EXAMPLE 1.

1 Estimate the increase in the electric charge storage capacity in coulomb if a mobile phone battery capacity is
improved from 3000 mAh to 5000 mAh.

SOLUTION:
1000 mAh: The battery can provide 1 A (1000 mA) current for 1 hr (3600 seconds).
SI unit of current: Ampere (A)
SI unit of time: Second (s)
3000 x3600
Initial capacity = 3000 = = 10800 C
1000
5000 x3600
Desired capacity = 5000 = = 18000 C
1000
Increment = 18000 − 10800 = 7200 C

 Resistor: conductivity, resistivity, resistance, and color code

Conductivity: It is a fundamental material's property to conduct electric current. It is commonly signified by the Greek letter σ (sigma)
and the SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per meter (S/m).

Relation in conductivity and resistivity: Conductivity is the inverse (reciprocal) of resistivity.

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σ= S/m or ℧/m (moh/meter)
ρ

Resistance: It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e., electrons)
through it. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

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For conductors, smaller units like milli-ohm = 10−3 ohm or micro-ohm = 10−6 ohm are used.

For insulators a much bigger unit is used i.e., mega-ohm = 106 ohms or kilo-ohm = 103 ohms (kilo means thousand).

At a constant temperature, the resistance R of a conductor is calculated as:

l
R=ρ Ω
A

Figure 1.5 Resistance of a conductor

Table 1.3 Resistivity of materials

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Resistivity or specific resistance: Specific resistance is the nature of a material may be defined as the resistance between the opposite
faces of a meter cube (Figure 1.5) of that material. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of
electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m).

EXAMPLE 1.2 Estimate the resistance of a 1 km long transmission line composed of 19 strands of similar copper conductors, each
strand being 0.66 mm in radius. The resistivity of copper may be taken as 1.72 × 10−8 Ω-m.

Figure 1. 6 Copper wire strands

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SOLUTION:
The cross section area of one strand = πr2 = π × (0.66x10-3)2 = 1.37 × 10-6 m2
The cross section area of 19 strand = 19 × 1.37 × 10-6 m2 = 26.03 × 10-6 m2
Length of the transmission line = 1000 m
Resistivity of copper = 1.72 × 10−8 Ω-m
−8
l 1000
R = ρ = 1.72 x10 = 0.66 Ω
A 26.03 x10 −6
Resistor color code:
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101 1
Red 2 102 2
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105 0.5
Blue 6 106 0.25
Violet 7 107 0.1
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10

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 Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)
(none) 20

4-band Color Code:

Figure 1. 7 4-band resistor color code

‘a’ represents the 1st significant digit

‘b’ represents the 2nd significant digit
‘c’ represents the multiplier
‘e’ represents the tolerance
Resistance = ab × c ± e%
Brown Black Red Gold
st nd
1 significant di 2 significant digit Multiplier Tolerance
1 0 102 5%
10 × 102 ± 5 % (950-1050 Ω)

5-band Color Code:

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 Figure 1. 8 5-band resistor color code

‘a’ represents the 1st significant digit

‘b’ represents the 2nd significant digit
‘c’ represents the 3rd significant digit
‘d’ represents the multiplier
‘e’ represents the tolerance
Resistance = abc × d ± e%
Brown Black Black Brown Red
1st significant digit 2nd significant digit 3rd significant digit Multiplier Tolerance
1 0 0 101 2%
1
100 × 10 ± 2 % (980-1020 Ω)
LECTURE 2

WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY

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 Today, life without electricity is highly unimaginable. Electric locomotives, heaters, and fans are some of the appliances and machines
which convert electricity into work and energy.

 Effect of electric current: It is a matter of common experience that a conductor, when carrying current, becomes hot after some time.
An electric current is just a directed flow or drift of electrons. The moving electrons as they pass through molecules of atoms of that
substance, collide with other electrons. This electronic collision results in the production of heat.

 Joules Law of Electric Heating: The amount of work required to maintain a current of I amperes through a resistance of R ohm for t
second is

W.D(Work Done) = I2 Rt joules …….(2.1)

= VIt joules ( R = V/I)

= Wt joules (W = VI)

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 = V2t/R joules (I = V/R)

This work is converted into heat and is dissipated away. The amount of heat produced is
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊.𝐷𝐷
𝐻𝐻 = = ……….(2.2)
𝑀𝑀𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝐸𝐸 𝐽𝐽

Where J = 4186 Joules/Kcal = 4200 Joules/Kcal

EXAMPLE 2.1 Two heater A and B are in parallel across supply voltage V. Heater A produces 500 kcal in 200 min. and B produces
1000 kcal in 10 min. The resistance of A is 10 ohm. What is the resistance of B? If the same heaters are connected in series across the
voltage V, how much heat will be produced in kcal in 5 min?
V2 t
SOLUTION: Heat produced 𝐴𝐴 = kcal
JR
V2 ×(20×60)
For heater A, 500 = ……..(i)
10×J
V2 ×(10×60)
For heater B, 1000 = ……..(ii)
R×J
From equation (i) and (ii) we get R = 2.5Ω

When the two heaters are connected in series, let H be the amount of heat produced in kcal. Since combined resistance is (10 + 2.5) =
12.5 Ω, hence

V2 ×(10×60)
𝐻𝐻 = …….. (iii)
12.5×J

Divide equation (iii) by (i) we get H = 100 Kcal

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 Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A). Mathematically, the relationship between current i,
charge q, and time t is
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸
𝑖𝑖 = …….. (2.3)
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸

Where the current is measured in amperes (A), and

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (2.3). We obtain
𝐸𝐸
𝑄𝑄 = ∫𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ……… (2.4)
𝑜𝑜

 The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b;
mathematically
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ………(2.5)
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage is measured in volts (V).

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).

 Power and Energy:

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Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical
purposes, we need to know how much power an electric device can handle. We all know from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives
more light than a 60-watt bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies, we are paying for the electric
energy consumed over a certain period of time. Thus, power and energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

We write this relationship as

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃 = ……..(2.6)
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸

where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸

𝑃𝑃 = = . = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 ……(2.7)
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 ……(2.8)

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element and p = +vi. If the current enters
through the negative terminal, p = -vi.

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Figure 1.1 Reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention: (a) absorbing power, (b) supplying power.

The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in an electric circuit. For this reason, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any
instant of time, must be zero:

∑p = 0 ……(2.9)

This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power absorbed. the energy absorbed or
supplied by an element from time to time t is
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
𝑊𝑊 = ∫𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ∫𝐸𝐸 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ……(3.0)
0 0

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

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