First-order logic (FOL)

Propositional logic, while powerful and widely used, does have some drawbacks:
1. Limited Expressiveness: Propositional logic deals only with propositions (statements
that are either true or false) and does not capture the complexity of relationships between
objects or concepts. It lacks the ability to represent quantifiers like "for all" (∀) and
"there exists" (∃), which are essential in predicate logic.
2. Inability to Handle Ambiguity: Propositional logic cannot handle ambiguous statements
effectively. Ambiguity arises when a statement can be interpreted in multiple ways, and
propositional logic lacks the capacity to resolve such ambiguity.
3. Explosion of Complexity: In certain cases, especially when dealing with a large number
of variables or propositions, the number of possible combinations grows exponentially,
leading to what is known as the "combinatorial explosion." This explosion makes
reasoning and computation in propositional logic impractical for complex systems.
4. No Representation of Relationships: Propositional logic treats propositions as atomic
units and does not provide a way to represent relationships between propositions. For
example, it cannot express the concept of implication within a single proposition.
5. No Handling of Uncertainty or Probability: Propositional logic is deterministic,
meaning it assumes propositions are either true or false with no uncertainty. It lacks the
ability to model probabilistic relationships, which are crucial in many real-world
scenarios.
6. Limited Scope in Real-world Applications: While propositional logic is useful for
representing simple relationships in domains like computer science and mathematics, it
often falls short in modeling the complexities of real-world scenarios where uncertainty,
ambiguity, and relationships are prevalent.

First-order logic (FOL), also known as predicate logic, offers several advantages over
propositional logic:

structures by introducing variables, quantifiers (such as ∀ for "for all" and ∃ for "there
1. Expressiveness: FOL allows for the representation of complex relationships and

exists"), and predicates. This expressiveness enables FOL to capture the richness of
natural language and real-world scenarios more effectively than propositional logic.
2. Quantification: FOL includes quantifiers, which allow statements to be made about
entire classes of objects or individuals, not just specific instances. This feature enables
FOL to reason about general properties and make universal statements, whereas
propositional logic can only make assertions about specific propositions.
 3. Predicates and Functions: FOL allows the use of predicates to express relationships
between objects and functions to represent operations or transformations. This capability
makes FOL suitable for modeling a wide range of domains, including mathematics,
linguistics, and artificial intelligence.
4. Modularity and Reusability: FOL facilitates the modular representation of knowledge
by allowing the definition of reusable predicates and functions. This modularity enhances
the clarity and maintainability of logical systems, as well as the ability to reuse
components across different contexts.
5. Ability to Capture Complex Relationships: FOL can express complex relationships
between objects, including hierarchical structures, temporal relationships, and
dependencies. This capability enables FOL to represent and reason about real-world
phenomena more accurately and comprehensively than propositional logic.
6. Resolution of Ambiguity: FOL provides mechanisms for disambiguating statements
through the use of variables and quantifiers. Unlike propositional logic, which struggles
with ambiguity, FOL can handle more nuanced and context-dependent interpretations of
statements.
7. Soundness and Completeness: FOL has well-defined semantics and inference rules that
ensure soundness (correctness) and completeness (ability to derive all valid conclusions)
of reasoning processes. This property makes FOL a reliable framework for formalizing
and reasoning about knowledge.
Overall, first-order logic offers a significant advancement over propositional logic in terms of
expressiveness, representational power, and reasoning capabilities, making it a foundational tool
in various fields such as mathematics, computer science, philosophy, and linguistics.
ELEMENTS OF FIRST ORDER LOGIC
First-order logic (FOL), also known as predicate logic, consists of several fundamental elements:
1. Variables: Variables in FOL represent placeholders for objects or individuals in the

and can be quantified over using quantifiers like ∀ (for all) and ∃ (there exists).
domain of discourse. They are typically denoted by lowercase letters such as x, y, z, etc.,

2. Constants: Constants are specific objects or individuals in the domain of discourse. They
are represented by symbols and typically denoted by lowercase or uppercase letters like
a, b, c, etc. Unlike variables, constants do not vary and represent fixed elements.
3. Predicates: Predicates in FOL represent properties or relations that can be true or false of
objects in the domain. They are denoted by uppercase letters followed by a list of
variables or constants enclosed in parentheses. For example P(x), Q(x,y), , R(a,b,c)
are predicates.

4. Functions: Functions in FOL represent operations or transformations that produce an

output value based on input values. They are denoted by lowercase or uppercase letters
 followed by a list of variables or constants enclosed in parentheses. For example, f(x),
g(x,y), , h(a,b,c) are functions.
5. Connectives: FOL includes logical connectives that allow the construction of compound
formulas from simpler ones. The main connectives in FOL are:
 Conjunction (∧): Represents logical AND.
 Disjunction (∨): Represents logical OR.
 Negation (¬): Represents logical NOT.
 Implication (→): Represents logical implication.
 Biconditional (↔): Represents logical equivalence.
6. Quantifiers: FOL includes quantifiers that specify the scope of variables and predicates.
The main quantifiers in FOL are:
 Universal quantifier (∀): Represents "for all" or "for every".
 Existential quantifier (∃): Represents "there exists" or "there is".
7. Equality: FOL includes an equality symbol (=) to express that two terms are equal. It is
used to assert that two objects or expressions refer to the same thing.
8. Brackets and Parentheses: FOL uses brackets and parentheses to indicate the scope and
grouping of subformulas within larger formulas. They are used to disambiguate the order
of operations and clarify the structure of complex formulas.
These elements form the basic building blocks of first-order logic, which provides a rich and
expressive framework for representing and reasoning about relationships, properties, and
structures within a given domain of discourse.
Example:
1. In first-order logic (FOL), the statement "All birds fly" can be expressed using
quantifiers, predicates, and variables. Here's how you can represent it:
All birds fly.
In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."

∀x bird(x) →fly(x).
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.

In another way,
Let's define:
 B(x) represents the predicate "x is a bird."
 F(x) represents the predicate "x can fly."
Using quantifiers:
 ∀x denotes "for all x" or "for every x," indicating that the statement applies to all
individuals.
 → denotes implication, indicating "if...then" relationship.
So, the statement "All birds fly" can be expressed as: ∀x (B(x)→F(x))
This statement reads as: "For every x, if x is a bird (B(x)), then x can fly (F(x))."

2. Every man respects his parent.

every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent. Since there is

∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

Or
To express the statement "Every man respects his parent" in first-order logic (FOL), we can use
predicates, quantifiers, and variables. Here's how we can represent it:
Let's define:
 M(x) represents the predicate "x is a man."
 R(x,y) represents the predicate "x respects y."
 P(x) represents the predicate "x is a parent of someone."
Using quantifiers:
 ∀x denotes "for all x" or "for every x," indicating that the statement applies to all
individuals.

∀x (M(x)→∃y (P(y)∧R(x,y)))
So, the statement "Every man respects his parent" can be expressed as:

This statement reads as: "For every x, if x is a man (M(x)), then there exists a y such that y is a
parent (P(y)) and x respects y (R(x, y))."
3. Some boys play cricket.

boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:

In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since there are some

∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

Or
To express the statement "Some boys play cricket" in first-order logic (FOL), we can use
predicates, quantifiers, and variables. Here's how we can represent it:
Let's define:
 B(x) represents the predicate "x is a boy."
 P(x) represents the predicate "x plays cricket."
Using quantifiers:
 ∃x denotes "there exists an x," indicating that the statement applies to at least one
individual.
So, the statement "Some boys play cricket" can be expressed as: ∃x (B(x)∧P(x))
This statement reads as: "There exists an x such that x is a boy (B(x)) and x plays cricket (P(x))."
4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following representation for
In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.

¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

this:

Or
To express the statement "Not all students like both Mathematics and Science" in first-order
logic (FOL), we can use predicates, quantifiers, and logical operators. Here's how we can
represent it:
Let's define:
 S(x) represents the predicate "x is a student."
 L(x,y) represents the predicate "x likes y," where y is a subject.
Using quantifiers:
 ¬¬ denotes negation, indicating "not."
So, the statement "Not all students like both Mathematics and Science" can be expressed as:
¬∀x (S(x)→(L(x,Mathematics)∧L(x,Science)))
This statement reads as: "It is not the case that for every x, if x is a student (S(x)), then x likes
Mathematics and x likes Science."
5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.
In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following

∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y) →

representation for this:

¬failed (x, Mathematics)].

Or
To express the statement "Only one student failed in Mathematics" in first-order logic (FOL), we
can use predicates, quantifiers, and logical operators. Here's how we can represent it:
Let's define:
 S(x) represents the predicate "x is a student."
 F(x) represents the predicate "x failed in Mathematics."
Using quantifiers:
 ∃!∃! denotes "there exists a unique x," indicating that the statement applies to exactly
one individual.
So, the statement "Only one student failed in Mathematics" can be expressed as: ∃!x (S(x)∧F(x))
This statement reads as: "There exists a unique x such that x is a student (S(x)) and x failed in
Mathematics (F(x))."
CFG specification of the syntax of FOPC representations: