tripoli coastal aquifer, Libya. Pertanika J Himi M, Tapias J, Benabdelouahab S, Salhi A, Rivero L, Elgettafi M, El
Sci Technol 27(3):1407–1427 Mandour A, Stitou J, Casas A (2017) Geophysical characterization
El Mokhtar M, Chibout M, Kili M, El Mansouri B, Chao J, El Kanti SM, of saltwater intrusion in a coastal aquifer: the case of Martil-Alila
Ntarmouchant A, Benslimane A (2018) Evaluation of saltwater in- plain (North Morocco). J Afr Earth Sci 126:136–147
trusion in the Foum El Oued coastal aquifer, Laâyoune province, Hussain MS, Abd-Elhamid HF, Javadi AA, Sherif MM (2019)
Morocc. Bulletin de l’Institut Scientifique, Rabat. Section Sci de la Management of seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers: a review.
Terre 40:53–69 Water 2019(11):2467. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122467
El Stitou Messari, Targuisti AJK, El Morabiti K, Pulido-Bosch A, Cerón Idowu TE (2017) Groundwater flow and quality of coastal aquifers : case
JC, Aoulad Mansour N (2003) Groundwater quality in coastal aqui- study of Mombasa North Coast. Jomo Kenyatta University of
fers in morocco. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ Agriculture and Technology, Kenya
277108574_Groundwater_Quality_in_Coastal_Aquifers_in_ Idowu TE, Lasisi KH (2020) Seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers of
Morocco. Accessed 23 Sep 2020 East and Horn of Africa: a review from a regional perspective. Sci
El-Raey M (2010) Impacts and implications of climate change for the Afr 8:e00402 pp1-15
coastal zones of Egypt. In Michel D, Pandya A (Eds) Coastal Zones Imerzoukene, S.; Walraevens, K.; Feyen, J. (1994). Salinization of the
and Climate Change. Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, DC, pp coastal and eastern zones of the alluvial and unconfined aquifer of
31–50 the Mitidja Plain (Algeria). In Proceedings of the 13th Salt Water
Elhassadi A (2008) Sea water intrusion in Derna located in the Green Intrusion Meeting, Cagliari, Italy, 5-4; pp. 163–175.
Mountain region, Libya. A threatening recurrent phenomenon call- IPCC (2007). The physical science basis: working group I contribution to
ing for desalination. Desalination 220(2008):189–193 the fourth assessment report of the IPCC; Solomon S, Qin D,
Elkiki MH (2018) Review Article: Effect of Sea Water Intrusion on Nile Manning M, Averyt K, Marquis M, Eds.; Cambridge University
Delta and Possible Suggested Solutions. https://www.researchgate. Press: Cambridge, 2007; Volume 4.
net/publication/327833959_Effect_of_Sea_Water_Intrusion_on_ Isawi H, El-Sayed MH, Eissa M, Shouakar-Stash O, Shawky H, Abdel
Nile_Delta_and_Possible_Suggested_Solutions. Access 23 Mottaleb MS (2016) Integrated Geochemistry, Isotopes, and
Oct 2020 Geostatistical Techniques to Investigate Groundwater Sources and
El-Raey M (2012) Impact of sea level rise on the Arab region.” Arab Salinization Origin in the Sharm EL-Shiekh Area, South Sinia,
Climate Initiative/UNDP. http://www.arabclimateinitiative.org/ Egypt . Water Air Soil Pollut 227:151. https://doi.org/10.1007/
knowledge-center.html#. Accessed 24 Sep 2020 s11270-016-2848-5
Fall MD, Sarr Fall NK, Hmeyade BL, Bacar SH (2017) Bassin Sénégalo- Kazakis N, Pavlou A, Vargemezis G, Voudouris KS, Soulios G, Pliakas
Mauritanien. Rapport Du Projet Régional De Coopération F, Tsokas G (2016) Seawater intrusion mapping using electrical
Technique Raf/7/011, AIEA Vienne (Autriche) 2017, 53p. (in resistivity to- mography and hydrochemical data. An application in
french). Accessed 15 Nov 2020 the coastal area of eastern Thermaikos Gulf, Greece. Sci Total
17042 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043

Environ 543:373–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11. OSS (2006). Ressources en eau et gestion des aquifères transfrontaliers de
041 l’Afrique du Nord et du Sahel. Edition UNSECO, IHP-IV, series on
Kharroubi A, Farhat S, Agoubi B, Lakhbir Z et al (2014) Assessment of groundwater N° 1, 134p.
water qualities and evidence of seawater intrusion in a deep confined Paniconi C, Khlaifi I, Lecca G, Giacomelli A, Tarhouni J (2001)
aquifer: case of the coastal Djeffara Aquifer (Southern Tunisia). J Modeling and Analysis of Seawater Intrusion in the Coastal
Water Supply Res Technol AQUA 63(1):76. https://doi.org/10. Aquifer of EasternCap-Bon. Tunisia. Transport in Porous Media
2166/aqua.2013.105 43(3–28):2001
Khater AR (2019). Intensive groundwater use in Middle East and North Reilly TE, Goodman A (1985) Quantitative analysis saltwater-fresh water
Africa in intensive use of groundwater: challenges and opportuni- relationships in groundwater systems, a historical perspective. J
ties, pp 355-386 Hydrol 80:125–160
Kouzana K, Ben Mammou A, Felfoul M (2009) Seawater intrusion and Rochdane S, El Mandour A, Jaffal M, Himi M, Casas A, Amrhar M,
associated processes: case of the Korba aquifer (Cap-Bon, Tunisia). Karroum M (2015) Géométrie de l’aquifère du Haouz oriental et
Comptes Rendus Geosci 341(2009):21–35 Tassaout amont, Maroc occidental: approche géophysique et
Kraus J (2013) Excerpts from a geological report on the Essaouira basin hydrogéologique. Hydrol Sci J 60(1):133–144. https://doi.org/10.
of Morocco technical report. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1835. 1080/02626667.2014.979174
0244 Saaidia B, Mahia M, Chaab S (2017) Identification of marine intrusion in
the plain of Collo, northeastern Algeria. Journal of Water and Land
Lakfifi L., A. Larabi, M. Bziou, M. Benbibai, A. Lahmouri (2004).
Development 35:211–219. https://doi.org/10.1515/jwld-2017-0086
Regional model for seawater intrusion in the chaouia coastal aquifer
Sadeg SA, Karahanoglu N (2001) Numerical assessment of seawater
(morocco). 18 SWIM. Cartagena 2004, Spain. (Ed. Araguás,
intrusion in the Tripoli region, Libya. Environmental Geology 40:
Custodio and Manzano). IGME
1151–1168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s0025401000317
Littaye A, Ould Ahmed SC (2018) The dynamics of the coastal land Salem AM, Mountasir MA, Abdussalam H, Shames R (2018). Mapping
scapes over the last decades: wind drivers for change along the north Of Sea Water Intrusion in the Western Libyan Coast Using Geo-
western Mauritanian coast. J Earth Sci Clim Change 9:450. https:// electrical Method: Case Study. First Conference for Engineering
doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000450 Sciences and Technology (CEST-2018) 25-27 September 2018 /
Liu S, Tang Z, Gao M, Hou G (2017) Evolutionary process of saline- Libya
water intrusion in Holocene and Late Pleistocene groundwater in Sallam OM (2018) Vision for Future Management of Groundwater in the
southern Laizhou Bay. Sci Total Environ 607–608:586–599. Nile Delta of Egypt After Construction of the Ethiopian Dams.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.262 Hydrol Curr Res 2018(9):3. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7587.
Mabrouk MB, Jonoski A, Solomatine D, Uhlenbrook S (2013) A review 1000302
of seawater intrusion in the Nile Delta groundwater system – the Schlüter T (2006). Geological Atlas of Africa, with Notes on
basis for assessing impacts due to climate changes and water re- Stratigraphy, Tectonics, Economic Geology, Geohazards and
sources development. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 10:10873–10911. Geosites of Each Country. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
https://doi.org/10.5194/hessd-10-10873-2013 ISBN 13 978-3-540-29144-2,p :272
Mohamed AS, Leduc C, Marlin C, Wague O, Cheikh MAS (2017) Sefelnasr A, Sherif M (2014) Impacts of Seawater Rise on Seawater
Impacts of climate change and anthropization on groundwater re- Intrusion in the Nile Delta Aquifer, Egypt. Groundwater 52(2):
sources in the Nouakchott urban area (coastal Mauritania). Compt 264–276
Rendus Geosci 349:280–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2017. Shleag AM, Setyono RP, Algonin AA, Alhderi NA (2014) Effect of
09.011 Climate, Soil Type and Distance from the Sea to the Seawater
Mohamed ML, Diongue DML, Emvoutou HC, Mohamed AS, Jiddou M, Intrusion and Water Quality In Azawia – Libya. Science Journal
Faye S (2020) Salinization processes in the Benichab coastal aqui- of Environmental Engineering Research. Article ID sjeer-201, 7
fer-Mauritania. Int J Geosci 11:377–392. https://www.scirp.org/ Pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.7237/sjeer/201
journal/ijg. Accessed 22 Sep 2020 Slama F, Bouhlila R and Tarhouni J (2010). Hydrochemical processes at
Morsli B, Habi M, Bouchekara B (2017) Study of marine intrusion in the seawater/freshwater interface as indicators of seawater intrusion
coastal aquifers and its repercussions on the land degradation by the evolution: case of Korba coastal plain (Tunisia). SWIM21 - 21st Salt
use of a multidisciplinary approach. Larhyss J, ISSN 1112-3680, Water Intrusion Meeting June 21 - 26, 2010; Azores, Portugal
n°30, Juin 2017, pp. 225-237 Souid F, Agoubi B, Hamdi M, Telahigue F, Kharroubi A (2017)
Moulla A.S., A. Guendouz, M. Belaidi, H. Maamar, S. Ouarezki (2013). Groundwater chemical and fecal contamination assessment of the
Hydrogeochemical and isotopic assessment of seawater intrusion Jerba unconfined aquifer, southeast of Tunisia. Arab J Geosci 10:
into wadi Nador Alluvial Aquifer in the Western Algiers coastal area 231,pp :2-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-2981-5
(Tipaza, Algeria). AIG10 - 10th Applied Geochemistry Conference Steyl G, Dennis I (2010) Review of coastal-area aquifers in Africa.
At: Budapest- Hungary, September 22-27, 2013 Hydrogeol J 18:217–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-
Niazi S (2002) Evaluation des impacts des changements climatiques et de 0545-9
l’élévation du niveau de la mer sur le littoral de Tétouan SWAC (2017) The six region of African Union. Sahel West Afr Club,
(Méditerranée occidentale du Maroc): Vulnérabilité et Adaptation Maps Facts 48:2017. http://www.west-africa-brief.org/sites/default/
.Doctorat en Géosciences de l’Environnement. Université files/48-six-regions-African-Union.pdf. Accessed 19 Dec 2020
Mohammed V – AGDAL.296p Telahigue F, Agoubi B, Souid F, Kharroubi A (2018) Assessment of
Oiro S, Comte JC, Soulsby C, Walraevens K (2018) Using stable water seawater intrusion in an arid coastal aquifer, south-eastern Tunisia,
isotopes to identify spatio-temporal controls on groundwater re- using multivariate statistical analysis and chloride mass balance.
charge in two contrasting East African aquifer systems. Hydrol Sci Phys Chem Earth 106:37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2018.
J 63:862–877. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1459625 05.001
Toupet C (1983) L'′eau et l'′espace au sahel, l'′exemple de la Mauritanie.
Oloruntola MO, Folorunso AF, Bayewu OO, Mosuro GO, Adewale S
Revue de Géographie de Lyon 1983(3):271–285
(2019) Baseline evaluation of freshwater saltwater interface in coast-
Trabelsi F, Ben Mammou A, Tarhouni J, Piga C, Ranieri G (2013)
al aquifers of badagry, Southwestern Nigeria. Appl Water Sci 9:1–
Delineation of saltwater intrusion zones using the time domain elec-
14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0957-1
tromagnetic method: the Nabeul-Hammamet coastal aquifer case
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2021) 28:17029–17043 17043

study (NE Tunisia). Hydrol. Process. 27:2004–2020. https://doi.org/ Zghibi A, Mirchi A, Zouhri L, Taupin JD, Chekirbane A, Tarhouni J
10.1002/hyp.9354 (2019) Implications of groundwater development and seawater in-
Van Camp M, Mtoni Y, Mjemah IC, Bakundukize C, Walraevens K trusion for sustainability of a Mediterranean coastal aquifer in
(2014) Investigating seawater intrusion due to groundwater Tunisia, Environ Monit Assess 191:696. https://doi.org/10.1007/
pumping with schematic model simulations : the example of the s10661-019-7866-5
Dar es Salaam coastal aquifer in Tanzania. J Afr Earth Sci 96:71– Zouhri L, Toto E, Carlier E, Debieche T (2010) Salinité des ressources en
78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.02.012 eau: intrusion marine et interaction eaux–roches (Maroc occidental).
WFB (2006) The world fact book. The center of Intelligence Agency, Hydrol Sci J – Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques 55(8):1337–
CIA, ISSN 1553-8133. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ 1347. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2010.520561
download/download-2006/index.html. Accessed 21 Dec 2020
WBG (2020) United Nations Population Division. World Population
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-
Prospects: 2019 Revision. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/sp.
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
pop.totl. Accessed 20 Dec 2020
Werner AD (2010) A review of seawater intrusion and its management in
Australia. Hydrogeol J 18:281–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10040-009-0465-8

You might also like