Water Logging and Drainage

Waterlogging is the excessive accumulation of water in the soil, leading to oxygen

deprivation in the root zone. This condition occurs when the soil's drainage
capacity is overwhelmed, preventing the soil from draining efficiently. Common
causes of waterlogging include heavy rainfall, poor soil structure, inadequate
drainage systems, and over-irrigation.
When waterlogged, the soil becomes saturated, displacing the air that is essential
for plant root growth. This oxygen deficiency hinders root respiration, nutrient
uptake, and overall plant health. Consequently, waterlogging can lead to reduced
crop yields, stunted growth, and even plant death.
In simpler terms, waterlogging is the process of soil becoming waterlogged or
clogged due to excess water. This excessive water hinders the soil's ability to
absorb water and oxygen, creating an environment unfavourable for plant
growth.
 1. Effects of water logging

A. Effects on soil and crop

(a) Salinization of soil: Due to water logging, the dissolved salts like sodium
carbonate, sodium chloride come to the surface of the soil. When the water
evaporates from the surface, the salts gets deposited. This process is called
Salinization of soil. But excessive concentration of salt make the land alkaline
which will reduce the yield of crop.
(b) Lack of Aeration: Due to presence of excess water, soil pores within the root
zone of plants are saturated to cut off the normal circulation of air. The
capacity of soil bacteria is affected resulting in retardation in the formation of
organic acids to dissolve plant food materials.
(c) Growth of weeds and aquatic plants: Due to excess water, the land is
converted to marshy land and weeds and aquatic plants are grown which will
consume soil foods in advance so crops will destroyed.
(d) Diseases of crops: Due to low temperature and poor aeration, the crop gets
some diseases which may destroy the crop.
(e) Difficulty in cultivation: In water logged area it is very difficult to carry out
normal cultivation.
(f) Loss of cash crops: Cash crops desired to be grown in the land cannot be
cultivated. High sub soil restricts the use of land to crop like paddy.
B. Effects on environment
Water logging impairs (i.e. Weaken or damage) sanitary conditions, promotes
malaria and there by result in unhealthy environment for human population,
animals and plants in the area.

2. Causes of water logging

Water-logging is the rise of water table, which may occur due to the following
factors:
(a) Over and Intensive Irrigation. Maximum irrigation over small area is called
intensive irrigation. When the policy of intensive irrigation is adopted, then
maximum irrigable area of a small region is irrigated. This leads to too much
of irrigation, in that region, resulting in heavy percolation and subsequent rise
of water table. For this reason, to avoid water-logging, a policy of extensive
 irrigation (i.e. irrigation spread over wider regions) should supersede the policy
of intensive irrigation.
(b) Seepage of water from the adjoining high lands. Water from the adjoining
high lands may seep into the sub-soil of the affected land and may raise the
water table.
(c) Seepage of water through the canals. Water may seep through the beds and
sides of the adjoining canals, reservoirs, etc., situated at a higher level to lower
level land as a result water table of affected area increases. When soil at the
site of canals, reservoirs, etc. is very pervious, this seepage is excessive.
(d) Excessive rains. Excessive rainfall may create temporary water logging and in
the absence of good drainage, it may lead to continue water logging.
(e) Impervious obstruction. Water seeping below the soil moves horizontally
(i.e. laterally) but may find an impervious obstruction, causing the rise of water
table on the upstream side of the obstruction. Similarly, an impervious stratum
may occur below the top layers of pervious soils. In such cases, water seeping
through the pervious soils will not be able to go deep, and hence, quickly
resulting in high water table.
(f) Inadequate natural drainage. Soils having less permeable sub-stratum (such
as clay) below the top layers of pervious soils, will not be able to drain the
water deep into the ground and hence, resulting in high water level in the
affected soil.
(g) Inadequate surface drainage. Storm water falling over the land and the
excess irrigation water should be removed and should not be allowed to
percolate below. If proper drainage is not provided, the water will constantly
percolate and will raise the level of the underground reservoir.
(h) Submergence due to floods. If a land continuously remains submerged by
floods, water loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. may grow, which obstruct
the natural surface drainage of the soil thus, increasing the chances of water
logging.
(i) Irregular or Flat Topography. In steep terrain, the water is drained out quickly.
On flat or irregular terrain having depressions, etc., the drainage is very poor. All
these factors lead to greater detention of water on the land, causing more
percolation and raised water table.
3. Preventing measures of water logging
Water-logging can be controlled only if the quantity of water into the soil below is
checked and reduced. To achieve this, the inflow of water into the underground
reservoir should be reduced and outflow from this reservoir should be increased, as
to keep the highest position of water-table at least about 3m below the ground
surface. The various measures adopted for controlling water logging are
enumerated below:
(a) Adopting crop rotation: Certain crops require more water and others require
less water. If a field is always sown with a crop requiring more water, the
chances of water-logging are more. In order to avoid this, a high water
requiring crop should be followed by one requiring less water, and then by one
requiring almost no water. Example: Rice may be followed by wheat, and
wheat may be followed by a dry crop such as cotton.
(b) Lining of ccanals and water courses: To reduce the seepage of water through
bed and sides of canals passing through pervious soils, canals should be lined
with impervious materials.
(c) Reducing the intensity of irrigation: Intensity of irrigation should be reduced
in areas where there is a possibility of water logging. Only a small portion of
irrigable land should receive canal water in one particular season. The
remaining areas can receive water in the next season, by rotation.
(d) By optimum use of water: Farmers should be educated and trained in using
just the required quantity of water, which will give optimum yield.
(e) By providing intercepting drains: Intercepting drains along the canals should
be constructed in the banks of canal, to collect water seeping through the sides
of canal.
(f) By Improving the natural drainage of the area: The storm water and excess
irrigation water should be effectively drained off to reduce their percolation
into the ground water reservoir. This can be achieved by improving the natural
drainage of the area by measures like cleaning the obstruction in path of flow,
desilting, etc.
(g) Provision of artificial drainage system: An efficient drainage system in the
form of surface drains shall be provided to drain off storm water and excess
irrigation water.
(h) Introducing lift irrigation: Lift irrigation should be introduced in the place of
canal irrigation, in places where there is a possibility of water logging. The
introduction of lift irrigation to utilize ground water helps in lowering the
water-table in a canal irrigated area, where water-table tends to go up.
Drainage
Drainage: Process of removing and controlling excess water either on the surface
soil or in the root zone beneath the soil is called drainage.
Needs of drainage
Optimum amount of water should be supplied to the crop; in accordance with the
requirement of that crop, and the properties of the soil. Excess water, which the
root zone of the soil fails to absorb, may percolate and help in raising the water
table. Sometimes, this water encounters an impervious layer and may not be
drained up to the water table. As explained earlier in Water-logging ,this excess
water is not only a waste but may be harmful to crop yield also such conditions are
likely to occur, it becomes necessary that the excess water is removed and drained
out from below the soil and discharged back either into a river, a canal, .etc. or
somewhere else. Hence, while designing a canal irrigation network, it is sometimes
desirable to provide a suitable drainage system, for removing the excess irrigation
later. Drainage system is also required for draining out the storm water, and thus to
prevent its percolation and to ensure easy disposal.
Two types of drainage can be provided, i.e.
(a) Surface drainage and
(b) Sub-surface drainage

Importance of drainage
The introduction of drainage system in an area has the following advantages:
(a) Adequate drainage improves soil structure and increases and helps the
productivity of soil.
(b) Waterlogged saline and alkaline loads can be reclaimed (Reclamation means
process by which an uncultivable lands made fit for cultivation)
(c) Adequate drainage leads to early ploughing (done before sowing) and planting.
(d) Drainage of the area lengthens crop growing seasons.
(e) Drainage reduces water table in an area and thereby:
(i) Provides more available plant food by increasing depth of root zone soil.
(ii) Increases soil ventilation
(iii) Favors growth of soil bacteria
(iv) Assures high soil temperature
(f) Drainage decreases soil erosion.
Types of Drainage (Surface and Sub-Surface Drainage)
Two types of drainage can be provided, i.e.
(a) Surface drainage and
(2) Sub-surface drainage
Surface drainage is also called open drainage system while sub-
surface drainage is also called as tile drainage and underground
drainage.
Surface drainage system
Surface drainage is the removal of excess rain water falling on the
fields or the excess irrigation water applied to the fields, by
constructing open ditches, field drains, and other related
structures. In this process, the land is sloped towards these
ditches or drains, as to make the excess water flow in to these
drains.
Types of surface drain
Shallow surface drain
 The open drains, which are constructed to remove the
excess irrigation water collected in the depressions on the
fields, as well as the storm (rain) water, are broad and
shallow, and are called shallow surface drains. These rains
carry the runoff to the outlet drains.
 They are trapezoidal in cross-section.
 They should be designed to carry the normal storm water
from the fields, plus the excess irrigation water.
Deep surface drain
 These drains are large enough to carry the flood water of
the catchment area from the shallow surface drains, and
are of sufficient depths to provide outlets even for the
underground tile drains, if provided are called deep surface
drains.
 These drains carry the storm water discharge from the
shallow surface drains, and the seepage water coming from
the underground tile drains and are therefore, designed for
the combined discharge of the shallow surface drains as
well as that of the tile drains.
Layout planning for drainage
As far as possible open drains should be located so as to follow
the path of natural drainage of the area. All the open drains
should discharge into an outfall drain which is either a large open
drain or a natural stream. The location of outfall drain can be
adjusted to give the required bed slope to the open drain.

Sub-Surface drainage system or trial drainage

Sub surface drains are required for soils with poor internal
drainage and a high water table. Tile drains are usually pipe
drains made up of porous earthenware and are circular in section.
The diameters may vary from 10 to 30 cm. The trenches in which
they are laid are back filled with sand and excavated material.
The tile drains should not be placed below less pervious strata. If
no impervious layer occurs below the land and the water table is
low (lower than about 3 m from the ground), internal soil drainage
may be sufficient and no tile drains needed.
Advantages of tile drains
Tile drainage helps in increasing crop yields by draining the water
or by lowering the water table in the following manner:
 Removes the free gravity water that is not directly available to
the plants.
 Increases the volume of soil from which roots can obtain food.
 Increases air circulation and bacterial activity in the soil, thus
improving soil structure and making the plant food more
readily available.
 Reduces soil erosion.
 Lesser time and labour is required for tilling and harvesting the
soils
 Permit deep roots development by lowering the water table
especially during spring season as in figure below.

Limitations
Providing underground tile drains, however, is a costly proposition
and may be required only in areas of high water table, and where
the ground soil has a poor internal drainage capacity.

Design of Shallow surface drainage

There are different assumption to design the drainage system in
Terai and Hilly region of Nepal.
Assumption for Terai region
 Rain fall 5 years to 10 years return period should be
considered.
 Initial water level in field should be considered as 40 mm.
 Maximum water level is 300 mm which persist for one day.
 Depth in excess of 200 mm may persist for 3 days.
 No rain fall follows the design rainfall for several days (more
than 3 days).
 Evaporation and transpiration is neglected.
 Irrigation inflows are neglected.

In the given figure;

P3 = Yearly maximum rainfall for consecutive 3 days

Then, from water balance (W.B.) Equation 'Q';
h = 40 + – Q × t
Where, Q is the outflow in mm/day.

Numerical 1
Design the surface drainage for the field having rainfall
intensity of
P3 = 450 mm for the area of 30 ha.
 First trail q = 50 mm/day (drainage discharge)
h = 40 + – Q × t
Initial
Final water
Day depth Q
depth
(mm)
1 40 150 50 140 = 40 + 150
× 1 – 50 × 1
2 140 150 50 240 = 140 +
150 × 1 – 50 ×
1
3 240 150 50 340
Here, water depth > 300 mm, second trail is required.
Here, 'h' is greater than 300 mm, but theoretically 'h' should not
greater than 300 mm. So, next trail required. To meet our
requirement 'Q' should be increased and h may tend to 300 mm.
Second trail, Q = 75 mm/day
Da Initial Final water
Q
y depth depth
1 40 15 7 115 = 40 +
0 5 150 – 75
2 115 15 7 190 = 115 +
0 5 150 – 75
3 190 15 7 265 = 190 +
0 5 150 – 75
4 265 – 7 190 = 265 –
5 75
5 115 – 7 115 = 190 –
5 75
Here, no water depth greater than 300 mm
Depth excess of 200 mm occur in one day so, theoretically this
design is ok but uneconomical so, take next trail Q = 65 mm/day.
Initial
Da Final water
depth Q
y depth
(mm)
125 = 40 +
1 40 150 65
150 – 65
210 = 125 +
2 125 150 65
150 – 65
295 = 210 +
3 210 150 65
150 – 65
4 295 – 65 230
5 230 – 65 165
Here, water level greater than 200 mm occur for 3 days.
No water depth greater than 300 mm
Hence, design is ok, and also economical
Hence, design discharge is 65 mm/day
If area, A = 30 Ha
Q=A×V
or, Q = = 0.226 m3/sec
Assumptions for hilly region
 Rain fall for 5 or 10 year return is considered
 Initial water level in the field should be considered as 40 mm
for design
 No rain fall follows the design rain fall for several days
 Evaporation and transpiration losses are neglected
 Irrigation flows are neglected
If P3 = maximum yearly rainfall
Q = drainage discharge in mm/day
Now, using W.B. equation; we have,
40 + P – Q = 100
Design criteria of surface drainage channel
 Bed slope should be 1 : 300 to 1 : 500
 Velocity v  0.85 m/s
 B / D ratio 4 : 1 ( irrigation)
 B / D ratio 3 : 1 (drainage)
 Capacity of drain should be designed for storm water crop
sustainability
 The drain alignment should follow natural drain as far as
possible

Numerical 2
Design a surface drainage for a field of 40 ha area in Terai
with following data. Design maximum yearly precipitation
for three consecutive days = 50 mm, longitudinal slope of
channel 1 : 400, Manning roughness coefficient 0.025,
Maximum water level is 300 mm which may persist per up
to one day and depends in excess of 200 mm persists for
up to 3 days. Assume other suitable values if necessary.
 Here,
Maximum yearly precipitation for 3 day is 50 mm, which is not
reasonable. So, assume maximum yearly precipitation (P 3) =
450 mm
Assume initial water depth = 40 mm
Out let discharge (Q) = 50 mm/day
Now, using water balance equation (W.B.)
h = 40 + × t – Q × t
Initial water Final water
Day Q
depth depth
1 40 150 50 115
2 115 150 50 240
3 240 150 50 340
4 340 – 50 290
Here,
Water depth (h) > 300 mm, so second trail is needed.
Theoretically 'h' should not greater than 300 mm.
To meet our requirement 'Q' should increased and 'h' may
tends to 300 mm
Second trail
Q = 75 mm/day
Initial
Da Final water
water Q
y depth
depth
1 40 15 7 115
0 5
2 115 15 7 190
0 5
3 190 15 7 265
0 5
4 265 – 7 190
5
5 190 – 7 115
5
Here,
No water depth > 300 mm
Depth excess of 200 mm occurs only in one day
Theoretically this design is ok but uneconomical
So, take next trail
Q = 65 mm/day
Da Initial water Final water
Q
y depth depth
1 40 15 6 125
0 5
2 125 15 6 210
0 5
3 210 15 6 245
0 5
4 245 – 6 230
5
5 230 – 6 165
5
Here,
Water level greater than 200 mm persist for 3 days.
No water depth greater than 300 mm. Hence, design is ok and

∴ Design discharge (Q) = 65 mm/day

economical.

Here,
Area (A) = 40 ha
Q = AV

∴ Q = 0.301 m3/sec
or, Q = [∵ 1 ha = 104 m2, 1 day = 24 × 3600 S]

Given that;
Bed slope = 1 : 400
Manning roughness coefficient (N) = 0.025
Assume side slope = 1 : 1
Bed width to depth ratio (B : D ) = 3 : 1
 Now,
Q=×
Where, A = BD + D2 = 3D × D + D2 = 4D2
P = B + 2= (3D = 2= 5.828 D
Now,
0.301 = ×
On solving; we get,
D = 0.224 m
Take available size D = 0.3 m
and, B = 0.9 take free board (F.B.) = 0.1 m

Flow of ground water to the tile drain and spacing of tile

drain
Depth and spacing of drain pipes
The depth and spacing of the sub-surface drain pipes should be
sufficient to lower the water table from the root zone of the
plants. For most plant the top point of the water table must be at
level 1.0 to 1.5 m below the ground level. The distance may vary
from 0.7 to 2.5 m depending upon soil type and type of crop.
The tile drain may be placed at about 0.3 below the designed
highest level of the water table. The flow of ground water is as
shown in the figure.
For spacing
Let, 's' be spacing of drain pipe, 'a' be depth of impervious
stratum. Let 'y' be the height of impervious stratum at 'x' distance
from center of drain, 'b' be the maximum height of water table
from stratum.
From Darcy law,
Q=K×I×A
Discharge per unit length of the drain passing the section at 'y'
(qy) is given by,
qy = k
Assuming inclination of water surface to be small =
q=k

When x =
qy = 0
When x = 0;
qy =
or, qy = – ×
or, qy= q ×
From equation (1) and (2); we have,
qy × = k × y ×
On integration; we get,
 dx =  y dy
or, =+C
When x = 0;
y=a
C=
or, = –
When x = = y = b
or, q × s × =
or, = (b2 – a2)
or, s =
Again;
q = s × drainage recharge (rain fall)
S2 = 4k (b2 – a2) ×
S2 = 8.64 × 106 ×
Formula for steady flow
Smooth flow (Q) = 50d257i0.57
Corrugated pipe (Q) = 22d267i0.50
Formula for unsteady flow
Smooth pipe (Q) = 89d271i0.57
Corrugated pipe (Q) = 88d267i0.5

Numerical 3
Design a suitable subsurface drainage 250 m × 900 m
plot. The depth of impervious layer is 10 m. The root zone
depth is 1 m. The drainage recharge is 5 mm/day.
saturated conductivity = 2.5 m/day and slope of drainage
is 1 : 100.
 Here,
a = 8.7 m
b = 9.0 m
Re = 5 mm/day
= 0.005 m/day
K = 2.5 m/day
But, S2 =
= = 103
 Adopting s = 100 m
Q = 100 × 250 × 5 mm/day = 0.00144 m3/sec
For unsteady flow;
Smooth pipe (Q) = 89d271i0.57
or, 0.00144 = 89d271i 0.57 = 89d271× (2.5)0.57
or, d = 0.045 m = 45 m

Example 4
Determine the size of a tile outlet of a 6 hectare drainage
system if the DC is 1 cm and the tile grade is 0.3%.
Assume the rugosity coefficient for the tile drain material
as 0.011.
Solution:
1 cm coefficient of discharge means that 1 cm of water from
an area of 6 hectares entering the tiles per day.
Volume of water passing the drain in 1 day =

∴ Q = m3/sec
= 600 m3/day

Now,
Q=
For circular drain pipe of diameter 'D'; we have,
A=
P = D
R=
or, = × × ×
On solving, we get,
D = (0.00447)3/8 = 0.132 meter = 13.2 cm.
Adopt 15 cm diameter pipe which is available in market.