Module - 1

SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS

• Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of

Conductometric sensors, Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors
(Flame photometry) and Optical sensors (colorimetry). Sensors for the
measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical sensors for the
pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable
sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
• Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and
applications of Lithium ion and Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot
Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s) - Principle, Properties and Applications.
• Self-learning: Types of electrochemical sensor, Gas sensor - O2 sensor,
Biosensor - Glucose sensors.
• Introduction
• Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system, whether it
may be a mechanical system or an electronic system. A measurement system
consists of sensors, actuators, transducers and signal processing devices. The
use of these elements and devices is not limited to measuring systems.
Definition of Sensors, Actuators and transducers:
Sensors: "A sensor is a device that detects changes and events in a physical
stimulus and a corresponding output signal that can be measured and/or recorded".
Here, provides the output signal can be any measurable signal and is generally an
electrical quantity. The best example of a sensor is mercury thermometer. Here the
quantity that is being measured is heat or temperature. The measured temperature
is converted to a readable value on the calibrated glass tube, based on the
expansion and contraction of liquid mercury. Physical Stimulus: Consists of Heat,
light, sound, weight and attraction.
Actuators: "Actuators are the devices that work opposite to sensors". A sensor
converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts
electrical signal into a physical event. When sensors are used at input of a system,
actuators are used to perform output function in a system as they control an
external device.

Transducers: Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form
into another form". Generally the energy is in the form of a signal. Transducer is
a term collectively used for both sensors and acutators.
Transducers: A Transducers is a device that converts one form of energy into
another form.
In other words, it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity
into a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current.
Pressure ……… voltage
Transducers contain two parts
(i) sensing element (ii) transduction element.
The sensing element is called as the sensors
The transduction element converts the sensors output to suitable electric form .

Transducers can be classified as:

• 1. Active and passive transducers
• 2. Analog and digital
• 3. Primary and secondary
1.Working Principle and Applications of Electrochemical Sensors:
Electrochemical sensors: Sensors which converts the effect of an electrochemical
reaction between analyte and electrode surface in to a useful signal known as
Electrochemical sensors
In Electrochemical sensors Transducer element is used as an Electrode.
The different types of Electrochemical Sensors
1.Potentiometric Sensors (measure Voltage)
2.Amperometric Sensors (measure Current)
3.Conductometric Sensors (measure conductivity)
Working Principle: An electrochemical sensor is a device that detect and measure
the concentration of a target analyte by converting the effect of electrochemical
reaction into an analytical signal.
Electrochemical sensors consist of a set of electrodes acts as transducer element.
Hence these sensors are also known as Electrochemical sensors.
It consists of three electrodes (sensing electrode, reference and counter electrode)
with an electrolyte, and it monitors the reaction kinetics at the electrode/electrolyte
interface so as to provide the necessary transduction in terms of current or voltage.
The basic principle of working of an electrochemical cell is the transfer of
electrons generated from a redox reaction occurring in it, that results in the
production of electric current and Electrons are released from metals used as
electrodes.
Electrochemical sensors operate on the principle that an electrical current passes
through a sensing electrode produced by an electrochemical reaction, which takes
place at the surface of a sensing electrode.
Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to
make a measurement.
Applications:
1. Used to detect dissolved oxygen in boiler water
2.Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring like measurement of Toxic
metal concentration in water, PH of water etc 3.Used in soil parameter analysis and
in agriculture applications.
4.Used for the detection of blood glucose.

2.Conductometric sensors: Conductometric sensors are a type of chemical sensor

that measures the electrical conductivity of a solution to detect the presence and
concentration of ions.
Principle: The Principle of conductometric detection based on the dissociation of
analyte into ionic species under the applied electric field. This leads to the
migration of ions toward oppositely charged electrodes, results in the change in
electrical conductivity of the solution.
Working: The Conductivity Sensor Works by applying a voltage, inducing ion
movement in the solution, and measuring the resulting electric current. The
measured current is then used to calculate the conductivity of the solution,
providing information about the concentration of ions and, by extension, the
solution’s electrical conductivity.
1.Electrodes: A typical conductivity sensor consists of two or more electrodes
made of conductive materials. These electrodes are usually placed at a fixed
distance from each other.
2.Electrical Potential: An electrical potential (voltage) is applied across the
electrodes. This creates an electric field in the solution between the electrodes.
3.Ion Movement: In a solution, various ions (charged particles) may be present,
contributing to the conductivity of the solution. These ions can be positively
charged (cations) or negatively charged (anions). When the electrical potential is
applied, these ions start to move towards the oppositely charged electrode.
4.Current Flow: As ions move through the solution towards the electrodes, they
carry an electric current. The higher the concentration of ions in the solution, the
greater the current flow, and consequently, the higher the conductivity.
5.Measurement: The sensor measures the current flowing between the electrodes.
The conductivity of the solution is then calculated using Ohm’s Law (I = V/R),
where I is the current, V is the voltage, and R is the electrical resistance.
Conductivity (σ) is often expressed in Siemens per meter (S/m) or micro siemens
per centimeter (μS/cm).

Applications:
1. Water Quality Monitoring:
Drinking Water Quality: Conductivity sensors are used to assess the purity of
drinking water by measuring the concentration of dissolved ions.
Wastewater Treatment: Monitoring the conductivity of wastewater helps in
determining the effectiveness of treatment processes.
2.Environmental Monitoring:
Aquatic Ecosystems: Conductivity measurements in rivers, lakes, and oceans
provide insights into the salinity and health of aquatic ecosystems.
Soil Salinity: In agriculture, conductivity sensors can be used to assess soil
salinity, helping farmers make informed decisions about crop management.
3.Pharmaceutical Production:
Drug Manufacturing: In pharmaceutical processes, where precise control of
chemical reactions is essential, conductivity sensors help maintain the desired
conditions.
4.Laboratory Research:
Chemical Analysis: Conductivity sensors are utilized in laboratories for analyzing
the concentration of ions in various solutions.
Biochemical Studies: In biological and biochemical research, conductivity
measurements can be employed to study the behavior of biomolecules in solution.
Optical sensors
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident
light rays into electrical signals.
Example: Colourimetric Sensors
Principle: When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable
wavelength, certain quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution and it is
observed by a sensor and transducer converts intensity of absorbed light into
electrical signal. The change in intensity at certain wavelength within visible (400–
800mm) range can be determined using special instrumentation

A photon (ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light) is converted in the

photocathode into a low-energetic electron, emitted into the vacuum. This electron
is accelerated towards and focused onto the first dynode, releasing secondary
electrons. This multiplication is repeated in subsequent dynodes, resulting in a
measurable electric charge at the anode.
Application:
Absorption-based optical sensors (Colourimetry)
➢ Absorption-based optical sensors can be colorimetric or spectroscopic in
nature.
➢ Colorimetric sensors are an important part of optical sensors that depends on
the colour of the analyte with in the visible range (400-800nm)
• Its basic components include a light source, a wavelength selector, a
photodetector and a read-out device. A block diagram of a typical
instrumentation system employed colurimetry is shown in Fig.

•
A monochromatic light is made to pass through analyte solution where certain
quantity of light is absorbed and it is a function of concentration of analyte. The
change in the intensity of light is detected by photodetector (sensing). The light
source generates an intense and stable radiation signal needed to probe an
optical property of the molecular recognition element in the sensor. The
amount of absorbance is governed by Beer- lamberts law.
Applications:
1. Optical sensors are increasingly used in biomedical and healthcare applications
for disease diagnosis, drug discovery, and monitoring biological processes.
2. used in industrial automation, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS),
aerospace/defense navigation.
3. Optical sensors are employed for contact-less detection, counting, or positioning
of parts.
4. Optical sensors are used in High Speed Communication through wireless, high-
speed, secure, data transmission through free air, space or vacuum
Thermometric Sensors
"Temperature sensors are simple devices that sense the degree of cold or heat and
transform it into a simple unit". A thermocouple is another common example of
thermometric sensors. Thermocouple is constructed from two different metals that
produce an electrical output voltage in direct relation with the temperature
modification.

Working principle of thermometric sensors:

• The fundamental working of this sensor is based on the voltage in its diode.
The temperature variation is directly related to the resistance of the diode.
• The resistance of the diode is detected and transformed into simple and
readable values of temperature such as Fahrenheit, Kelvin, or Centigrade
and demonstrated in meaningful formats instead of readout values.
• In addition, some devices have a type of vibrating wire in the structure of the
sensor that operates on the principle of stress variations followed by
temperature modifications.
 • The devices include a magnetic wire which has high tensile strength. Two
sections a to dissimilar metals that any variation in temperature influences
the tension in the wire a directly proportional to the frequency of vibration.

Temperature sensor formulae: The frequency related to the temperature is

proportional to the tension 'o' in the wire, can be described as follows:
f= 1/2* [og/p] / 2L (Hz)
Where:
σ = tension of the wire
p = density of the wire
L = length of wire
g = acceleration due to gravity
Applications of thermometric sensors:
➤ Motorsport and other vehicles: These include; ensuring motors do not overheat,
surface plate temperature, exhaust gas temperature, oil temperature etc;
➤ Industrial equipment: Most machinery used within industrial equipment and
manufacturing contains a temperature sensor for safety reasons.
➤ Medical Applications: Temperature sensors are used for patient
monitoring as well as within machines and devices for a range of medical
procedures.
➤ Food and Beverage Industry: Temperature sensors are used within this
environment as part of food safety standards, ensuring food is kept at the correct
temperature.
➤ Home appliances and white goods: Many appliances within the home contains a
temperature sensor; like oven, toaster, kettles, washing machines, coffee
machines,dishwashers, electric radiators, boilers etc;
▸ Computers and devices: Temperature sensors are used within computers and
other devices to ensure they do not overheat and become dangerous.
Electrochemical sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

Electrochemical dissolved oxygen sensors can also be called amperometric or

Clark-type sensors.
There are two types of electrochemical DO sensors: galvanic and polarographic
DO sensors.
Galvanic DO sensor is advantageous over polarographic because they don’t require
outside Voltage source and electrolyte can be used for long time Electrochemical
sensors, like the Clark electrode, measure dissolved oxygen (DO) by detecting the
electrical current generated during a redox reaction involving oxygen molecules.
These sensors typically consist of two electrodes, a working electrode (often
platinum), and a reference electrode (e.g., silver/silver chloride), immersed in an
electrolyte solution.
Galvanic Sensor is a Electrochemical sensor, which is used to measure DO
Components:
Cathode : Working electrode-Ag
Anode : Zn, Pb or any other active metal
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other inert electrolyte
Membrane: Teflon
Working Principle
The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should be at least
0.5V.
DO sensor is immersed in water sample.
1. Oxygen diffusion: Oxygen molecules in the water diffuse through a semi-
permeable membrane into the electrolyte solution surrounding the working
electrode.
2. Redox reaction: When oxygen molecules contact the working electrode, they
undergo a reduction reaction, where they gain electrons and are converted to
another form (e.g., oxygen ions or water).
3. Current generation: This reduction reaction generates an electrical current,
which flows between the working electrode and the reference electrode through the
electrolyte.
4. Signal measurement: The sensor measures this current, and the magnitude of
the current is directly related to the DO concentration. The higher the DO
concentration, the greater the current generated.
Reactions:

Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Pharmaceuticals

(diclofenac)
Pharmaceuticals are organic compounds, extensively used for different health
issues. After usage they are excreted and enter into the environment and these
complex organic molecules are with lower biodegradability. Hence sensors are
used for the detection of pharmaceuticals to monitor their concentration and known
their toxic effects.
Electrochemical sensors are valuable tools for detecting pharmaceuticals due to
their high sensitivity, speed, and compatibility with complex samples. These
sensors utilize electrochemical reactions at an electrode surface to identify and
quantify drug molecules.
Detection of Diclofenac: The chemical name of Diclofenac (DCF) is 2-(2-(2,6
dichlorophenyl)amino)phenyl)acetic acid .

DCF is most frequently prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with

antipyretic and analgesic effects.
DCF is widely used for the treatment of spondylitis, acute muscle pain and
osteoarthritis.
Electrochemical sensors offer a sensitive and selective method for detecting
diclofenac (DCF), a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
Carbon based-electrodes are the most investigated electrodes in diclofenac
analysis. Carbon nanotubes and graphene-based composites are the most efficient
modifiers for diclofenac detection.
Three Electrode sensors are used for the detection
1.Working Electrode: Carbon paste with graphene
2.Counter Electrode: Carbon paste with MCNT
3.Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl
Working: DCF gets adsorbed on the surface of working electrode. On immersing
the sensor in analyte solution and applying voltage via reference electrode, the
oxidation of DCF takes place on the surface of sensing electrode.
The electrons liberated at the working electrode due to the oxidation of DCF will
result in the flow of current between counter electrode and working electrode.
The no of liberated electrons is proportional to the concentration of DCF in the
analyte solution.
By measuring the current, the concentration of Diclofenac can be determined.

Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Hydrocarbon :1- Hydroxypyrene

(Screen Printed Sensor)
Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO (Composite)
Counter Electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
Operating Voltage:+0.7 to−0.5V
PAMAM: Dendrimer polyamidoamine
Cr-MOF: Chromium-centered metal–organic framework
GO: Graphene Oxide
Working:
When this electrode is used to detect the sample containing 1-
Hydroxypyrene (water sample) the following changes takes place:
At the electrode surface electro-oxidation takes place to yield several
hydroxylated species and then hydroquinone by losing 2e− and 2H+.

Reactions on the electrode cause the current to flow.

The quantity of this current is a function of the number of oxidized / reduced
molecules.
Current produced is directly proportional to the concentration 1-Hydroxypyrene
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx:
Electrochemical gas sensors are devices that interact with analyte gases
electrochemically, producing an electrical signal proportional to the gas
concentration. They are commonly used to detect air pollutants like SOx (sulfur
oxides) and NOx (nitrogen oxides).
These sensors typically consist of a working (sensing), counter, and reference
electrode within a housing with a gas-permeable membrane. During operation, the
gas diffuses through the membrane, and an electrochemical reaction (oxidation or
reduction) occurs at the working electrode, generating a current that's proportional
to the gas concentration.
SOx and NOx Detection:
SOx: Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx (sulfur oxides) work by using chemical
reactions at the sensor's electrode to detect and measure the concentration of these
gases. These reactions, typically oxidation or reduction, cause a current flow
proportional to the SOx concentration.
Electrochemical sensors for SOx, are known for their sensitivity and stability,
even in corrosive environments. These sensors can detect SOx gases like SO2,
which are harmful byproducts of burning fossil fuels.
Working: The SO2 gas enters sensor through capillary diffusion and penetrates
through a hydrophobic membrane finally gets adsorbed on the working electrode
surface. A liquid electrolyte, like dilute sulfuric acid, is used to transport charges
within the sensor and ensure effective electron transfer.
A gas-permeable membrane allows the target gas to reach the working electrode
while preventing the electrolyte from entering the sensor.
When a suitable and fixed voltage is applied to sensing electrode with the help of
reference electrode,SO2 undergoes oxidation to produce H2SO4 and generates
electric current.
SO2+2H2O…………….>SO4-2+4H++2e-
Concentration of SO2 in sample is determined by measuring current flowing
between sensing and counter electrode

NOx:
Electrochemical sensors can detect both NO and NO2, which together make up
NOx. A disposable gPAD (gas-sensing paper-based device) using a screen-printed
graphene electrode modified with copper nanoparticles has shown high sensitivity
and selectivity for detecting NOx.
The NOx sensor comprises a probe and a control unit. Via a cable harness these are
firmly connected with each other to form a unit.
The NOx gas enters sensor through capillary diffusion and penetrates through a
hydrophobic membrane finally gets adsorbed on the working electrode surface.
When a suitable and fixed voltage is applied to sensing electrode with the help of
reference electrode, then it will reduce NO2 or oxidise NO to generate an electrical
current proportional to its concentration in the sample .
For NO2(Electrolyte:10M H2SO4):
NO2 +2H+ +2e---------------NO+H2O
For NO (Electrolyte :0.5M H2SO4)
NO+2H2O-----HNO3+3H++3e-
Concentration of NOx in sample is determined by measuring current flowing
between the sensing and counter electrodes.
Disposable Sensors: Disposable sensors are film-based sensors that can be used
for low-volume production, vacuum infusion or special applications and in R&D
projects. They don't need a fixed installation and can be used in places that
permanent sensor can be used such as curved areas, bag side and are implantable in
the laminates.
Advantages of Disposable sensors:
1. Cost-Effectiveness: Disposable sensors are affordable-low-cost, easy-to-use
sensing devices designed for single-use or short-term measurements.
2. Ease of Use and Portability: Their compact size and lightweight nature make
them highly portable, enabling on-site testing in diverse locations
3. Reduced Maintenance and Calibration: Disposable sensors do not require
periodic cleaning, calibration, or repair, which reduces the operational overhead
and associated costs.
4. Applications in Diverse Fields: Medical Diagnostics, Food Safety&
Environmental Monitoring
5. Improved Accessibility and Scalability: The ease of use and low cost of
disposable sensors make them more accessible to a wider range of users, including
individuals in remote areas or those with limited resources.
Detection of Biomolecules: Ascorbic acid (AA) Disposable electrochemical
sensors can effectively detect ascorbic acid (AA), also known as vitamin C, by
utilizing the molecule's electroactivity. These sensors are based on principles like
voltammetry and amperometry, where the oxidation of AA at an electrode
surface is detected
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can be oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) under
various conditions, including light, heat, metal ions, and alkaline pH. This
oxidation is reversible.
Detection of Ascorbic acid using disposable electrochemical sensor
L-Ascorbic acid (AA) or adsorbate, commonly known as vitamin C, is an
important water-soluble vitamin derived from green vegetables, fruits, and
other dietary supplements.
AA improves the immune system
It enables collagen synthesis, which is needed to maintain healthy
bones,teeth, skins, cartilages,enhances antibody levels and acts as an antioxidant;
reduces necrosis.
At the same time
Abnormal AA levels in bodilyfluids have been reported to cause
cancer, cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
Extended use of AA could cause urinary oxalate calculus, increase infertility in a
woman, and affect embryo development.
Excessive AA use has been reported to cause diarrhea, nausea, vomiting,
headache, insomnia, gastric irritation, renal problems, loss of food taste, and
vomiting.
Disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes sensor(CNT with gold
nanoparticles) for biomolecule detection- Ascorbic acid
It is comprising three disposable electrodes:
one working electrode,
one auxiliary or counter electrode, and
one reference electrode.
Each one includes a contact or terminal, a section and an active area. All electrodes
have been manufactured by silkscreen printing with conductive material ink on a
plastic polyester (PET) sheet.
The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have been
printed with a conductive ink of C(MWCNT) and modified with gold
nanoparticles.
Active surface of the reference electrode has been printed with an Ag/AgCl ink.
Working
The electrochemical sensor can catalyze the two-electron electrocatalytic
oxidation and hydrogen dissociation of AA to L-dehydroascorbic acid in
the presence of oxygen in solution.
The carboxyl MWCNTs act as electron transfer mediators promoting the electron
transfer between AA molecules and the matrix interface Increases the electro
catalytic oxidation of AA during electrochemical detection and transduce
their presence into measurable signals.
The electric current or voltage produced is proportional to the concentration of
the ascorbic acid.

Detection ofpesticide such as Glyphosate by electrochemical oxidation method

One of the most commonly used pesticides is glyphosate. Glyphosate has the
ability to attach to the soil colloids and degraded by the soil microorganisms. As
glyphosate led to the appearance of resistant species, the pesticide was used
more intensively. As a consequence of the heavy use of glyphosate, residues of
this compound are increasingly observed in food and water. Recent studies
reported a direct link between glyphosate and chronic effects such as tetrogenic,
tumorigenic.
Electrochemical Sensor for Glyphosate Detection
The sensor is a silicon- based chip comprising of three-electrode system. It is
fabricated by electro deposition technique.
Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm
thickness gold nanoparticles
Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm
thickness gold nanoparticles
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/Cl-
Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and minimizes
the resistance between the working and counter electrode.
Working:
The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold
working electrode.
A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is a interaction
between analyte and electrode surface.
Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in current in the
electrolyte medium.
The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate.

ENERGY SYSTEM
A battery is a device consists of two or more galvanic cells arranged in series or
parallel or both that can convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
Classification of batteries
i)Primary (single-discharge) Batteries:
These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is not completely reversible,
therefore these are not rechargeable. The primary battery contains a finite quantity
of the reactant materials participating in the reaction; once this quantity is
consumed (on completion of discharge), it cannot be used again.
Example: Leclanche cell (Zn-MnO2), Magnesium cell (Mg-MnO2), Zn-air
cell (Zn-O2)
ii).Secondary Batteries (Storage or Rechargeable Batteries):
These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is completely reversible and
therefore these are rechargeable. On the completion of discharge, a storage
battery can be recharged by forcing an electric current through it in the
opposite direction; this will regenerate the original reactants from the reaction (or
discharge) products.
iii)Reserve Batteries: In this battery, one of the key components is separated from
the remainder of the cell until activation. The electrolyte is the component that is
usually isolated, activation of the reserve battery is accomplished by adding
the electrolyte just prior to use.
Example: Zinc/Silver Oxide, Mg-AgCl, lithium-thionyl chloride batteries, etc,
Construction and working of Li-Ion battery
Anode: Lithiated carbon or graphite and a binde coated on a copper foil.
Cathode: Lithiated transition metal oxide like LiCoO2 mixed with a
conductor and binder and coated in an Aluminium foil.
Electrolyte: Lithium salt in ethylene carbonate propylene carbonate
Separator: micro porous polythene film
Binder: poly vinylidenfluoride Battery Representation:
LixC6 | LiX, Polypropylene | Li(1 - x)CoO2
Simply, the Li-ion is transfers between anode and cathode through lithium
Electrolyte. Since, neither the anode nor the cathode materials essentially
change, the operation is safer than that of a Lithium metal battery.
Uses
Cellular phones, Portable CD player, Note PC,
DVC/DSC/DVD/Portable LCD TV etc. MD player, Semiconductor- driven
audio etc and Portable electric vehicles.
Sodium Ion Battery
Anode: Sodium metal intercalated on graphite is used as anode
Cathode: Chalcogenides, fluorides, polyanion compounds and chromium cathodes
have been used as cathode material.
Electrolytes: Commonly used electrolytes are PEC, PPC
The electrode reactions in a Na-ion battery utilizing hard-carbon (C6) anode
and a layered transition metal oxide, NaMO2, cathode are depicted in eq 1.
The discharged electrodes are on the right-hand side of eq1

It stores energy in the chemical bonds of anode.

When battery is recharging sodium ions moves from cathode to the anode.
Meanwhile charge balancing electrons pass from the cathode through the
external circuit containing the charger and into the anode.
During discharge process electrons move from and anode to external circuit, it can
be used for various applications.
Meanwhile, Na+ ions move from anode to the cathode. Voltage obtained from
every sodium ion cell is 3.6V
Advantages
Sodium resources are more abundant,
The cost of sodium-ion batteries is about 30% lower than that of lithium batteries,
Sodium-ion batteries are safer and are not easy to produce lithium dendrites.
Disadvantages of sodium ion batteries:
Lower energy density of sodium ion batteries; short cycle life;
the industrial chain is still incomplete.
Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs)
A semiconductor device which convert sunlight into direct
current is called solar cell or PV cell.
A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum
dots as the absorbing photovoltaic material.

Construction of QDSSC- Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell

Working Electrode: Fluorinated Tin Oxide substrate is taken and coated
with mesoporous wide band gap semiconducting TiO2. TiO2 is coated with
quantum dots such as CdS by CBD method(Chemical bath deposition ). TiO2
act as electron conductors(or acceptors) and transport layers. CdS facilitate the
charge separation.
Counter Electrode: A platinum and carbon based materials are coated on a brass
substrate. Counter electrode is acting as cathode and it transfers electrons from
external circuit to electrolyte and catalyze the reduction reaction of the
oxidised electrolyte at the electrolyte/ counter electrode interface.
Electrolyte: Polysulfide is used as electrolyte((S2-/Sx 2-) It is a redox
electrolyte or hole conductor. Redox electrolyte significantly influence both
stability and efficiency of QDSSC. It is a medium which transfer charges
between counter electrode and photo anode for the regeneration of oxidized
quantum dots.
Sensitizer: CdS is a sensitizer, it is a Quantum dot nanocrystal made of
semiconductor materials.
Working of QDSSC:

Working of QDSSC
1. Upon light irradiation the photosensitizer is photo excited.
2. The excited electron of QD are injected into the
conduction band of TiO2.
3. The electrons penetrate through nano crystalline TiO2 film to the back
contact of the conducting substrate and flow through an external circuit to
the counter electrode.
4. At the counter electrode the oxidized(S2-/Sx2- ) component of the redox
couple in the electrolyte is reduced.
5. The oxidized form of the sensitizer(QD) are finally regenerated by the
reduced component of the redox couple in the electrolyte.
Properties of QDs
1. Quantum dots has narrow bandgap.
2. It exhibits tunable bandgap.
3. Strong light absorption and
4. High multiple electron generation.
Application
1. QDSSC is mainly used to harness solar energy.
2. Potential applications of quantum dots include single electron transistors, solar
cells, LED’s lasers, single photon sources, quantum computing, cell biology
research and medical imaging.