Cell structure

• Cells are the smallest parts of all living organisms. All living organisms,
including plants, animals, bacteria and fungi, are made up of cells. Cells
that contain a nucleus are classified as eukaryotic cells (animals and
plants), while those without a nucleus are prokaryotic cells eg bacteria.
Therefore cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.
cells are specialized to perform a specific function. Examples of specialized cells
are red blood cells and nerve cells.
• all cells have some common structures which are: cell membrane, cytoplasm; and
in most eukaryotic cells, a nucleus. Cells have an organelle which is a specialised
structure within the cell that performs a function for the cell. Examples of
organelles in cells are vacuoles and mitochondria.
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Animal and plant cells
Animal cell Plant cell

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 The difference between animal and plant cell
No. Cell Structure/Features Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Cell Wall Present in plant cells Not found in animal cells

Cell wall is rigid and gives shape and protection to the
cell.

2. Shape of Cell Firm and rigid, keeps shape easily No static shape or form.
Irregular shape

3. Vacuole Large and gives cell shape support and makes it turgid. Smaller in size, short life span. Temporary or absent in
Contains nutrients and water. most animal cells.

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4. Chloroplast Green chloroplast present for photosynthesis. Not present in animal cells.

Parts of a cell and their functions

• Cell membranes
All cells have a cell membrane around them. The cell membrane is a thin layer that encloses the cell's
contents and separates the cell from its environment. The cell membrane controls which substances
are allowed to enter and leave the cell. We say the cell membrane is selectively permeable.
• cytoplasm
The cytoplasm includes all living parts of the cell within the cell membrane, but excluding the
nucleus. The cytoplasm is made up of the cytosol and the cell organelles. The cytosol is a watery,
jelly-like medium made of 70%-90% water, and is usually colourless.
• Nucleus – It contains the hereditary material and is filled with chromatin made up of DNA and
proteins. Functions are:
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-Controls all the processes and chemical reactions inside the cell,
-Contains the cells genetic material, nuclear membrane allows for substances to pass through and it
encloses the DNA.
DNA in the nucleus has information about inherited characteristics.

Parts of a cell and their functions

• Mitochondria – this where cell respiration occurs, where food is burned.
• Lysosomes – It has the acidic lumen which destroy material engulfed by the cell, and worn out
cellular membranes and organelles. They are regarded as the digestive tract of the cell.
• Nuclear membrane – This is the double layer membrane, protecting the contents of the nucleus.
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is where protein synthesis occurs
• Vacuoles – Vacuoles occupy 90% of the total cell volume. Vacuoles contain the high range of
dissolved salts, sugars, pigments and other toxic waste. They also provide physical support.
• Cell Wall – The cell wall is usually rigid, non-living and permeable component surrounding the
plasma membrane. It give cell shape and size.
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• Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll to absorb light energy for photosynthesis This help
in the preparation of the food at the site of photosynthesis. It gives colour green to plants.

Stem Cells
• Stem cells are unspecialized cells which can divide and develop into
many different types of specialized cells. Stem cells are quite amazing
as they can divide and multiply while at the same time keeping their
ability to develop into any other type of cell. Embryonic stem cells are
the little ball of 50 -150 cells that forms 4-5 days after conception.
Embryonic stem cells are very special as they can become absolutely
any cell in the body, for example, blood cells, nerve cells, muscle cells
or brain cells.
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• For this reason, scientists are using stem cells to conduct research.
There are many benefits in doing this, but there are also many
controversial and ethical issues surrounding stem cell research.
• Your body contains a great number of specialised cells, meaning they
have different functions. They have differences in their structures
allowing them to have different functions. We say they have
differentiated.

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Type of specialized cells
Specialised cell Structure Function
Epithelial cells - they They cover the surface of the
are mostly flat body for protection.
Muscle cells – some are Muscle cells can contract and
long and spindle shaped relax allowing for movement
within your body
Nerve cells – they are very long Nerve cells are specialised to
and have branched ends carry messages that
coordinate the functions of the
body
Red blood cells -Round and Red blood cells carry carry
biconcave shape oxygen and carbon dioxide
throughout the body

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Microscopic and Macroscopic organisms

• We have many different specialised cells to perform the different

functions within our body whereas in a single-celled organism,
all the functions it performs are done in this one cell. We can
make a distinction between organisms that are made of one cell
(unicellular) and those that are made of many cells
(multicellular).
• microscopic organisms are one cell organisms that can only
be seen with the help of a microscope where as macroscopic
organisms are visible to the naked eye and consist of many
cells.

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• Specialised cells that perform a specific function, group together
to form a tissue.
• Groups of tissues that work together form organs.
• When organs work together we say they form systems or
organ systems. Examples of these organ systems are:
digestive systems, respiratory systems, breathing systems etc
• All the systems work together to form an organism.
summary
• Cell-tissue-organs-organism

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Body systems
• The body systems is made up of many organ systems that work
together.
The digestive system

Our digestive system is responsible for breaking down the food that we
eat into small particles that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
They are then transported to the cells throughout our body. The
digestive system is made up of the different parts of the alimentary
canal that starts from the mouth and ends with the anus.

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Main processes in the digestive system
• Ingestion: This occurs when you take food into your body through your
mouth by eating or drinking it.
• Digestion: This is the process of breaking down large food pieces
intoparticles that are small enough to be absorbed and pass through cell
membranes.
• Absorption: This is when the digested particles move into the cells of
thedigestive tract (they are absorbed) and move to the bloodstream from
where they are carried to all the cells in the body.
• Egestion: Any undigested or unwanted particles that travel through
thedigestive tract are later passed out as faeces. This process is known as
egestion.
abdomen - the part of the body that contains the digestive organs. In human beings, this is between the diaphragm and the pelvis
alimentary canal - the passage through which food passes, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and anus.
anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body.

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 appendix - a small sac located on the caecum.
ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards; it is located after the caecum.
bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the small intestine
caecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the caecum.
chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes on to the small intestine for further digestion.
descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the transverse colon and before the sigmoid colon.
digestive system - also called the gastrointestinal tract or GI tract. The system of the body that processes food and gets rid of waste.
epiglottis - the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going down the windpipe to the lungs. When you swallow, the
epiglottis automatically closes. When you breathe, the epiglottis opens so that air can go in and out of the windpipe.

liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood
proteins.
mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive
process (breaking down the food).
pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small intestine.
peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the throat into the stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you cannot control it. It
is also what allows you to eat and drink while upside-down.
rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted.
salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules.
stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food
enters the stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and enzymes.
transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdomen.

gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile, a digestive chemical which is produced in the liver, into the small
intestine.
gastrointestinal tract - also called the GI tract or digestive system. The system of the body that processes food and gets rid of waste.
ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins.
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intestines - the part of the alimentary canal located between the stomach and the anus.
jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and the ileum.

Components of the digestive system

1. The mouth and oesophagus
. The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of
chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes. These enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down
starches into smaller molecules. The chewed food is referred to as a bolus.

2. The esophagus and Stomach

On the way to the stomach - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that
runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into
the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down. In the stomach: The stomach is
a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid - gastric acid which consists of hydrochloric acid. Food in
the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.

3. Small intestine
In the small intestine: After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and
then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic
enzymes and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.

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 4. Large intestine (or colon)
. In the large intestine: After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and
electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The
first part of the large intestine is called the caecum (the appendix is connected to the caecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The
food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the
sigmoid colon.
The end of the process: Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

Components of digestive system

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Common diseases of the digestive system include :
• Ulcers: Sometimes open sores or ulcers develop on the lining of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach or upper portions of the small intestine.
They are generally caused by bacterial infections and some
medications.
• Anorexia nervosa: This is one of many eating disorders. People
who suffer from this eating disorder have an abnormal fear of
gaining weight and therefore starve themselves on purpose. This
can lead to many health issues such as bone thinning, kidney
damage, heart problems and even death.

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• Diarrhoea: Someone who passes very frequent, loose, watery
stools has diarrhoea.
• Liver cirrhosis: Alcohol abuse and fatty liver caused by obesity
and diabetes are the most common causes of liver cirrhosis.

The circulatory system

• Purpose of the circulatory system
• The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood with
oxygen (O2) from the lungs to cells and then transporting blood with
carbon dioxide (CO2) back to the lungs. It also has to distribute
nutrients from the digestive system to the cells in the body and
remove waste products to be excreted.
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Components of the circulatory system
• The circulatory system is composed of the heart and a system of blood
vessels, including arteries, veins and capillaries.
1. Heart
• The heart is a very strong muscle and pumps blood throughout the body.
There are four chambers in the heart that receive and send blood to all parts
of the body. The top two chambers are called atria (singular= atrium) and the
bottom two chambers are called ventricles.
• 2. Blood vessels
There are various blood vessels which carry the blood throughout the body.
• These are:• arteries• capillaries• veins
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Components of circulatory system
3. Blood
• The blood is transported throughout your body and carries various
substances. The substances can be dissolved in the blood liquid
(plasma), such as carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products, or else
within red blood cells, such as oxygen.

The process of the circulatory system

• This process occurs as follows:
Blood is circulated from the heart to the lungs. At the lungs, carbon
dioxide (CO2) leaves the blood and oxygen (O2) enters the blood. This
process is known as gaseous exchange. Since the blood now
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contains more oxygen than carbon dioxide, we say it is oxygenated.
This oxygenated blood returns back to the heart again.
• Once in the heart the oxygenated blood is then circulated to deliver
the oxygen to all the cells in the body before returning back to the
heart. At the same times as it delivers oxygen, the blood also
collects carbon dioxide from the cells. This blood has more CO than
2

O2, so it is deoxygenated
blood. The carbon dioxide is excreted when it next returns to the lungs

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Circulatory system

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The heart showing blood movement

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• Arteries then subdivide to form capillaries. Capillaries are in close
contact with the body cells. Capillaries are much smaller than arteries.
They form a fine network throughout the body's cells to make sure that
all cells get a supply of blood and oxygen.
• The capillaries leaving the cells with deoxygenated blood then combine
to form form veins. Veins from the body carry deoxygenated blood
back to the heart
Arteries
• Arteries transport blood away from the heart.
• Arteries transport oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary arteries).• Arteries need to have
strong muscular walls because they carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.
Veins
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• Veins transport blood towards the heart.
• Veins transport deoxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary veins).
• The blood is flowing back to the heart and therefore the blood pressure in the veins is much lower.
Capillaries
• Capillaries form webs or networks around each cell to ensure that all cells receive nutrients and
oxygen.
• Capillaries are much smaller than veins and arteries

Health issues involving the circulatory system

• Common diseases of the circulatory system include:
• High Blood Pressure: This occurs when the force with which the blood
pushes

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against the walls of the blood vessels is too high and can cause damage to
the capillaries and several organs.
• Heart Attacks: Occur when a narrowing or blood clot develops in one of the
blood vessels that supplies the heart muscle with blood. If the narrowing or
blood clot is big enough it can stop the blood flow to the heart muscle and
can stop the heart from pumping which is called a heart attack. The person
can die.
• Strokes: Occur when cells in your brain are deprived of oxygen. This often
occurs as a result of a blockage in the blood vessels leading to the brain, or
when one of these vessels rupture (break or burst open).

The respiratory system

• Purpose of the respiratory system

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The respiratory system is responsible for supplying the body's cells with oxygen and for removing
carbon dioxide
• Components of the system
• 1. Mouth and nose
• Oxygen rich air enters the body through the mouth and nose where it is warmed.
• 2. Trachea (also called the windpipe)
The trachea is a tube that enters the chest and allows air to flow from the mouth into the bronchi and
from there into the lungs. It is kept open by cartilage rings. When dust particles and germs in the air
enter the trachea during inhalation, the mucus lining the trachea traps these particles and the cilia
work together to move them out of the body. When you sneeze or cough you expel the mucus and
foreign particles from your body.
• 3. Bronchi
The trachea splits into two air tubes, called bronchi that connect to each of the lungs. These tubes
divide even further into smaller and smaller tubes that connect with the tiny air bags (alveoli) of the
lungs.

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Components of the system
• 4. Lungs
The main organs of the respiratory system are the lungs. The tiny
alveoli or air bags in the lung are surrounded by small capillaries
where gaseous exchange takes place.
• 5. Diaphragm
This dome shaped muscle below the lungs enables you to
breathe. When it contracts, it moves downwards and your lungs
fill with air. When it relaxes again it moves upwards and forces
the air out of your lungs. This is the main muscle used for
breathing.
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Breathing in and out

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Main processes in the respiratory system
• Three distinct processes occur in the respiratory system:
Breathing occurs when we take oxygen into the body (lungs) and push
carbon dioxide out of the body. Breathing therefore occurs in two phases:
– Inhalation - drawing air in
– Exhalation - pushing air out
• Gaseous exchange takes place at two locations by a process called
diffusion:
– in the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into the blood from the lungs and carbon
dioxide diffuses from the blood back into the lungs
– at the body tissues oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells and
carbon dioxide from the cells diffuses into the blood

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• Cellular respiration occurs within the mitochondria of cells to release the
chemical energy in food.

Respiration within cells

• Within the cells, the mitochondria use oxygen to respire. This is called cellular
respiration.
• The mitochondria combine oxygen with food particles, such as glucose.
• Energy from the food particles is released and can be used by the cell to
perform various processes.
• During cellular respiration, carbon dioxide is released as a by-product.
• The carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells back into the blood in the
capillaries.
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• This blood therefore becomes deoxygenated as oxygen has been removed and
carbon dioxide is added

Health issues involving the respiratory system

• Some common health issues of the respiratory system are:
• Asthma: caused by allergies that inflame and narrow the airways• Lung
cancer: a disease that mostly results from smoking or severe air
pollution
• Bronchitis: swelling of the lining of the bronchi due to infection
whichcauses coughing and makes it difficult to get air into the lungs
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• Pneumonia: an infection in the lungs where the alveoli fill with fluid
• TB (Tuberculosis): an infectious disease caused by the bacteria,
Mycobacterium

The musculoskeletal system

Components are; muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones and joints.
Purpose of the musculoskeletal system
Muscle tissue is responsible for producing movement in the body.
The bones of the skeleton provide a frame for muscles to attach to, so
that movement is possible. The skeleton also protects the body,
especially the soft, fragile organs like the heart, lungs and brain.
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Components continued
1. Muscles
• Muscles allow us to move because they are able to contract (become
shorter)
and relax (become longer).
• 2. Bones
Bones provide support and help to form the shape of the body. The place
where bones meet is called a joint - think of your knee or elbow joint, or your
finger and toe joints.
3. Cartilage
Cartilage is found between bones in joints and between the ribs and
breastbone (as indicated in the diagram). It also forms the ears, nose and
bronchial tubes, and forms discs between the bones of the spinal column.
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• 4. Tendons
• Your muscles attach to the bone with strong cords called
tendons.
• 5. Ligaments
• Ligaments occur between bones at joints and hold bones
together within the joint. Ligaments are extremely strong.
NB We can move our entire bodies from one place to another through
self-propulsion. This is called locomotion.

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Components of the skeletal system

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Health issues involving the musculoskeletal system

• Common disorders of the musculoskeletal system include:

• Rickets: This disorder is caused by a lack of vitamin D, calcium or phosphate
which results in soft, weak bones.
• Arthritis: This is a condition where the joints in the body become inflamed,
painful and swollen. The cartilage between the joints breaks down causing
the bones to rub against each other which is very painful.
• Osteoporosis: This occurs when the bone tissue becomes brittle, thin and
spongy. These fragile bones can break easily, and they start to crumble and
collapse.
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The excretory system
• Purpose of the excretory system: to remove harmful metabolic waste
products from the blood such as
urea: a substance that is formed when protein is broken down in
the liver
carbon dioxide: a by-product of cellular respiration
• to prevent too much or too little water in the body by removing
metabolic waste from our blood in the form of urine.

Parts of the urinary system

1. Kidneys

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• The kidneys filter all the blood in your body to remove urea from the blood. The
kidneys produce urine which is a combination of excess water and waste products
2. Ureters
• There are two ureters (thin tubes) which connect each kidney with the bladderm
and carry the urine from the kidney to the bladder. 3. Bladder
• The bladder is a balloon-like organ that collects the urine before excreting it
during urination.
4. Urethra
• The urethra is a tube that connects the bladder to the outside of the human
body through which the urine is excreted.
Main processes in the excretory system
• There are four main processes:.
• 1. Filtration: All the blood in the body passes through the kidneys as part of the
circulatory system. The kidneys filter the blood to remove unwanted minerals
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 and urea, and also excess water. Some water is removed so that the metabolic
waste products can be excreted in solution in the liquid urine.
• 2. Absorption:
Once the blood is filtered by the kidneys, the substances that the body needs are
re-absorbed back into the blood so that they are not lost in the urine.
• 3. Diffusion: The substances are transported into and out of the specialised cells
of the kidney through the process of diffusion.
• 4. Excretion: The kidneys funnel the liquid urine through the ureters to the
bladder where it is stored. When the bladder has filled up, it uses muscles to
force the urine out of the body through the urethra. This is called excretion

Diseases of the excretory system

• Kidney Failure: When this happens the kidney loses its ability to
properly filter and remove metabolic waste which allows this waste to
build up in the body. This is very harmful and may be fatal. In such
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 cases the patient needs to undergo very regular kidney dialysis.
Dialysis involves using a machine which filters the blood for the
patient to remove waste products
• Kidney Stones: Kidney stones form when fluid intake is too low, resulting in
the concentration of solutes (salts and minerals) in the kidney becoming too
high. This can result in a small crystal (stone) forming. The kidney stone may
stay in the kidney or move down the ureter to be excreted in the urine. A
larger stone may however cause severe pain along the urinary tract and may
even get stuck, blocking the flow of urine and causing severe pain or
bleeding.

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Diseases of the excretory system
• Bladder infection: This is one of the most common infections in women
but is quite rare in men. Bacteria can enter the bladder and cause an
infection. This causes swelling and pain when urinating.

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The nervous system
Purpose of the nervous system
• It transmits nerve impulses between different parts of the body. The nerves in
our body receive stimuli from inside the body or from the environment (from the
ears, eyes, skin or tongue for instance). These are turned into impulses to the
brain and spinal cord.
• Components of the nervous system
It consists of the brain, spinal cord and nerves
1. Nerves
Nerves are the long fibres which transmit messages from the brain and spinal cord
to the rest of the body and back. The nerves work together to carry messages
throughout the body. 2. Brain

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The brain is part of your central nervous system and sends messages to the rest of
your body.

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The nervous system
3. Spinal cord
• The spinal cord runs from the brain through your spine, protected by your
vertebral column. The spinal cord is a bundle of nervous tissue and other
support cells. Together with the brain, the spinal cord also forms part of
your central nervous system.
4. Sensory organs
The central nervous system (made up of the brain and spinal cord). The
second part of the nervous system within our bodies is the peripheral
nervous system. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous
system to the muscles and organs. Various sensory organs are responsible
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The nervous system
for collecting information and sending it via sensory nerves to the central
nervous system
• Our sensory organs are our:• ears• nose • eyes• skin• tongue •
Main processes in the nervous system
Sending and receiving impulses: Nerve cells in the brain send and
receive multiple messages from multiple sources at any given moment.
These are transmitted as electrical impulses Information from the
environment is received by:

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The nervous system
Hearing: In the ear, sound waves are transformed into electrical signals
that travel along the auditory nerve to the brain. This allows us to
understand what we are hearing.
• Seeing: Seeing and understanding what you see are complex processes. Light
enters your eye and stimulates specialised cells within your eye. These cells
transmit signals to the brain along the optic nerve, where they are interpreted
as sight.
• Feeling: The skin allows us to feel and experience the world around us through
touch. Millions of nerve endings in the skin, called receptors, cover skin,

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The nervous system
muscles, bones and joints, as well as internal organs and the circulatory system.
These receptors respond to pressure, pain, temperature and movement.
• Tasting: Taste buds in your tongue and parts of your mouth can distinguish
between the different flavours: sweet, sour, bitter, salty. These receptors work
very closely with the receptors in the nose. Together the taste and odour of
food is sent to the brain where it is processed and interpreted.
• Smelling: Nerve cells in the lining of your nose respond to molecules in the air.
They send messages to the brain which interprets the smell accordingly and
recognises any one of about 10 000 different smells!

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Health issues involving the nervous system
• Trauma and injuries to brain and spinal cord: Any damage to the brain or
spinal cord can have devastating effects on the human body. This prevents
the brain from sending and receiving messages to the body and the person
can become paralysed.
• Stroke: If blood flow to the brain is stopped, brain cells begin to die, even
after just a few minutes without blood or oxygen. This can lead to a stroke
where a part of the brain function is lost
• Degenerative disorders: These are several problems associated with the
nervous system that cause a gradual loss of function over time
(degenerative). These conditions include Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's
Disease and Multiple Sclerosis.

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• Mental health problems: Examples include depression, anxiety disorder
and personality disorders. Sensory organ problems: We have discussed the
various sensory organs that are associated with the nervous system. These
organs can also have problems,such as: • Deafness • Blindness• Short
sightedness

The reproductive system

• the main purpose of the reproductive system is to produce sex cells to ensure
the continuation of the species.
• Components of the reproductive system
In females: ovaries and uterus while in males is the testes
1. Ovaries

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The ovaries are located inside the female's body in the lower abdomen and
produce mature egg cells (ova/egg).
2. Uterus
The uterus (also known as the womb) is present in females. It has a thick lining
and muscular wall. This is where a fertilised egg will implant and develop during
pregnancy.

Reproductive system
• 3. Testes
• The sex organs in males are located in the scrotum, a pouch of skin
that hangs between the legs. During puberty the testes start to
produce sperm cells.
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Main processes in the reproductive system
• During sexual reproduction, the egg and sperm have to combine to
form a new individual.

Reproductive system
• Purpose and puberty
The purpose of reproduction
• Men have to produce sperm and ensure that they come into contact with a
female egg cell. Women have to produce (and store) egg cells that can be
fertilised by a male sperm cell.
• Puberty is therefore the time when a child's body
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develops and changes. The sexual organs mature to enable the body to
produce sex cells. These sex cells are called gametes.
• Girls and boys do not, generally, go through puberty at exactly the same
time.
• Many of the complex actions that take place in our bodies are
controlled by chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones are
produced by different glands in our bodies.
• In girls, the ovaries are stimulated by hormones released by the
pituitary gland to release the hormone oestrogen. In males, the
testes are stimulated to release the hormone testosterone.

What changes during puberty?

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• The main purpose of puberty is for the sexual organs to mature. However, the hormones
which are released from the reproductive organs also start a number of other changes in
the human body. We call these secondary sexual characteristics.
• Puberty brings about the following secondary changes in females due to oestrogen : •
Breasts start to develop that may be used for breastfeeding a baby after childbirth.
• Pubic hair starts to grow at the onset of puberty. Underarm hair also startsto grow.
• Menstruation occurs in girls in a monthly cycle once they reach puberty.
• Body shape also changes due to the rising levels of oestrogen in the body.
• Body odour and acne develop as more oil is secreted and the smell of sweat in the body
changes
• Puberty brings about the following secondary changes in males'
bodies due to testosterone hormone
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• Testicle and penis size increases.
• Hair starts to grow on the pubic areas, the limbs, chest and the face.
• Voice becomes deeper as the larynx (voice box in your throat) grows.
• Body shape changes occur as the skeletal muscle and bones increase
in size and shape.
• Body odour and acne start to develop, as with females
4
The Male System
Bladder
stores urine

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 Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
transports sperm
secretes fluid to add
nutrients to semen Urethra transports
semen and urine
Prostate gland
secretes fluid to Penis becomes
activate sperm cells erect to enter
female during
Cowper’s gland intercourse
Scrotum holds Foreskin covering
Testes testes outside the Epididymis glans (tip)
body, produces sperm
stores sperm
testosterone at a lower temp.

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 9
The female reproductive system
FRONT VIEW

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 Fallopian tube lined with cilia to
move egg towards the uterus. Site of
fertilisation
Ovary produces an egg cell every
28 days and hormones oestrogen
and progesternone Uterus foetus
develops here
Endometrium lining receives
fertilised egg
Cervix opening to uterus

Vagina recieves penis during intercourse and birth canal

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Fertilisation
• Fertilisation
• During sexual intercourse the erect male penis enters the female
vagina. This is called copulation.
• The male penis deposits sperm into the female vagina through
ejaculation
• After ejaculation into the vagina, the sperm swim into the cervix and
through the uterus to the oviducts. Once inside the oviducts, the
sperm swim to fuse/meet the mature egg that was released from the
ovaries and is now travelling towards the uterus. This process is called

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 fertilisation and it takes place in the in the oviduct, and not in the
uterus or vagina.
• Fertilisation is the fusion sperm and egg to form a zygote.

Fertilisation continued
• The zygote divides by cell division and moves to the endometrium
where it glue itself on the uterus lining. This process is called
implantation. The zygote becomes an embryo. Through a series of
cell division a placenta and umbilical cord are formed. The placenta is
partly formed by the mother and partly by the embryo. The embryo
develops an umbilical cord to attach itself to the placenta.
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• The embryo can receive food and oxygen and remove its wastes
through the umbilical cord and placenta. In humans, pregnancy is
about 40 weeks (9 months). We call this the gestation period.
Towards the end of the pregnancy, the uterus starts to contract. This
pushes the head of the foetus into the vagina (birthcanal).

Choices regarding unwanted pregnancies

• There are of course various choices that they can make in such a situation.
• Adoption - where the baby is given to another family who want to adopt
him or her.

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• Leaving the baby in a place of safety while remaining anonymous. The baby
will then be put forward for adoption.
• Parenting - keeping the baby with the support of the extended family.
• Abortion - terminating the pregnancy by removing the embryo from the
mother's uterus.

Prevention of pregnancy and contraceptives

• There are different types of contraceptives to prevent unwanted
pregnancy:
1. barrier - physically prevent sperm from reaching uterus
2. hormonal -prevent ovulation and fertilisation in the female using
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hormones
3. intra-uterine devices- prevent the embryo implanting
4. sterilisation - by surgery in men and women which is permanent and
not reversible
5. Male condoms-When the male ejaculates the sperm and seminal
fluid is caught in the condom and cannot enter the cervix.

Contraceptive
Tubal ligation in women-a surgical procedure in women in which the
oviducts are cut and tied which prevents mature eggs from reaching
the uterus for fertilization.
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Oral contraceptive pill-Often referred to as "the Pill", it is taken every
day by mouth. It contains a combination of female hormones which
prevents ovulation each month.
Vasectomy-A surgical procedure in males in which the vas deferens is
cut and tied. Sperm are therefore prevented from becoming part of the
ejaculate

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