INTRODUCTION

An understanding and working knowledge of System Analysis is very important to the

Protection Engineer as he must know how the system operates under load and fault conditions
before choosing suitable relays to match the system parameters.

Analysis of load and fault conditions also provides useful information for :-

a) Choice of Power System Arrangement

b) Required Breaking Capacity of Switchgear and Fusegear
c) Application of Control Equipment
d) Required Load and Short Circuit Ratings of Plant
e) System Operation, Security of Supply, Economics
f) Investigation of Unsatisfactory Plant Performance

VECTORS
Z = Z   = R + jX = Z (cos
If Z1 = Z1   1 and Z2 = Z2   2

Z1. Z 2 = Z1 Z2   1 +  2 and
Z1
Z2

OPERATORS

j = 1 90° rotates a vector anti-clockwise through 90°

a = 1 120° rotates a vector anti-clockwise through 120°

used extensively in symmetrical component analysis

a² = 1 240° ; a² + a + 1 = 0

CONVENTION USED FOR VOLTAGE DIRECTION

Current I flowing in direction shown produces a voltage drop in Z such that A is positive with
respect to B.

A I

+
EAB ~ Z
VAB = VOLTAGE OF A ABOVE B
= +IZ
-
B

Page 1
BASE QUANTITIES AND PER UNIT SYSTEM

This is particularly useful when analysing large systems with several voltage levels. Before
any system calculations can take place the system parameters must all be referred to common
base quantities. The base quantities are fixed on one part of the system and base quantities
on other parts at different voltages will depend on the ratio of intervening power transformers.

The base quantities used are :-

Base voltage = kVb = phase to phase voltage in kV

Base MVA = MVAb = three phase MVA

Other base quantities can then be established :-

(kVb ) 2
Base impedance = Zb = in ohms.
MVA b

MVA b
Base current = b = in kA.
3.kVb

Per unit values are obtained by dividing actual values by base values as follows :-

Actual impedance Za MVA

Per unit impedance Z p.u. = = = Za x
Base impedance Zb (kVb ) 2

kVa
Per unit voltage kVp.u. =
kVb

MVA a
Per unit MVA, MVA p.u. =
MVA b

a
Per unit current  p.u. =
b

Percentage values are commonly used for transformer impedances and where per unit values
are very small. Percentage values are 100 times the equivalent per unit values.

Page 2
TRANSFERRING PER UNIT QUANTITIES FROM ONE SET OF BASE VALUES TO
ANOTHER

Za
Let Z p.u.1. =
Z b1

Za Z b1
Per unit value on base Z b2 is Z p.u.2 = = Z p.u.1 x
Z b2 Z b2

(kVb1) 2 MVA b2
 Z p.u.2 = Z p.u.1 x x
MVA b1 (kVb2 ) 2
MVA b2 (kVb1) 2
= Z p.u.1 x x
MVA b1 (kVb2 ) 2

Page 3
 EXAMPLE 1

Find the fault current in each section for a three phase fault at F.

11 kV 11/132 kV OVERHEAD LINE 132/33 kV FEEDER

20 MVA 0.3 p.u. 50 MVA, 10% 40  50 MVA, 10% 8 F
~
Base kVb = 11 132 33
3
Base MVA = 50 50 FAULT
50
b

Z = kV 2 = 2.42 349  21.8 

b b
MVA b

I = MVA b kA = 2625 A 219 A 874 A

b
3.kV b

50 40
Zp.u. on 0.3 x = 0.75p.u. 0.1 p.u. = 0.115 p.u. 0.1 p.u.
common base 20 349
8
= 0.367 p.u.
21.8

1.432 p.u.

V 1p.u.

 I11kV = 0.698 x Ib = 0.698 x 2625 = 1833A.

I132kV = 0.698 x 219 = 153A.
I33kV = 0.698 x 874 = 610A.

Page 4
 EXAMPLE 2

The base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the same ratio as the voltage ratio
of the transformer.

11.8 kV 11.8/141 kV 132/11 kV

~ OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION
LINE SYSTEM
Incorrect Selection of kVb 11.8 kV 132 kV 11 kV

Correct Selection of kVb 132 x 11.8 = 11.05 kV 132 kV 11 kV

141
Alternative Correction Selection of kVb 11.8 kV 141 kV 141 x 11 = 11.75 kV
132

EXAMPLE 3

The per unit impedance of a transformer is the same on each side of the transformer.

Consider a transformer with voltage ratio kV 1/kV2.

1 2
MVA
kV b = kV1 kV b = kV 2

Actual impedance of the transformer viewed from side 1 = Z a1.

Actual impedance of the transformer viewed from side 2 = Z a2.

Z a1 MVA
Z p.u.1 = = Z a1 x
Z b1 kV12

Z a2 MVA
Z p.u.2 = = Z a2 x
Z b2 kV2 2

kV2 2
but Z a2 = Z a1 x
kV12

MVA
 Z p.u.2 = Z a1 x = Z p.u.1
kV 2
1

Page 5
CIRCUIT LAWS

There are three basic laws :

i) Ohms Law

I Z
V = IZ

ii) Kirchoff's Junction Law

I1
At any junction (or node) I = 0
I2 i.e. I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

I3

iii) Kirchoff's Mesh Law

Z1 Z2

E1 1 Z3 2 ~ E2
i1 i2

Round any mesh SE = SIZ

eg, in mesh (1): E1 = i1 Z1 + i1 Z3 - i2 Z3

= i1 Z1 + (i1 - i2) Z3

Page 6
 CIRCUIT THEOREMS

These are derived from the circuit laws. The three most commonly used for system analysis
are Thevenins, Star/Delta Transform and Superposition Theorems.

i) Thevenins Theorem

This is useful for replacing part of a network which is not of particular interest.

Any active network viewed from any 2 terminals can be replaced by a single driving
voltage in series with a single impedance where :-

Driving voltage = Open circuit voltage between terminals

Impedance = Impedance of the network as viewed from the two
terminals with all driving voltages short circuited.

Example :

i)
Z1 Z2 Z' Z2

E1 ~ Z3 ~ E 2  E1 ' ~ ~ E2

Z3 Z 3 .Z1
Where E' = . E1 and Z' =
Z 3 + Z1 Z 3 + Z1

ii) Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transform Theorems

1 1

Z10
Z31 Z12


Z30 Z20

2 3 3 2
Z23

Page 7
 Z10 .Z 20
Z12 = Z10 + Z 20 +
Z 30

Z12 .Z 31
Z10 =
Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31

iii) Superposition Theorem

In any linear network the current in any branch due to the simultaneous action of several
different driving voltages is equal to the vector sum of the currents caused by each
driving voltage acting alone with the others short circuited.

Example :

Z1 Z2

I3

E1 ~ Z3 E2
~

Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2

E1 ~ Z3 E2
Z3 ~
Z 31 Z 32

I3 = I31 + I32

Page 8
INTRODUCTION

In a balanced three-phase system, each of the three phases of any part of the system will
have currents and voltages which are equal and 120º displaced with respect to each other. To
maintain balanced operation, each Item of system plant must be symmetrical: i.e. have
identical impedances In each line, equal mutual impedances between phases and ground, and
equal shunt admittances to ground. This is the case for machines and transformers, and it is
also valid for lines if they are fully transposed.

Three phase faults with symmetrical fault impedances leave the system in balanced operation.
Such faults can be analysed using the simple single phase representation. However, these
faults are rare.

The majority of faults occur between one line and ground, or between two lines and ground.
These are asymmetrical or unbalanced faults. They arise from lightning discharges and other
overvoltages which initiate flashovers followed by power arcs; or they may arise from
mechanical causes such as birds on overhead lines or mechanical damage to cables, etc.
Another type of unbalanced fault which is of interest are the open circuit faults. They can arise
from broken conductor, maloperation of single phase switchgear or the operation of fuses.

During unbalanced faults, the symmetry of the system is lost and the single phase
representation used for three phase balanced faults no longer applies.

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS METHOD

Fortescue discovered a property of unbalanced phasors and introduced the method of

symmetrical components.

n phasors may be resolved into (n-1) sets of balanced n-phase systems of different phase
sequence and one set of zero-phase sequence or uni-directional phasor system.

Consider n-dimensional system of phasors.

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va3 + … + Van

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb3 + … + Vbn

…………………………………………..

Vn = Vn1 + Vn2 + Vn3 + … + Vnn

Where Va1 , Vb1 , etc. are phasors of the first set of balanced n-phase
system. Phasors are single spaced.

Va2 , Vb2 , etc. are phasors of the second set of balanced n-phase
system. Phasors are double spaced.

Page 9
 And so on.

Van , Vbn , etc. are phasors of the uni-directional phasor system.

Take for example an unbalanced 5-phase system. V a , Vb , Vc , Vd , Ve.

Va1 Va2 Va3

Ve1 Vc2
Vb1 Vd2 Vd3
Vc3

Vd1 Vc1 Ve2 Vb2 Vb3 Ve3

First set of Second set of Third set of
Balanced Phasors Balanced Phasors Balanced Phasors

Va4

Va5
Vb4 Vb5
Ve4 Vc5
Vd5
Ve5

Vc4 Vd4

Fourth set of Fifth set of

Balanced Phasors Zero Sequence
Phasors
Now consider an unbalanced three phase system. V a , Vb , Vc.

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va3

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb3

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc3

Va1 Va2
Va3
Vb3
Vc3

Vc1 Vb1
Vb2 Vc2
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence

Page 10
Three unbalanced phasors have been resolved into nine phasors.

Choose ‘a’ phase as the reference phase and replace V a3 by Va0.

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

Vb = 2Va1 + Va2 + Va0

Vc = Va1 + 2Va2 + Va0

where  = 1.0 120

It is convenient to delete subscript ‘a’ for the symmetrical components.

Va = V 1 + V 2 + V 0 -------------------- 1

Vb = 2V1 + V2 + V0 -------------------- 2

Vc = V1 + 2V2 + V0 -------------------- 3

Add equations 1, 2 and 3

Va + Vb + Vc = 3V0
 V0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc0) -------------------- 4

Multiply equation 2 by  amd equation 3 by 2 and add the resulting equations to

equation 1,

Va + Vb + 2Vc = 3V1

 V1 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + 2Vc) -------------------- 5

Multiply equation 2 by 2 and equation 3 by  and add the resulting equations to

equation 1,

Va + 2Vb + Vc = 3V2

 V2 = 1/3 (Va + 2Vb + Vc) -------------------- 6

Equations 1 to 6 can be re-written in matrix form.

-------------------- 7

-------------------- 8

Re-write matrix equations 7 and 8 respectively as

Page 11
 -------------------- 9

-------------------- 10

Where VP = phase components

VS = sequence components

Example

Resolve the following 3-phase unbalanced voltages into their symmetrical components.
Vc
Va = 1 0
120
Vb = 1.5 -90 Va
90
Vc = 0.5 +120

Vb
Solution :

Va = 1 + j0

Vb = 0 - j1.5

Vc = 0.5 (-0.5 +j0.86)

= -0.25 + j0.433
Va1 = 1/3 [Va + Vb + 2Vc]

= 1/3 [(1 + j0) + (-0.5 +j0.866) (0 – j1.5) + (-0.5 -j0.866) (-0.25 +j0.433)]

= 1/3 (2.798 + j0.75) = 0.965 15

Va2 = 1/3 [Va + 2Vb + Vc]

= 1/3 [ (1) + (-0.5 -j0.866) (– j1.5) + (-0.5 +j0.866) (-0.25 +j0.433) ]

= 1/3 (-0.548 + j0.318) = 0.211 150

Va0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc)

= 1/3 [ (1 + j0) + (0 - j1.5) + (-0.25 +j0.433) ]

= 1/3 (0.75 - j1.067) = 0.434 -55

Page 12
Vb1 = 2Va1

= 1 240 x 0.965 15 = 0.965 255

Vb2 = Va1

= 1 120 x 0.211 150 = 0.211 270

Vb0 = Va0

= 0.434 -55

Vc1 = Va1

= 1 120 x 0.965 15 = 0.965 135

Vc2 = 2Va2

= 1 240 x 0.211 150 = 0.211 390

Vc0 = Va0

= 0.434 -55

Figure 1 shows the sequence components of the phase voltages.

Page 13
 Vc2

Vc0

Vc1
Vc
Va2

Vc2 Va1
Va2
Va0

Va

Va2 Va0
Vb0
Vc0

Vb1 Fig. 1
Symmetrical
Vb2
Components

Vb
Vb0

Page 14
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT TRANSFORMATION

Ia Zs
Va

Zs Zm Zm
Ib
Vb
Zm
Zs
Ic
Vc

Fig. 2

Take a set of symmetrical three phase impedances (equally spaced, fully transposed, etc.)
carrying unbalanced phase currents Ia, Ib and Ic.

We may write the following equations.

Va = ZsIa + ZmIb + ZmIc

Vb = ZmIa + ZsIb + ZmIc
Vc = ZmIa + ZmIb + ZsIc
where Zs = self impedance per phase

Zm = mutual impedance betrween any phase pair

Or, in matrix form

Resolving V and I phasors into their symmetrical components.

Page 15
Re-arrange

-------------------- 11

where Z1 = Zs - Zm
Z2 = Zs - Zm
Z0 = Zs + 2Zm
Therefore, if the system is symmetrical in its normal state the symmetrical component
impedance becomes diagonal (equation 11) and, therefore, isolated sequence networks are
obtained with impedances Z1, Z2 and Z0. These three networks will become interconnected
when an unbalance such as a fault or unbalanced loading is introduced. The manner of
interconnection will depend on the new constraints: i.e. the additional system connections.

Page 16
PLANT IMPEDANCE DATA

For static networks i.e. non-rotating plants, the positive and negative sequence Impedances
are the same. These are the leakage impedance of the transformers and the normal phase
impedance of the transmission circuits.

Zero sequence impedance of overhead line and cable circuits is determined by the return path
of the zero sequence currents through earth, earth wires or cable sheaths. The zero sequence
impedance is generally greater than the positive and negative sequence impedance, being
usually of the order of two to three times the positive sequence value in the case of overhead
lines.

For transformers, if zero sequence currents have an available path and can flow, they will
again see the leakage reactance in each phase. If no path exists, an open circuit must be
shown for the particular windings in the zero sequence network. The flow of zero sequence
current in any winding is possible only if other windings provide a path for the flow of balancing
zero sequence currents.

Consider the transformer equivalent circuit in Figure 3 overleaf. The magnetising impedance
Zm is of the order of 2000%, compared to the leakage impedance Z 1p + Z1s of about 10%.
Therefore, magnetising impedance can be ignored and the transformer can be represented in
the positive and negative sequence networks by a series impedance (=Z 1p + Z1s).

ZLp ZLs

ZLp = primary winding leakage

impedance
Zm Z1s = secondary winding leakage
impedance
Zm = magnetising impedance

Fig. 3 Transformer Equivalent Circuit

In the zero sequence network, although the leakage impedance is identical to the positive
sequence value (when zero sequence path is available) the zero sequence magnetising
impedance is dependent upon the transformer core construction and can be much lower. In
three-phase banks of single phase transformers and in three-phase shell cored transformers,
the zero sequence magnetising impedance is large and can be ignored as in the positive and
negative sequence networks. In three-limb core type transformers, however, the zero
sequence flux must be completed through the oil or tank. Owing to the high reluctance of the
flux path, zero sequence magnetising impedance is of the order of only 100% to 400%.
However, this is still high enough to be neglected in most fault studies, particularly when a
delta winding Is present.

Page 17
Therefore, consider zero sequence circuit of transformer as a series impedance Z t. The mode
of connection of Zt to the external circuit is determined by taking account of each winding
arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground.

Imaginary links ‘a’ and ‘b’ (see Figure 4) are used to derive the connections. If zero sequence
currents can flow into and out of a winding, for example a solidly earthed star winding, the
winding terminal is connected to the external circuit, that is link ‘a’ is closed.

‘a’ Zt ‘a’

‘b’ ‘b’

Fig. 4

If zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding without flowing in the external circuit, for
example a delta winding, the winding terminal is directly connected to the zero bus, that is link
‘b’ is closed.

Example 1

Transformer Connections

‘a’ Zt ‘a’

‘b’ ‘b’

Zero Sequence Equivalent

Circuit Connections

Page 18
The zero sequence impedance of a neutral earthing impedance Z n is 3Zn. The reason for this
can be readily understood from Figure 5 below.

a n

n
b
3I0 3Zn
c
Vn Zn
Zero Sequence Circuit

Fig. 5 Neutral Earthing Impedance

At the neutral point the zero sequence currents I0 in the three phases combine to give 3I0 in
the neutral earthing impedance. The zero sequence voltage at the neutral point is given by

V0 = 1/3 (Van + Vbn + Vcn) = Vn

But Vn = 3I0Zn
 V0 = 3I0Zn

 Z0 = V0 = 3Zn
I0

Example 2

Transformer Connections

‘a’ Zt ‘a’ 3R

‘b’ ‘b’

Zero Sequence Equivalent

Circuit Connections

Page 19
The positive sequence impedance of synchronous machines is the normal machine reactance.
There are three defined values of positive sequence impedances, namely the synchronous
transient and subtransient impedances and they are used according to whether steady state,
transient or initial short-circuit values of current are required.

Unlike the non-rotating networks, the negative sequence impedance of the rotating plants is
not equal to the positive sequence impedance. It relates to mmf at synchronous speed
travelling in the opposite direction to the rotor. Its value is usually less than that of the positive
sequence impedance.

In the zero sequence network, the winding connection and earthing arrangement must be
considered as for transformers. Any earthing impedance will be seen by each phase and
therefore the correct voltages will be obtained if three times the impedance value is included in
the zero sequence network.

Typical turbo-generator sequence reactances are :

synchronous reactance = 1.0 p.u.

transient reactance = 0.15 p.u.
subtransient reactance = 0.10 p.u.
negative sequence impedance = 0.13 p.u.
zero sequence impedance = 0.04 p.u.

CONNECTION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS TO REPRESENT UNBALANCED FAULTS

(a) For any given fault there are six quantities to be considered at the fault point; V a, Vb, Vc,
Ia, Ib, Ic. If any three are known (provided they are not all voltages or all currents) or if
any two are known and two others known to have a specific relationship, then a
relationship between V1, V2 and V0 and I1, I2 and I0 can be established.

These relationships are called the circuit constraints.

From the circuit constraints we can determine the manner in which the isolated sequence
networks can be interconnected.

(b) The relationships are derived with phase ‘a’ as the reference phase and the faults are
selected to be balanced relative to the reference phase. This yields the simplest
interconnection of the sequence networks. If this is not done the interconnections of the
sequence networks require additional transformations which are achieved by the
introduction of phase shifting transformers. This will be apparent in the case of
simultaneous faults where it is not possible for both the faults to be symmetrical about
the reference phase.

Page 20
Shunt Faults

Line-to-ground faults, line-to-line faults, line-to-line to ground faults and three phase faults all
fall into the category of shunt faults.

(a) Figure 6 shows a system with a fault at F. The positive, negative and zero sequence
networks of the system are shown in Figure 7. The fault terminals for the positive
sequence network are F1 and N1, and the corresponding fault terminals for the negative
and zero sequence networks are F2, N2 and F0, N0 respectively. It is at these terminals
that the interconnection of the networks will occur. In the derivation of sequence network
interconnections, it is convenient to show the sequence networks as blocks with fault
terminals F and N for external connections (Figure 8).

(b) To derive the system constraints at the fault terminals, it is convenient to imagine three
short conductors of zero impedance connected to the three line conductors at the point
of fault (Figure 9). The terminal conditions imposed by the different types of faults will be
applied to these imaginary leads, the potential to ground of which will be V a, Vb and Vc
and the currents Ia, Ib and Ic.

C
Ic Ib Ia
Vc Vb Va

Fig. 9

Page 21
 Fig. 6 Single Line Diagram of Two Machine System

F1

N1
Positive Sequence Network of System

F2

N2
Negative Sequence Network of System
F0

N0
Zero Sequence Network of System

Fig. 7 Sequence Networks of Faulted System

F1 F2 F0
+ve -ve Zero
Sequenc Sequenc Sequenc
e e e
Network N1 N2 N0
Network Network
Fig. 8 Sequence Equivalent Network Blocks

Page 22
Line to Ground on Phase ‘A’
At fault point : A F
B
Va = 0 --------------------- 1
C
Ib = Ic = 0 --------------------- 2
Ic Ib Ia
Va
We know from section (2.2) that

Va = V 1 + V 2 + V 0
But Va = 0

 V1 + V 2 + V 0 = 0 --------------------- 3

We know from section (2.2) that

I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic )

But Ib = Ic = 0

 I0 = 1/3 Ia

2
Also, I1 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib +  Ic) = 1/3 Ia

2
I2 = 1/3 (Ia +  Ib + Ic) = 1/3 Ia

 I1 = I2 = I0 = 1/3 Ia --------------------- 4

Equations 3 & 4 are the CIRCUIT CONSTRAINTS. They suggest that the sequence networks
are connected in series.

I1 F1
+ve
Sequence
V1
Network
N1
I2
-ve F2
Sequence V2
Network
N2
I0
Zero F0
Sequence V0
Network
N0

Page 23
Line to Ground Fault through Fault Impedance Z F

At fault point :

Va = IaZf --------------------- 1 A F
Ib = Ic = 0 --------------------- 2 B
C
We know from section (2.2) that Ic Ib Ia
Vc Vb Va
I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) Zf
 I0 = 1/3 Ia, since Ib = Ic = 0

Similarly, N

2
I1 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib +  Ic) = 1/3 Ia

2
I2 = 1/3 (Ia +  Ib + Ic) = 1/3 Ia

 I1 = I2 = I0 = 1/3 Ia --------------------- 3

We know

Va = V 1 + V 2 + V 0
But Va = IaZf from constraint 2

 V1 + V2 + V0 = IaZf

But Ia = 3I0 from equation 3

 V1 + V2 + V0 = I0(3Zf) --------------------- 4

Equations 3 & 4 suggests the following interconnections.

I1 F1
+ve
Sequence
V1
Network
N1
I2
-ve F2
Sequence 3Zf
V2
Network
N2
I0
Zero F0
Sequence V0
Network
N0

Page 24
Line to Line Fault on Phases ‘B’ and ‘C’.

At fault point :
A
Vb = V c --------------------- 1 B
Ia = 0 --------------------- 2
C
Ib + Ic = 0 --------------------- 3 Ic Ib Ia
Vc Vb Va

We know I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) --------------------- 4

Substituting equations 2 & 3 into equation 4,

I0 = 0 --------------------- 5

Similarly,

2 2
I1 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib +  Ic) = 1/3 ( -  ) Ib

2 2
I2 = 1/3 (Ia +  Ib + Ic) = -1/3 ( -  ) Ib

 I1 + I2 = 0 --------------------- 6

2
We know V1 = 1/3 (Va + Vb +  Vc) -------------------- 7

Substituting equation 1 into equation 7,

V1 = 1/3 (Va - Vb)

2
Similarly V2 = 1/3 (Va +  Vb + Vc) = 1/3 (Va - Vb)

 V1 = V 2 --------------------- 8

From equations 5, 6 & 8, the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel but the
zero sequence network is unconnected.

I1 I2 I0
F1 -ve F2 F0
+ve Zero
Sequence Sequence V2 Sequence
V1 V0
Network Network Network
N1 N2 N0

A
Line to Line Fault on Phases ‘B’ and ‘C’ through Fault Impedance Z F B
C
At point of fault,
Ic Ib Ia
Vc Vb Va

Page 25
Zf
Ia = 0 --------------------- 1

Ib + Ic = 0 --------------------- 2

Vb - Vc = IbZf --------------------- 3

 I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0

2 2
I1 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib +  Ic) = 1/3 ( -  ) Ib

2 2
I2 = 1/3 (Ia +  Ib + Ic) = -1/3 ( -  ) Ib

 I0 = 0 --------------------- 4

I1 + I2 = 0

2
We know Ib = I0 +  I1 + I2 ) --------------------- 5

Substituting equation 4 in 5

2
Ib = ( - ) I1 --------------------- 6

2
Vb = V0 +  V1 + V2
2
Vc = V0 + V1 +  V2
2 2
 Vb - Vc = ( - ) V1 - ( - ) V2 --------------------- 7

Substitute equation 3 & 6 into 7,

2 2 2
( - ) I1Zf = ( - ) V1 - ( - ) V2
 V1 - V2 = I1Zf --------------------- 8

Equations 4 & 8 suggest the following interconnections.

Zf

I1 I2 I0
F1 -ve F2 F0
+ve Zero
Sequence Sequence V2 Sequence
V1 V0
Network Network Network
N1 N2 N0
Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases ‘B’ and ‘C’

At fault point :,
A
Vb = V c = 0 --------------------- 1 B F
C
Ia = 0 --------------------- 2 Ic Ib Ia
Vc Vb Va

Page 26

N
 2
 V1 = 1/3 (Va + Vb +  Vc) = 1/3 Va

2
V2 = 1/3 (Va +  Vb + Vc) = 1/3 Va

V0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc) = 1/3 Va

 V1 = V2 = V0 = 1/3 Va --------------------- 3

Ia = (I1 + I2 + I0) = 0 --------------------- 4

From equation 3 & 4, it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected in
parallel.

I1 I2 I0
F1 -ve F2 F0
+ve Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Network Network Network
N1 N2 N0

Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases ‘B’ and ‘C’ through Fault Impedance Z f

At fault point :,
A
Ia = 0 --------------------- 1
B F
Vb = Vc = (Ib + Ic) Zf --------------------- 2 C
Ic Ib Ia
Vc Vb Va
Zf

 Ia = I1 + I2 + I0 = 0 --------------------- 3
N
I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 1/3 (Ib + Ic)

 Ib + Ic = 3I0 --------------------- 4

V0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc) = 1/3 (Va + 2Vb)

2 2
V1 = 1/3 (Va + Vb +  Vc) = 1/3 [Va + ( + ) Vb] = 1/3 (Va - Vb)

2 2
V2 = 1/3 (Va +  Vb + Vc) = 1/3 [Va + ( + ) Vb] = 1/3 (Va - Vb)

 V1 = V 2 --------------------- 5

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V0 - V1 = 1/3 (2Vb + Vb) = Vb

= (Ib + Ic) Zf --------------------- 6

Substitute equation 4 in 6

V0 - V1 = 3I0Zf

 V1 = V0 - I03Zf --------------------- 7

Equations 3, 5 and 7 suggest the following interconnections.

I1 I2 I0 F0 3Zf
+ve F1 -ve F2
Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
V1 V2 V0
Network Network Network
N1 N2
N0

Page 28
1. SERIES FAULTS (or Open Circuit Faults)

(a) Figure 1 shows a system with an open circuit PQ. The positive, negative and zero
sequence networks of the open-circuited system are shown in Figure 2. Unlike the
case of shunt faults, the fault terminals for interconnection are P and Q, therefore
not I nvolving the neutral. The sequence equivalent network blocks (Figure 3) will
have terminals P and Q for interconnection. Terminal N is also indicated in the
blocks although it is not used for interconnections.

(b) The terminal conditions imposed by different open circuit faults will be applied
across points P and Q on the three line conductors (see Figure 4). Therefore the
fault terminal currents will be IA, IB and IC flowing from P to Q on the three
conductors, and the terminal potentials will be the potential across P and Q, i.e. V a
– Va‘,Vb – Vb‘, Vc – Vc‘. They will be represented by a, b and c respectively.

Va Ia V a'

a
Vb Ib V b'

b
Vc Ic V c'

c

Figure 4

Page 29
 P Q

Fig. 1 Single Line Diagram of Two Machine System with Open Circuit Fault

P1 Q1

N1
Positive Sequence Network of System

P2 Q2

N2
Negative Sequence Network of System

P0 Q0

N0
Zero Sequence Network of System

Fig. 2 Sequence Networks of Faulted System

P1 P2 P0
N1 +ve N2 -ve N0 Zero
Sequenc Sequenc Sequenc
e e e
Network Q1 Q2 Q0
Network Network
Fig. 3 Sequence Equivalent Network Blocks

Page 30
1.1 Open Circuit Fault on Phase ‘A’

At fault point : P Q
Va V a'
Ia = 0 --------------------- 1 a Ib
Vb V b'

b = c = 0 --------------------- 2 Vc b Ic V c'

c

 0 = 1/3 (a + b + c) = 1/3 a

2
1 = 1/3 (a + b +  c) = 1/3 a

2
2 = 1/3 (a +  b + c) = 1/3 a

 1 = 2 = 0 = 1/3 a --------------------- 3

Ia = I1 + I2 + I0 = 0 -------------------- 4

From equations 3 and 4 it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected
in parallel.

I1 I2 I0
P1 -ve P2 P0
N1 +ve N2 Zero
Sequence N0
Sequence 1 2 Sequence 0
Network Network Network
Q1 Q2 Q0

1.2 Two Open Circuit Faults on Phases ‘B’ and ‘C’

At fault point : P Q
Va Ia V a'
Ib = Ic = 0 --------------------- 1
V b a Ib V b'
a = 0 --------------------- 2 Vc b Ic V c'
c

 I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 1/3 Ia

2
I1 = 1/3 (I + Ib +  Ic) = 1/3 Ia

2
I2 = 1/3 (Ia +  Ib + Ic) = 1/3 Ia
 I1 = I2 = I0 = 1/3 Ia --------------------- 3

Page 31
 a = 1 + 2 + 0 = 0 -------------------- 4

From equations 3 and 4 it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected
in series.

I1
N1 +ve P1
Sequence 1
Network
Q1

I2
N2 -ve P2
Sequence
2
Network
Q2

I0
P0
N0 Zero
Sequence 0
Network
Q0

2. SIMULTANEOUS FAULTS

The range of faults we have considered so far involves only a single fault at one fault
location. Symmetrical components can be used to analyse two (or more) faults either in
the same location or at different locations in a system.

When deriving the sequence network interconnections for single faults, the sequence
currents and voltages are all sequence components of the reference phase, ‘a’ phase
being selected to be the reference phase. Since the sequence components of the other
two phases were not involved, the phase subscript ‘a’ was omitted without causing
confusion. In the derivation of sequence network connections for simultaneous faults,
especially when the faults are on different phases, sequence components of more than
one phase are employed. The omission of phase subscripts will cause confusion.
Therefore, the sequence components will be phase subscripted accordingly. It is
essential, however, to finally express the constraints of all faults with respect to the same
reference phase.

Page 32
 Another point to watch out for is that when connecting the sequence networks, it must
be ensured that no additional fault constraints that cannot be proved is introduced. This
is generally achieved by making direct connection at one fault location and employ 1/1
ratio transformer coupling at the other, if necessary (section 2.1). When the fault
constraints involve phase shifted sequence quantities, there will be a need for phase
shifting transformer coupling (section 2.2).

2.1 Two Earth Faults on Phase ‘A’ at Different Locations

F F'

a-e a' - e
N

At F, At F',

Ib = Ic = 0 ----------------- 1 Ib' = Ic' = 0 ----------------- 1

Va = 0 ----------------- 2 V a' = 0 ----------------- 2
 Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0  Ia1' = Ia2' = Ia0'
 Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0  Va1' + Va2' + Va0' = 0

F1 Ia1 Ia'1
F1'

Va1 V a'1
N1 N1'

F2 Ia2 Ia'2
F2'

Va2 V a'2
N2 N2'
Ia'0
F0 Ia0 F0'

Va0 V a'0
N0 N0'

WRONG INTERCONNECTIONS !

Connections --- are not correct because this would assume following constraints :

Va2 = Va2', Va1 = Va1', Va0 = Va0'

 Interposing 1/1 transformers must be used.

Page 33
 F1 Ia1 Ia'1
F1'

Va1 V a'1
N1 N1'

Ia2 Ia'2 Ia'2

F2 F2' 1/1

Va2 V a'2 V a'2

N2 N2'

F0 Ia0 Ia'0 Ia'0

F0' 1/1

Va0 Va'0 V a'0

N0 N0'

CORRECT INTERCONNECTIONS
USING 1/1 INTERPOSING TRANSFORMERS

2.2 Cross Country Faults

‘A’ Phase to Ground at F and ‘B’ Phase to Ground at F'

F F'

a-e b' - e

At F, At F',

Ib = Ic = 0 ----------------- 1 Ia' = Ic' = 0 ----------------- 1

Va = 0 ----------------- 2 V b' = 0 ----------------- 2
 Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0  Ib1' = Ib2' = Ib0'
 Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0
Convert to ‘a’ phase sequence currents.
2
 Ia1' = Ia2' = Ia0'
2
or Ia1' =  Ia2' = Ia0'
Vb1' + Vb2' + Vb0' = 0

Page 34
 Convert to ‘A’ phase sequence voltages.
2
 Va1' + Va2' + Va0' = 0
2
or Va1' +  Va2' + Va0' = 0

Since the fault constraints in volve phase shifted sequence quantities, the sequence
network connections require phase shifting transformers as shown below.

F1 Ia1 Ia'1
F1'

Va1 V a'1
N1 N1'

Ia2 Ia'2 2Ia'2

F2 F2' 1/ 2

Va2 V a'2  2V a'2

N2 N2'

Ia0 Ia'0 Ia'0

F0 F0' 1/

Va0 Va'0 Va'0

N0 N0'

2.3 Open Circuit and Line to Ground Fault on Phase ‘A’

P Q
Ia Va V a' Ia'
Va V b' Ib'
Ib Vb

Ic Vc Vb V c' Ic'
Ic+ Ib+ Ia+
Vc Ic' Ib' Ia'
P Q

a' - e

Page 35
(a) Open Circuit Fault

At fault point :

Ia = 0 ----------------- 1
b = c = 0 ----------------- 2

 Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0

 a1 = a2 = a0

(b) Line to Ground Fault

At fault point :

a ' = 0 ----------------- 3
Ib + Ib' = 0 ----------------- 4
Ic + Ic' = 0 ----------------- 5

From equation 3,

Va1' + Va2' + Va0' = 0

From equations 4 and 5, it can be shown as in section (5.1.1) that

(Ia1 + Ia1') = (Ia2 + Ia2') = (Ia0 + Ia0')

The sequence network interconnections are shown below

Ia1
Ia1 + Ia'1
P1 Q1
Ia1 Ia'1 Ia'1 1/1
Ia1 + Ia'1

a1 Ia'1
Ia'1
Va1 V a'1
V a'1 Ia'1

N1 Ia2
Ia2 + Ia'2
P2 Q2 Ia2 + Ia'2

Ia2 Ia'2 Ia'1 1/1 Ia'1

a2
Ia'1 Ia'V
1 a'2
Va2 V a'2

N2 Ia0

Ia0 + Ia'0
P0 Q0 Ia0 + Ia'0

Ia0 Ia'0 Ia'1 1/1 Ia'1

a0
Ia'1 Ia'V
1 a'0
Va0 V a'0

N0

Page 36