INTERNSHIP ASSIGNMENT REPORT

1.TRANSMISSION LINE:
A conductors designed to carry electricity or an electrical signal over large
distances with minimum losses and distortion.

 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINE:

The types of transmission lines are:

 Overhead Transmission Lines
 Sub Transmission Lines
 Underground Transmission Lines

 Overhead Transmission Lines:

Transmission lines can either be located overhead or underground.

Overhead transmission lines are bare conductors above the ground level, supported
by poles. The major parameter classifying overhead transmission lines is their
length.

Overhead Transmission Lines Based on Voltage:

 Short transmission lines:

In short transmission line, the length is within 50km and the voltage is limited to
less than 20 kV. In short transmission lines, the effect of line resistance and
inductance is more predominant than capacitance.
 Medium transmission lines:
These lines have an overhead cable length of greater than 50km and less
than 150km. The allowable voltage ranges from 20 to 100 kV.
  Long transmission lines:
Overhead transmission lines with lengths greater than 150km and voltages
above 100kV form long transmission lines.

 Underground Transmission Lines:

Underground transmission lines are insulated cables that are buried under
the ground inside vaults and trenches. Voltage levels and insulation classify
underground cables.
Unlike overhead cables, underground cables consist of one or more conductors
with insulation and protective covering over it. The basic construction of
underground transmission lines consists of parts such as the core or conductors,
insulation, metallic sheath, bedding, armoring, serving, etc.

The classification of underground cables is done in two ways:

1.Classifying based on the voltage for which the underground cables are

manufactured.

2.Classifying based on the insulation used in the cable’s construction.

 Sub Transmission Line:

Sub transmission Lines carry voltages that are typically between 26kV and
69kV to regional distribution substations, that is, to substations that
distribute power across a geographic region. Note that sub transmission lines
may be tapped to provide power for local industries and substations.

2. ISOLATOR:

An isolator is a device used for isolating a circuit or equipment from a

source of power. Isolators are also called disconnect switches which operate
under no-load conditions. They are not manufactured for any making or
 breaking current capacity. They don’t have an arc quenching system within
it. Its main use in the electrical system is to disconnect a particular part after
the current interruption from that particular part. They ensure there is no
current in the circuit until everything is in order. They are placed on each
side of the circuit breaker to provide isolation.

3.CIRCUIT BREAKER:
A circuit breaker is defined as a switching device that can be operated manually or
automatically for controlling and protecting an electric power system. It consists of
two main contacts: a fixed contact and a moving contact. The contacts are normally
closed and allow current to flow through the circuit.

How A Circuit Breaker Works (Working Principle):

At a high level, a circuit breaker operates as follows:
1.Detection of Fault:

The circuit breaker detects a fault condition, such as an overload or a short circuit
in the electrical system.
2.Activation of Mechanism:

Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker activates a mechanism that triggers the
release of stored potential energy.

3.Separation of Contacts:

This energy then separates the two main contacts of the circuit breaker: a fixed
contact and a moving contact.

4.Arc Formation:

The separation of contacts creates a highly conductive and ionized plasma known
as an arc.

5.Arc Quenching:
The circuit breaker uses various methods to extinguish or quench the arc, such as
cooling, compressing, or replacing the ionized medium with fresh gas. 6.Current
Interruption:

This process interrupts the flow of current, stopping any damage from the fault
condition.

7.Resetting:

Once the fault is cleared, the circuit breaker can be manually or automatically
reset, allowing the current to flow again.

8.Re-establishment of Contacts:

Resetting the breaker brings the fixed and moving contacts back together,
reestablishing the flow of current through the circuit.

4.High Voltage Circuit Breaker Types:

HV circuit breaker types are broadly classified based on the mechanism used to
extinguish the arc formed in the system after the moving contact moves away from
the fixed contact.
 • Air blast Circuit breaker
• Vacuum circuit breaker
• SF6 Circuit breaker
• Oil Circuit Breaker

Below are the various types of circuit breakers used in the Substations:
1.Air Blast Circuit Breaker:

ACB is an electronic switch that protects the circuit from a current overload with
the help of compressed air. The primary function of an air blast circuit breaker in a
substation is to disrupt the current in case an overload or a fault is detected. In
case of a fault, compressed air is released at high speed through a small nozzle to
intensify the effects of the air. In case of an overload, the arc emerges between the
moving and the fixed contact, Air blast circuit uses condensed air to disperse the
arc within the system.

2.Vacuum Circuit Breaker:

A breaker which used vacuum as an arc extinction medium is called a vacuum

circuit breaker. In this circuit breaker, the fixed and moving contact is enclosed in a
permanently sealed vacuum interrupter. The arc is extinct as the contacts are
separated in high vacuum. It is mainly used for medium voltage ranging from 11
KV to 33 KV.

3.SF6 circuit breaker:

SF6 circuit breaker uses Sulphur Hexafluoride gas under pressure to extinguish the
arc. It is used in medium voltage circuit breakers. SF6 gas is used due to its
efficient ability to quench the arc. SF6 has higher insulating properties than the
other systems.
It has a higher ability of recombination after extinguishing the arc.
The SF6 circuit breaker in the substation is widely used in the voltage range
between 33 kV and 800 kV. It can go beyond the voltage range of 800 kV. The
SF6 works similar to an air blast circuit system, the gas is compressed in a
highpressure reservoir. During the operation in case of an overload, the SF6 gas
present in highly compacted form is released through the arc. The gas passes from
the highpressure reservoir to the low-pressure reservoir. It is then pumped back to
the highpressure chamber to be utilized again till the arc is blown out.

4.Oil Circuit Breaker:

Oil circuit breaker uses oil in the blowout of the arc. In this circuit breaker,
mineral oil is used. It has better insulating properties than the air blast circuit.
The oil breaker is the oldest type of technology. In the oil circuit breaker, the fixed
contact and the moving contact are both immersed in the oil. During an overload,
the contacts that carry current separate from each other, which leads to the
generation of arc in the oil.
As the arc is initiated in the oil, this leads to vaporization of the oil and the oil
breaks down into hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas leads to the formation of a
bubble around the arc. The compressed hydrogen gas in the bubble form averts the
arc to form and strike again.
5.What is a Power Transformer?

A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The

transmission current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply
voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer
works on the basic principles of mutual induction.
Parts of a transformer:
1. Winding
2. Insulation
3. Tank
4. Terminals and bushings
5. Transformer oil
6. Oil Conservator
7. Breather
8. Radiators and fans
10.Explosion vent
11.Tap Changers
12.Buchholz relay

1. Winding
The transformer carries two sets of winding per phase – Primary winding and
secondary winding. These winding consists of several turns of copper or aluminum
conductors, insulated from each other and the transformer core. The type and
arrangement of winding used for transformers depend upon the current rating, short
circuit strength, temperature rise, impedance, and surge voltages.

2. Insulation
Insulation is the most important part of transformers. Insulation failures can cause
the most severe damage to transformers. Insulation is required between the
windings and the core, between windings, between each turn of the winding, and
between all current-carrying parts and the tank. The insulators should have high
dielectric strength, good mechanical properties, and high-temperature withstand
ability. Synthetic materials, paper, cotton, etc. are used as insulation in
transformers.

3. Tank
The main tank is a part of a transformer that serves two purposes:

1. Protects the core and the windings from the external environment.
2. Serves as a container for oil and support for all other transformer
accessories.
Tank bodies are made by fabricating rolled steel plates into containers. They are
provided with lifting hooks and cooling tubes. In order to reduce weight and stray
losses, aluminum sheets are also used instead of steel plates. However, aluminum
tanks are costlier than steel ones.

4.Terminal and bushings

For connecting incoming and outgoing cables, terminals are present in
transformers. They are mounted upon the bushings and connected to the windings’
ends.

Bushings are insulators that form a barrier between the terminals and the tank.
They are mounted over the transformer tanks. They are a safe passage for the
conductors connecting terminals to the windings. They are made from porcelain or
epoxy resins. 5.Core
The core provides a low reluctance path for electromagnetic flux and supports
the primary and secondary windings. It is made by stacking thin sheets of high-
grade grain-oriented steel which are separated by thin insulating material. There
are two types of core constructions: core type and shell type. In shell-type
construction, the windings are surrounded by the core.

6. Transformer oil
In all oil-immersed transformers, transformer oil provides added insulation
between the conducting parts, better heat dissipation, and fault detection features.
Hydrocarbon mineral oil is used as transformer oil. It is composed of aromatics,
paraffin, and olefins. Transformer oil has a flashpoint of 310 degrees Celsius, a
relative permeability of 2.7, and a density of 0.96 kg/cm3.

7. Oil Conservators
The oil conservator is moved on top of the transformers and is located well above
the tank and bushings. Normally a rubber bladder is present in some oil
conservators. The transformer oil expands and contracts with an increase and
decrease in temperature. The oil conservator provides adequate space for oil
expansion. It is connected to the main tank through a pipe. A level indicator is
fitted to the conservator to indicate the oil level inside.
8. Breather
Breather is present in all oil-immersed transformers that have a conservator tank. It
is necessary to keep the oil-free from moisture. As the temperature variations cause
the transformer oil to expand and contact, air flows in and out of the conservator
tank. This air should be free from moisture. Breather serves this purpose . A
breather is attached to the end of the air pipe such that the air enters and exits the
conservator through it. The silica gel present in the breathers removes moisture
from the air and delivers moisture-free air to the conservator.

9. Radiators and fans

The power lost in the transformer is dissipated in the form of heat. Dry
transformers are mostly natural air-cooled. But when it comes to oil-immersed
transformers, a variety of cooling methods are followed. Depending on the kVA
rating, power losses, and level of cooling requirements, radiators and cooling fans
are mounted on the transformer tank. The heat generated in the core and winding is
passed to the surrounding transformer oil. This heat is dissipated at the radiator. In
larger transformers forced cooling is achieved with the help of cooling fans fitted
to the radiators.

10. Explosion vent

An explosion vent acts as an emergency exit for oil and air gases inside a
transformer. It is a metallic pipe with a diaphragm at one end, held slightly above
the conservator tank. Faults occurring under oil elevate the pressure inside the tank
to dangerous levels. Under such circumstances, the diaphragm ruptures at a
relatively low pressure to release the forces from within the transformer to the
atmosphere.

11. Tap changers

Tap changers are used to adjust the secondary voltage of transformers. They are
designed to change the turn ratio of the transformer as required. There are two
types of tap changers: On-load tap changers and Off-load tap changers. Off-load
tap changers are designed to operate only when the transformer is not supplying
any loads whereas on-load tap changers are capable of operating without
interrupting the current flow to the load. Automatic tap changers are also available.
12. Buchholz relay
Buchholz relay is one of the most important parts of oil-immersed transformers
rated over 500kVA. It is an oil and gas actuated relay that is used to sense faults
occurring in the parts immersed in the oil. Short circuits occurring under the
transformer oil generate enough heat to decompose the oil into hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, methane, etc. These gases gradually move toward the conservator tank
through the connecting pipe. Buchholz relay, which is mounted on the pipe
connecting the conservator tank and the main tank, senses these gases and activates
the trip and alarm circuits. The trip circuit opens the circuit breaker supplying
current to the primary winding and interrupts the current flow.

6.Lightning Arrester
The device which is used for the protection of the equipment at the substations
against travelling waves, such type of device is called lightning arrester or surge
diverter. In other words, lightning arrester diverts the abnormal high voltage to the
ground without affecting the continuity of supply. It is connected between the line
and earth, i.e., in parallel with the equipment to be protected at the substation.
7.Capacitor bank
A capacitor bank is a system consisting of several capacitors connected in series or
parallel to form an energy storage system. This system helps in correcting the
power factor lag and phase shift in an AC power supply, thus increasing the
efficiency of electrical energy transfer. Capacitor banks are used to help regulate
power factor in electrical systems and can be installed parallel to a load to reduce
the amount of reactive power flowing through lines. This improves the power
factor by reducing the phase difference between voltage and current.

8.Earthing

Earthing is defined as “the process in which the instantaneous discharge of the

electrical energy takes place by transferring charges directly to the earth through
low resistance wire.”

To ensure safety, earthing can be done by connecting the electrical appliance to

earthing systems or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level.

The electrode or earthing mat equipped with a flat iron riser is installed under the
ground level. It helps to connect all the non-current-carrying metallic parts of the
equipment. It is carried out by connecting the neutral or non-current carrying part
of the equipment to the ground.

It is carried out by connecting the neutral or non-current carrying part of the

equipment to the ground.
9.Protective Relay
A protective relay is a switchgear device that detects the fault and
initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
element from the rest of the system.

• Distance relay:
Distance relays are the most important distance protection elements, which depend
on the distance of the source/feeder point and the point where the fault occurs. The
principle of these relays differs from one form of protection to others because its
performance depends on the ratio of voltage and current. These are said to be
double actuator relays because one coil is energized by voltage and the other coil is
energized by the current. This type of relays are most widely used where there is a
need for fault protection, backup protection in transmission and distribution lines at
high speeds, and also when the overcurrent relaying is very slow.

• Over current relay:

An overcurrent monitoring relay, as its name directly implies, is a device that
monitor’s the current flowing through a conductor or device, and reacts if the
current exceeds a predetermined threshold. Overcurrent relays are used in many
different applications and systems in order to help protect against electrical faults.
The electrical faults include short circuits and overloading. Overcurrent relays can
provide protection against all of these faults by detecting when the current exceeds
a safe level and then either automatically disconnect the circuit or sending a signal
to another device that will take action to protect the circuit.

• Earth fault Relay:

The earth-fault unit continuously measures the neutral current of the protected
object. On detection of a fault, the relay starts, trips the circuit breaker, provides
alarms and records fault data in accordance with the application and the relay
functions configured.

• Differential Relay:
This differential relay works whenever there is a fault in the protected region then
there will be a variation in the entering & leaving current of that region. So by
comparing these currents either in phase or magnitude or in both, we can detect the
fault within the protected region.
• Reverse power Relay:
A reverse power relay is a relay that prevents power from flowing in the reverse
direction. Normally, it is used when a generator runs in parallel with another
generator in order to prevent the power from the bus bar or another generator from
flowing back to the active generator when its output fails.

 Master Trip Relay:

The master trip relay can operate as a hub of multiple protection relays trip
commands and drive multiple subsequent contacts. This makes the relay a
protagonist to execute simultaneous commands like breaker trips, interlocks,
alarms, data display, SCADA extensions, and lockouts. It also provides the
isolation between the protective relays and the breaker tripping coil. It also not
monitor any electrical parameter like other over current relay or earth fault relay
does.

10. CONCLUSION
Now from this report one can conclude that electricity plays an important role in
our life. That’s why various protective measures are taken to protect the substations
from various faults and its smooth functioning. At the end of the training, I came to
know about the various parts of substations and how they are operated.