Culture

Culture is often described as the customs, traditions, and way of life of a particular group of
people at a specific time. It also refers to intellectual and artistic achievements. Over time,
many scholars and philosophers have tried to define culture in different ways. In the 1950s,
A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn gathered over a hundred definitions of culture, showing
its broad and complex nature.

In ancient Vedic tradition, culture is called 'sanskriti,' a word derived from 'sanskara,' which
means refinement or purification. Sanskriti represents a system that enhances human existence
by teaching people how to live in harmony with others, practice kindness, and cultivate good
values. It aims to elevate individuals towards enlightenment and refine their skills and talents.

Pritibhushan Chatterji, in his book Knowledge, Culture, and Man, described culture as
something that has been cultivated and refined over time. This idea closely aligns with the
ancient Indian perspective of culture. In the Western world, one of the earliest definitions of
culture was given by anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor, who described it as a complex
system of knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and other habits acquired by humans
as members of society. Another anthropologist, William A. Haviland, defined culture as a set
of rules that shape behavior within a society.

India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, viewed culture as the foundation of both
physical and mental growth. Cultural historian Raymond Williams described culture as a way
of life and a structure of emotions. Roop Rekha Verma, in her book Culture and Modernity,
defined culture as a system of expectations, expressions, values, institutions, and habits.
Philosopher Sri Rajgopalacharya saw culture as the collective expression of thoughts, words,
and actions of a society's learned and creative individuals.

Culture is not just about visible behaviours but also about the values and ideas that shape those
behaviours. Since different people have different perspectives on culture, it is difficult to
provide a single definition that captures its full meaning. Culture includes the traditions,
customs, goals, and ethics of a society, making it both deeply rooted in history and constantly
evolving. It influences how people live, interact, and progress towards a more enlightened and
civilized life. The cultural values of a nation play a key role in its growth and strength, making
them an important asset.

Haviland identified four basic characteristics of culture. First, it is shared by a group of people
who form a society. Culture serves as a way for people to identify themselves and differentiate
from others. It is not something inherited at birth but learned through socialization. Culture
shapes how people understand themselves and others.

In cities, different cultures often mix due to urbanization. When people from different
backgrounds interact in an urban setting, they create a neutral space where no single culture
dominates. Sociologist George Simmel suggested that modern urban culture is defined by both
difference and indifference, as people coexist while maintaining their unique identities.

Culture is often represented through symbols such as images, rituals, texts, and objects. These
symbols help in the transmission of cultural values, but they are not the culture itself. They
gain meaning only when people use them in specific ways. A color, a gesture, or an object can
become a cultural sign based on how it is perceived and used within a community.

Culture plays a crucial role in shaping identity, helping people navigate challenges and
providing a sense of belonging. In times of rapid economic and political change, culture
remains a stabilizing force. Karl Marx pointed out that capitalism tends to dissolve traditions,
but culture helps people maintain their sense of self despite these shifts. Sometimes, cultural
values clash with economic goals, as some believe that economic growth should serve culture
rather than the other way around.

Culture is not the result of one individual’s actions or a single event; it develops gradually over
generations. It records human experiences, ideas, and achievements in all fields, including
science, politics, art, and spirituality. Culture is the backbone of any society, influencing
traditions, festivals, clothing, food, and more. If cultural values are disrupted, the structure of
a society can change significantly.
Civilization and culture are closely connected. Civilization is the outward expression of culture,
while culture is the foundation of civilization. People and culture depend on each other for
survival and progress. Culture expresses, informs, and socializes individuals, making it
essential for personal and societal growth.

Some view culture as a reflection of deeper spiritual forces, shaping thoughts and interactions.
Everyone’s life is influenced by the culture they are born into. Without culture, life would lack
direction and meaning. While culture varies across regions, communities, and time periods,
those based on universal values tend to last longer. On the other hand, cultures driven by greed
or rigid ideologies often fail to endure.

A rigid, unchanging culture risks becoming irrelevant. True culture is like a flowing river—
adapting, evolving, and incorporating new elements while maintaining its essence. Throughout
history, cultures that embraced new ideas and blended them into a harmonious whole have
thrived. The secret of their longevity lies in their openness to growth and adaptation. In this
way, culture continues to shape societies, influencing their present and future, while preserving
the wisdom of the past.

Types of Culture

The term "culture" is widely used in various contexts, sometimes to the extent that its
fundamental meaning seems to be diluted. We encounter different types of culture in everyday
life. For example:

 Corporate culture refers to the fast-paced, deal-making world of business and

commerce.
 Competitive culture is prevalent in educational institutions, motivating students to
excel.
 Consumerist culture highlights status and purchasing power, often associated with
material satisfaction.
 Emerging culture reflects the evolving attitudes and behavioral patterns of specific
social groups.

Broadly, culture can be categorized into four main types:

1. High Culture
2. Low Culture
3. Popular Culture
 4. Folk Culture

High Culture

The concept of high culture was introduced into English by Victorian poet and critic Matthew
Arnold in his 1869 work Culture and Anarchy. He saw high culture as a force for moral and
political betterment, defining it as "knowing the best that has been said and thought in the
world" and calling it the "study of perfection."

Poet T.S. Eliot, in Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (1948), argued that both high and
popular culture were essential for a well-rounded cultural landscape. High culture is primarily
associated with the appreciation of fine arts, including literature, classical music, performing
arts, and visual arts. It typically flourished in eras when artists had the patronage of wealthy,
sophisticated patrons, allowing them to create art free from financial constraints.

The Western notion of high culture has its roots in the Graeco-Roman period, extending
through the Renaissance. However, similar cultural traditions existed in other civilizations,
such as Egypt, India, Byzantium, Persia, China, and Rome. High culture encompasses
works by renowned artists, classical music compositions, and literary masterpieces that have
been established as cultural canons.

Despite criticism of its elitist nature, efforts have been made to make high culture more
accessible to the general public through exhibitions, concerts, and government funding for
museums, libraries, and performing arts groups. Academic disciplines such as Cultural
Studies, Media Studies, Critical Theory, Sociology, Marxist Thought, and
Postmodernism explore the relationship between high and popular culture from different
perspectives.

In political theory, Ernest Gellner viewed high culture as an essential component of national
identity, defining it as a literate, codified culture that enables context-free communication.
Sociologists often associate high culture with refined tastes, including etiquette, appreciation
of fine food and wine, and social norms exclusive to the upper class.

Low Culture

Low culture is a disparaging term used to describe certain forms of popular culture, often
seen as the opposite of high culture. Some theorists argue that both high and low cultures are
subcultures, and in the postmodern era.
Popular Culture and Folk Culture

Introduction

Culture is a dynamic and complex system of beliefs, customs, and practices that shape human
societies. Within cultural studies, the concepts of Popular Culture and Folk Culture are often
contrasted to highlight the differences between mass-produced, widely consumed cultural
expressions and traditional, community-based practices.

Folk Culture

Folk Culture refers to the traditions, customs, and artistic expressions that originate within a
specific community, often passed down through generations. It is typically rural, localized, and
deeply rooted in tradition. Folk culture is informally transmitted through oral traditions,
storytelling, songs, rituals, crafts, and local festivals.

Characteristics of Folk Culture:

 Traditional and Heritage-Based – Folk culture is often tied to historical customs and
community heritage.
 Localized and Small-Scale – It exists within a specific geographic region and is shared
by a particular group of people.
 Oral Transmission – Folk culture is passed down informally through word of mouth,
rituals, and direct participation.
 Resistant to Change – It tends to remain stable over time, although modern influences
may modify certain aspects.
 Handmade and Non-Commercialized – Folk arts, crafts, music, and dance are often
produced by individuals rather than corporations.

Examples of Folk Culture:

 Traditional folk songs, ballads, and storytelling.

 Handicrafts such as pottery, weaving, and embroidery.
 Folk festivals, rituals, and communal celebrations (e.g., harvest festivals).
 Traditional food recipes passed down in families.
 Rural architecture (e.g., indigenous housing structures).

Popular Culture
Popular Culture (Pop Culture) is the set of ideas, trends, beliefs, and practices that dominate
mainstream society, typically influenced by mass media, technology, and globalization. Unlike
folk culture, pop culture is dynamic, fast-changing, and widely accessible, appealing to broad
audiences rather than specific cultural groups.

Characteristics of Popular Culture:

 Mass-Produced and Commercialized – Often driven by media industries, corporations,

and marketing.
 Urban and Globalized – Popular culture spreads across regions and is not confined to
specific locations.
 Trendy and Dynamic – Constantly evolving based on consumer demand and media
influence.
 Mediated and Digitized – Disseminated through television, movies, social media, music
streaming, and digital platforms.
 Accessible to All Social Classes – Unlike elite or folk culture, pop culture is often
inclusive and widely available.

Examples of Popular Culture:

Music genres like pop, hip-hop, K-pop, and rock.

Mainstream movies, television shows, and viral social media trends.

Fashion brands and global style trends.

Fast food chains and modern culinary fusions.

Video games, online streaming platforms, and digital entertainment.

Intersections and Influences

While folk culture and popular culture are often seen as separate, they frequently interact and
influence each other. For example:

 Folk Music and Pop Music Fusion – Traditional folk songs are sometimes adapted into
pop music (e.g., Bob Dylan incorporating folk elements into modern songs).
 Handicrafts in Fashion – Luxury brands and streetwear often borrow patterns and
motifs from indigenous folk cultures.
  Folk Stories in Media – Folklore and myths inspire modern films, books, and video
games.

References:

1. Chatterji, Pritibhushan. "Language, Culture and Man In Knowledge," in Culture

and Value, edited by Pandeya R. C. and Bhatt, S. R. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1976.
2. Simmel, George. "The Metropolis and Mental Life," in The Sociology of George
Simmel. New York: Free Press, 1950.
3. Haviland, William A. Cultural Anthropology. 6th edition. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1990.
4. Marx, Karl. The Revolutions of 1848. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973.
5. Arnold, Matthew. Culture and Anarchy: Selected Prose. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1987.
6. Williams, Raymond. The Long Revolution. London: Hogarth Press, 1992.
7. Tylor, Edward B. Primitive Culture. London: Estes & Lauriat, 1874.
8. Verma, Roop Rekha. "The Concept of Progress and Cultural Identity," in Culture
and Modernity, edited by Eliot Deutsch. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., 1994.
9. Turner, Graeme. British Cultural Studies: An Introduction. New York: Routledge,
1996.
10. Debord, Guy. The Society of the Spectacle. New York: Zone Books, 1994.
11. Lefebvre, Henri. Critique of Everyday Life. London: Verso, 1991.
12. Lefebvre, Henri. Introduction to Modernity: 12 Preludes. London: Verso, 1995.
13. Berman, Marshall. All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity.
London: Verso, 1982.
14. de Certeau, Michel. The Practice of Everyday Life. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1988.