Solid State Physics Report

NAME MUHAMMAD UMAIR

ABDUL MOIZ
MUHAMMAD UMAIR BUTT

REG NO FA22-BPH -010

FA22-BPH-011
FA22-BPH-015

COURSE SOLID STATE 01

INSTRUCTOR DR. AMIR RAZZAQ

TITLE REPORT

SUBMITTED DATE 15-06 2025

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Solid State Physics Report

Contents
1. HALL EFFECT.................................................................................................. 4
Introduction:......................................................................................................... 4
Principle:.............................................................................................................. 4
WORKING OF HALL EFFECT............................................................................... 4
Formula:........................................................................................................... 5
Applications:......................................................................................................... 6
2. CYCLOTRON.................................................................................................... 6
Introduction:......................................................................................................... 6
Working:.............................................................................................................. 7
Applications:......................................................................................................... 7
Summary of Hall effect and Cyclotron :......................................................................7
3. Brillouin zone:.................................................................................................... 8
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 8
Definition.............................................................................................................. 8
Construction of Brillouin Zone.................................................................................. 8
Importance in Solid-State Physics.............................................................................. 9
Examples of Brillouin Zones................................................................................... 10
4. Fourier Analysis of Atomic Basis in Crystallography................................................10
Introduction........................................................................................................ 10
Crystal Structure as Convolution.............................................................................10
Fourier Transform of the Crystal.............................................................................11
(k) = FT(lattice) ⋅ FT(basis)...................................................................................... 11
ρ~

Physical Implications –.......................................................................................... 11

F(G) = f1 + f2 exp(−iG ⋅ d)........................................................................................... 11
Relation to Diffraction Intensity..............................................................................11
I(G) ∝ ∣F(G)∣2........................................................................................................... 12
5. Structure Factor............................................................................................... 12
Introduction........................................................................................................ 12
Real Space vs Reciprocal Space............................................................................... 12
Definition of Structure Factor................................................................................. 12
Physical Interpretation.......................................................................................... 13
Application in Diffraction...................................................................................... 13
Structure Factor in Common Lattices - Simple Cubic (SC):.........................................13

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......................................................................................................................... 13
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC):................................................................................. 13
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC):.................................................................................. 14
Applications of the Structure Factor.........................................................................14
Conclusion:......................................................................................................... 15

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Solid State Physics Report

1. HALL EFFECT

Introduction:

The Hall Effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879. It occurs

when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the flow of current
in a conductive material.

Principle:

When a current-carrying semiconductor or metal is placed in a

magnetic field at right angles to the flow of current, the carriers
(electrons or holes) experience a
force called Lorentz force.

This force deflects the carriers

to one side of the material,
creating a potential difference
across it — this is called Hall
Voltage (V Hall).

Hall effect
diagram 1

WORKING OF HALL EFFECT

 Current Flow:
A thin rectangular piece of semiconductor or metal is kept in a magnetic
field.

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When we pass a current III through it (say, along the x-axis), carriers
(electrons or holes) flow in the direction of current.
 Magnetic Field Application:
A magnetic field BBB is applied perpendicular to the flow of current
(say, along the z-axis).
 Lorentz Force:
Due to this, carriers experience a force called Lorentz
force.............................F=q(v⃗×B⃗)
Here q is the charge and v is the velocity of carriers.
This force deflects carriers toward one side of the material (say, the
bottom side).
 Accumulation of Charges:
As carriers pile up on the bottom side, it becomes negatively or positively
charged, depending on whether carriers are electrons or holes.
This leaves the upper side with an opposing charge.
 Hall Voltage:
The separation of charges produces a potential difference across the
material, called Hall Voltage (V Hall).
This voltage develops perpendicular to both the direction of current and
magnetic field.
 Equilibrium:
This process stops when the electrical force due to Hall Voltage balances
Lorentz force.
At this point, carriers no longer move toward either side.

Formula:
V(H)=IB /nqd

Where:

 I= current through the material

 B= magnetic field strength
 n= number of carriers per unit volume
 q = charge of carriers (−e for electron, +e for hole)
 d= thickness of material
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Applications:

 Measurement of magnetic fields

 Determining carriers’ concentration and mobility
 Magnetic sensors in smartphones and vehicles
 Position and speed sensing in industry

2. CYCLOTRON
Introduction:
The Cyclotron is a particle accelerator invented by Ernest O.
Lawrence in 1930.It converts electrical energy into the kinetic energy
of charged particles.Principle:A Cyclotron uses a combination of
perpendicular magnetic field and alternating voltage to accelerate

Cyclotron diagram 1

charged particles in a spiral path.

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Working:
 Inside Cyclotron, two hollow metal “D-shaped” chambers
(Dees) are placed back-to-back.
 A strong magnetic field is applied perpendicular to their plane.

 An alternating voltage is applied across the gap between the

two Ds.
 The particles accelerate each time they cross this gap, while the
magnetic field makes their path spiral.

Cyclotron Frequency:

f=qB/2πm
Where:
 q = charge of particle
 B = magnetic field strength
 m= mass of particle

Applications:
 Particle physics research
 Generation of radioisotopes for medical use (such as Fluorine-
18 for PET scanning)
 Nuclear reactions
 Material testing and modification

Summary of Hall effect and Cyclotron :

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Solid State Physics Report

The Hall Effect is a phenomenon that develops a voltage across a

material when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to its current
flow.

The Cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses a magnetic field and

an alternating voltage to accelerate ions in a spiral path.

3. Brillouin zone:

Introduction
The **Brillouin Zone (BZ)** is a fundamental concept in solid-state
physics and crystallography, used to describe the wave vectors of
electrons and phonons in a periodic lattice. It plays a crucial role in
understanding electronic band structures, diffraction phenomena, and
material properties.

Definition
The Brillouin Zone is a uniquely defined primitive cell in reciprocal
space (Fourier transform of real-space lattice). It is constructed by
drawing perpendicular bisectors (Bragg planes) between the origin
and all reciprocal lattice points. The smallest enclosed volume around
the origin is called the First Brillouin Zone (FBZ). Higher-order zones
(2nd, 3rd, etc.) can also be defined.

Construction of Brillouin Zone

 Identify the real-space Bravais lattice(e.g., FCC, BCC,
hexagonal).

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 Compute the reciprocal lattice vectors using:

 Draw Bragg planes (Wigner-Seitz construction in reciprocal

space).
 The smallest enclosed region is the First Brillouin Zone.

Importance in Solid-State Physics

Band Structure: The dispersion relation E(k) -space is periodic in
space, so only the FBZ needs to be considered.
Diffraction Condition: The edges of the BZ satisfy the Bragg
condition nλ = 2dsinθ

Scattering
diagram 1

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-Electronic Properties: Fermi surfaces and energy gaps are analyzed

within the BZ.

Examples of Brillouin Zones

 Simple Cubic (SC): Cube in reciprocal space.
 Face-Cantered Cubic (FCC): Truncated octahedron.
 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC): Rhombic dodecahedron.
 2D Hexagonal Lattice: Hexagon.

4. Fourier Analysis of Atomic Basis in

Crystallography
Introduction
Fourier analysis is a fundamental mathematical tool used to analyze
periodic structures in crystallography. When applied to crystals, it
provides deep insight into how the atomic basis modulates the
diffraction pattern. The crystal structure can be understood as the
convolution of a Bravais lattice and an atomic basis, and in
reciprocal space, this translates into a product of their Fourier
transforms. This approach lies at the heart of structure factor
calculations.

Crystal Structure as Convolution

A crystal can be described as:

Rj

where: - R are Bravais lattice vectors, - rj are atomic positions within

the unit cell (the basis), - fj is the scattering amplitude (form factor) of
atom j .

This is a convolution of a lattice and a basis:

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Rj

Fourier Transform of the Crystal

Taking the Fourier transform of the convolution yields:

(k) = FT(lattice) ⋅ FT(basis)

ρ~

- The Fourier transform of the lattice gives the reciprocal lattice: ∑G

δ(k − G) - The Fourier transform of the basis gives the structure
factor:

F
j

Physical Implications –
The reciprocal lattice defines where the diffraction spots occur. -
The structure factor determines the intensity (amplitude) of those
spots. - Thus, the basis shapes the envelope of the diffraction
pattern.

Example: Two-Atom Basis

Consider a basis with two atoms at positions r1 = 0 and r2 = d :

F(G) = f1 + f2 exp(−iG ⋅ d)

Depending on G ⋅ d , the interference can be constructive or

destructive.

Relation to Diffraction Intensity

The observable diffraction intensity is given by:

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I(G) ∝ ∣F(G)∣2
This intensity is directly modulated by the atomic arrangement within
the unit cell — a purely real-space feature represented in reciprocal
space.

5.Structure Factor
Introduction
The structure factor is a crucial concept in solid-state physics and
crystallography. It plays a central role in the analysis of X-ray,
electron, and neutron diffraction patterns by quantifying how the
arrangement of atoms within a crystal unit cell affects the intensity of
scattered waves. It links the real-space atomic configuration with the
reciprocal space representation, enabling the interpretation of
diffraction experiments.
Real Space vs Reciprocal Space
Real space refers to the actual physical layout of atoms in a crystal
lattice. Atoms have specific positions inside the unit cell, denoted by
vectors (j). - Reciprocal space is a mathematical construct used to
describe the periodicity of a crystal in terms of wave vectors (). Each
point in reciprocal space corresponds to a family of lattice planes in
real space and is labeled by Miller indices (hkl).
Definition of Structure Factor
The structure factor (F_{hkl}) is defined for a given reciprocal lattice
vector ({hkl}) as: [ F{hkl} = j f_j (i {hkl} _j)] where: - (f j) is the
atomic form factor of atom (j), describing its scattering strength. - (j)
is the position of the (j)-th atom in the unit cell. – ({hkl}) is the
reciprocal lattice vector corresponding to Miller indices ((hkl)).

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Solid State Physics Report

Physical Interpretation
The exponential term ((i j)) represents the phase shift of the scattered
wave due to the position of atom (j). - When summing over all atoms,
the phase differences cause either constructive or destructive
interference. - This interference determines the intensity of the
diffraction peak in the direction defined by {hkl}.
Application in Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the Bragg condition is satisfied: [{} - {} =
{hkl}] The intensity (I{hkl}) of a diffracted beam is proportional to
the square of the structure factor: [ I_{hkl} |F_{hkl}|^2]

Structure Factor in Common Lattices -

Simple Cubic (SC):
All lattice points are at ((0,0,0)), so (F{hkl} = f ).

SCC 1

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC):

Atoms at
(1 = (0,0,0), 2 = (1/2,1/2,1/2))
[ F{hkl} = f [1 + (i(h+k+l))]]
(F{hkl}) is zero when (h+k+l) is odd.
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC):
Atoms at BCC 1

((0,0,0), (1/2,1/2,0), (1/2,0,1/2), (0,1/2,1/2))

[F{hkl} = f[1 + (i(h+k)) + (i(h+l)) + (i(k+l))]]

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(F{hkl}) is non-zero only if (h, k, l) are either all even or all odd.

FCC 1

Applications of the Structure Factor

1. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
Structure factor is fundamental to calculating the intensity of
diffraction peaks in X-ray crystallography, helping to determine
atomic positions and unit cell geometry.
2. Determination of Crystal Structures
By analyzing the diffraction pattern modulated by the structure
factor, scientists can reconstruct the atomic arrangement in
crystals, such as identifying simple cubic, BCC, or FCC
lattices.
3. Detection of Systematic Absences
In certain crystals, some diffraction peaks vanish due to
destructive interference (when Fhkl=0F_{hkl} = 0Fhkl=0). This
allows researchers to infer crystal symmetry and space
groups.
4. Neutron and Electron Diffraction Studies
The structure factor is also crucial in neutron and electron
diffraction, particularly useful when detecting light atoms (like
hydrogen) or magnetic ordering.
5. Material Characterization and Quality Control
Industries use structure factor-based diffraction methods to
examine crystalline quality, defects, and phase composition in
semiconductors, alloys, and ceramics.
6. Band Structure Calculations
The structure factor indirectly contributes to band structure
simulations, especially in computational methods like density
functional theory (DFT

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Conclusion:
The structure factor is an essential bridge between atomic
arrangements and observable diffraction patterns. Understanding how
to compute and interpret (F{hkl}) allows physicists and material
scientists to infer atomic positions and lattice structures from
experimental data. It encapsulates both the geometry and the
symmetry of the unit cell, making it a powerful tool in
crystallographic analysis.

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