5 marks answer

a. Ultrasonic Sensor

An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that measures the distance to an

object by using ultrasonic sound waves. It works on the principle of echo
location, similar to how bats navigate. The sensor emits ultrasonic waves
(typically at 40 kHz) from a transmitter. When these waves hit an object,
they bounce back and are received by the sensor’s receiver. The sensor
calculates the time taken for the echo to return and uses it to determine the
distance:

Distance = (Speed of Sound × Time Delay) / 2

Key Components:

 Transmitter (emits sound waves)

 Receiver (detects reflected waves)
 Control Circuit

Applications:

 Obstacle detection in robotics

 Automatic parking systems
 Liquid level sensing
 Industrial automation

Advantages:

 Non-contact measurement
 Works well in dark or smoky environments

b. ROS Master

The ROS Master is a core component of the Robot Operating System (ROS).
It acts as the central coordinator for all ROS nodes. It keeps track of all
active nodes and manages the communication between them by providing
naming and registration services.

Functions:
  Node registration and lookup
 Topic management
 Service advertisement and discovery

Without the ROS Master, nodes wouldn't know about each other’s existence.
ROS Master is started using the command:

Importance:

 Centralized control for distributed systems

 Ensures seamless communication

c. Microprocessor

A microprocessor is a programmable integrated circuit (IC) that

performs arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output operations of a
computer system. It acts as the brain of a computer.

Key Features:

 Contains ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), Control Unit, and Registers

 Executes instructions from memory
 Operates on binary data

Applications:

 Computers
 Mobile phones
 Control systems

Examples:

 Intel 8085, Intel Core i7

Difference from Microcontroller:

  Microprocessors need external memory and peripherals, while
microcontrollers are self-contained.

d. Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing (DIP) involves using computers to perform image

processing on digital images. It includes operations to enhance images or
extract useful information.

Main Steps:

1. Image Acquisition
2. Preprocessing (noise removal, enhancement)
3. Segmentation (separating objects)
4. Feature Extraction
5. Image Recognition

Applications:

 Medical imaging (CT scans, MRIs)

 Remote sensing (satellite images)
 Robotics (vision systems)
 Security (face recognition)

Techniques:

 Filtering
 Morphological operations
 Edge detection

e. Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the field of computer science that focuses on

creating machines that can mimic human intelligence. AI systems can
learn, reason, and self-correct.

Key Areas:

 Machine Learning
  Natural Language Processing
 Robotics
 Expert Systems

Applications:

 Autonomous vehicles
 Virtual assistants (Alexa, Siri)
 Healthcare (diagnosis)
 Finance (fraud detection)

Goals of AI:

 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem-solving
 Perception

f. Raspberry Pi

Raspberry Pi is a low-cost, credit-card-sized computer that plugs into a

computer monitor or TV and uses a standard keyboard and mouse. It’s
developed by the Raspberry Pi Foundation.

Features:

 ARM-based CPU
 GPIO pins for interfacing with hardware
 USB ports, HDMI output, Ethernet
 Linux OS support (like Raspbian)

Applications:

 DIY projects
 Robotics
 IoT (Internet of Things)
 Educational learning

Advantages:

 Affordable
 Versatile
 Open-source support
g. Arduino UNO

Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P chip. It

is widely used in beginner and professional electronics projects.

Features:

 14 Digital I/O Pins

 6 Analog Input Pins
 16 MHz Clock Speed
 USB interface for programming

Applications:

 Automation projects
 Prototyping embedded systems
 Robotics control systems
 Sensor interfacing

Advantages:

 Open-source
 Easy to program (Arduino IDE)
 Rich community support

h. ROS Nodes

In ROS, a node is a process that performs computation. Nodes are the basic
building blocks of a ROS-based robotic system.

Characteristics:

 Each node is responsible for a specific function (e.g., sensor reading,

motor control).
 Nodes communicate with each other via topics, services, and actions.

Benefits:

 Modular development
 Easy debugging
 Code reusability
Examples:

 A camera node capturing images

 A motor driver node controlling wheels

i. ROS Messages

ROS messages are the way data is passed between nodes in ROS. A
message is a simple data structure containing fields.

Structure:

 Data types like integers, floats, strings, arrays

Use:

 Used in topics to publish or subscribe data.

 For example, a "sensor_msgs/LaserScan" message contains distance
data from a LIDAR.

Importance:

 Standardizes communication
 Ensures consistency between publishers and subscribers

j. AI in Robotics

Artificial Intelligence in robotics enables robots to perform tasks that require

intelligence. AI enhances perception, decision-making, and learning
capabilities.

Applications:

 Path planning
 Object recognition
 Natural language interaction
 Adaptive control

Benefits:

 Robots can learn from their environment

  Handle complex, unpredictable situations
 Improve efficiency and flexibility

Example:

 Self-driving cars use AI to make navigation decisions.

k. Robot Automation

Robot automation refers to the use of robots to perform repetitive,

hazardous, or precision-required tasks with minimal human intervention.

Types:

 Industrial Automation (assembly lines)

 Service Automation (hospital delivery robots)

Advantages:

 Increased productivity
 Improved safety
 Cost reduction over time

Technologies Used:

 Sensors
 Actuators
 AI and Machine Learning

l. IR Sensor

An IR (Infrared) sensor is an electronic device that detects infrared radiation

from objects in its field of view.

Types:

 Active IR Sensors (emit and detect IR radiation)

 Passive IR Sensors (only detect IR radiation, like motion sensors)

Applications:
  Obstacle detection
 Line following robots
 Remote controls
 Motion sensing alarms

Working Principle:

 Detects IR light reflected from objects or emitted naturally from heat

sources.

Advantages:

 Low cost
 Easy to integrate
 Reliable for short-range detection

2 marks answer
1. Write down the Laws of Robotics.

The Three Laws of Robotics by Isaac Asimov are:

1. A robot may not harm a human being or, through inaction, allow a
human to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given by humans, except where such
orders conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does
not conflict with the First or Second Law.

2. Define GPIO and what are its uses.

GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) are programmable pins on a

microcontroller or computer that can be set as input or output.
Uses:

 Reading sensor values (input)

 Controlling LEDs, motors (output)
 Communication with other devices (like I2C, SPI)
3. How many digital pins are available on an Arduino Uno
board?

The Arduino Uno board has 14 digital I/O pins (from D0 to D13). These pins
can be used either for input or output signals.

4. How is momentum of force calculated?

Momentum is the product of mass and velocity:

5. What types of sensors are commonly used in robotics?

 Ultrasonic sensors (for distance)

 IR sensors (obstacle detection)
 LIDAR (mapping)
 Cameras (vision)
  Temperature sensors
 Touch and pressure sensors
 Gyroscope and Accelerometer (orientation)

6. In what ways do temperature sensors contribute to

monitoring and controlling robot operating conditions?

 Detect overheating of motors and processors.

 Ensure proper working within safe temperature limits.
 Trigger cooling fans or shutdown in emergencies.
 Help maintain battery safety in robots.

7. What is Autonomous robot?

An autonomous robot can perform tasks and make decisions without

human control. It senses the environment, processes data, and acts
accordingly using AI, sensors, and control systems. Examples: Roomba
vacuum cleaner, self-driving cars.

8. What is computer vision, and how does it differ from

traditional image processing?

Computer Vision is a field that enables machines to understand and

interpret images and videos like humans.
Traditional Image Processing only manipulates images (e.g., adjusting
brightness, removing noise) without understanding the content.
Thus, computer vision adds intelligence.

9. What are the different colour models used in robotics?

 RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

 HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value)
 Grayscale (black and white)
 YUV (used in video compression)
 CMYK (mainly for printing)
10. How do convolutional neural networks (CNNs) contribute
to advancements in computer vision tasks?

CNNs automatically learn to detect important features in images (like edges,

shapes, patterns).
They help robots and systems perform:

 Object recognition
 Face detection
 Scene understanding
 Image classification
without manual feature extraction.

11. What is the clock frequency range supported by the 8051

microcontrollers?

The 8051 microcontroller typically supports a clock frequency between 12

MHz and 40 MHz, depending on the version.

12. What type of microcontroller is used in Arduino Uno

boards?

The Arduino Uno uses the ATmega328P microcontroller made by Atmel

(now owned by Microchip Technology).

13. What are some common applications of ROS in robotics?

 Mobile robots navigation

 Robot arms control in industries
 Autonomous drones
 Robotic simulations (Gazebo)
 Multi-robot coordination

14. How to start the ROS master?

You start the ROS Master by opening a terminal and typing:

This starts all necessary background services for node communication.

15. What are the key requirements for running ROS on a

system?

 Linux OS (mostly Ubuntu)

 Good RAM (2 GB minimum recommended)
 Internet connection (for installation and updates)
 Proper system architecture (x86_64 preferred)
 ROS software installation

16. What do you understand by the term, robotics?

Robotics is the interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that

deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots.
It combines mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer
science, and more.

17. What is the purpose of the ALE (Address Latch Enable)

signal in the 8051 microcontrollers?

ALE signal in 8051 is used to separate address and data when both are
shared on the same bus.
It helps in latching the lower byte of address from the multiplexed
address/data bus (P0).
18. Can you explain how platform-specific languages differ
from platform-independent languages?

 Platform-specific languages (like Swift for iOS) run only on specific

operating systems.
 Platform-independent languages (like Java) can run on multiple
systems without modification, using Virtual Machines.

19. What is the degree of freedom in robotics?

Degree of Freedom (DOF) refers to the number of independent

movements a robot can make.
For example, a robotic arm may have 6 DOF: 3 for positioning (x, y, z) and 3
for orientation (roll, pitch, yaw).

20. What is meant by pixel?

A pixel (short for "picture element") is the smallest unit of a digital image.
Each pixel represents a single color or shade in an image. The resolution of
an image depends on the number of pixels.

Long Question Answer

2. i) Explain the Working Principle of the
DHT11 Sensor (6 Marks)
The DHT11 sensor is a low-cost digital sensor used to measure
temperature and relative humidity. It uses a capacitive humidity
sensor and a thermistor to sense the environment and a microcontroller
to process the data.

Internal Components:

1. Humidity Sensor: Measures moisture by detecting changes in

capacitance.
2. NTC Thermistor: Measures temperature based on resistance change.
3. Microcontroller Unit: Converts analog signals to digital data.
 4. Single-wire Data Pin: Transfers digital data to a microcontroller (like
Arduino).

Working Process:

1. The microcontroller sends a start signal to the DHT11.

2. DHT11 responds and begins measuring humidity and
temperature.
3. It sends back 40 bits of data in the following order:
o 8 bits for humidity (integer)
o 8 bits for humidity (decimal — always 0 for DHT11)
o 8 bits for temperature (integer)
o 8 bits for temperature (decimal — always 0 for DHT11)
o 8 bits for checksum to verify data accuracy

The sensor uses digital signal communication, so no ADC (analog-to-

digital converter) is needed.

2. ii) Key Features of the DHT11 Sensor (6

Marks)
Here are the main features of the DHT11 sensor:

1. ✅ Measures Both Temperature and Humidity

o Temperature range: 0°C to 50°C
o Humidity range: 20% to 90% RH
2. ✅ Digital Output
o Sends pre-processed data in digital form, easy to read with
microcontrollers.
3. ✅ Low Power Consumption
o Operates on 3–5V with low current usage.
4. ✅ Good Accuracy for Basic Use
o Temperature accuracy: ±2°C
o Humidity accuracy: ±5% RH
5. ✅ Simple 1-Wire Communication Interface
o Requires only one data pin for communication.
6. ✅ Compact and Inexpensive
o Ideal for hobby and low-cost environmental monitoring projects.

Conclusion:
The DHT11 sensor is an easy-to-use, low-cost solution for temperature and
humidity measurement. While it has some limitations in range and accuracy,
it is suitable for many basic applications in home automation and education.

3. i) Explain the Three Main Types of Machine

Learning and Its Use in Robotics (6 Marks)
Machine Learning (ML) is a method where computers learn from data without
being explicitly programmed. In robotics, ML helps robots adapt, learn from
their environment, and improve performance over time.

Three Main Types of Machine Learning:

1. Supervised Learning
o Definition: The robot learns from labeled data (input-output
pairs).
o Use in Robotics: Object recognition, pose estimation, and
predicting outcomes based on past data.
o Example: A robot learns to classify images of tools (hammer,
wrench) by being trained on labeled datasets.
2. Unsupervised Learning
o Definition: The robot learns patterns from unlabeled data.
o Use in Robotics: Clustering sensor data, anomaly detection, or
finding patterns in environments.
o Example: A cleaning robot groups rooms by usage patterns
(kitchen, bedroom) without labels.
3. Reinforcement Learning
o Definition: The robot learns by trial and error, receiving rewards
or penalties.
o Use in Robotics: Navigation, motor control, and real-time
decision-making.
o Example: A robotic arm learns the best way to pick up a cup by
maximizing grip success.

3. ii) How ML Helps Robots Perceive, Decide,

and Act in Dynamic Environments (6 Marks)
Machine learning enables robots to work in dynamic, unpredictable
environments by helping them learn from data and adapt in real time.

1. Perceive

 Robots use ML algorithms to interpret sensor data (camera, LiDAR,

microphones, etc.).
 ML helps with object detection, speech recognition, and scene
understanding.
 Example: A robot uses a camera and ML to detect pedestrians and
traffic signs.

2. Decide

 ML models analyze data and help robots make decisions based on

learned patterns.
 Algorithms like decision trees, neural networks, and probabilistic
models are used.
 Example: A delivery robot decides which route is fastest while avoiding
obstacles.

3. Act

 ML refines how robots perform actions (grasping, walking, turning).

 Reinforcement learning helps improve motion control and robot arm
precision.
 Example: A robot adjusts its grip strength in real-time based on object
feedback.

2. i) Explain the Working Principle of the

DHT11 Sensor (6 Marks)
The DHT11 sensor is a low-cost digital sensor used to measure
temperature and relative humidity. It uses a capacitive humidity
sensor and a thermistor to sense the environment and a microcontroller
to process the data.

Internal Components:

1. Humidity Sensor: Measures moisture by detecting changes in

capacitance.
2. NTC Thermistor: Measures temperature based on resistance change.
 3. Microcontroller Unit: Converts analog signals to digital data.
4. Single-wire Data Pin: Transfers digital data to a microcontroller (like
Arduino).

Working Process:

1. The microcontroller sends a start signal to the DHT11.

2. DHT11 responds and begins measuring humidity and
temperature.
3. It sends back 40 bits of data in the following order:
o 8 bits for humidity (integer)
o 8 bits for humidity (decimal — always 0 for DHT11)
o 8 bits for temperature (integer)
o 8 bits for temperature (decimal — always 0 for DHT11)
o 8 bits for checksum to verify data accuracy

The sensor uses digital signal communication, so no ADC (analog-to-

digital converter) is needed.

2. ii) Key Features of the DHT11 Sensor (6

Marks)
Here are the main features of the DHT11 sensor:

1. ✅ Measures Both Temperature and Humidity

o Temperature range: 0°C to 50°C
o Humidity range: 20% to 90% RH
2. ✅ Digital Output
o Sends pre-processed data in digital form, easy to read with
microcontrollers.
3. ✅ Low Power Consumption
o Operates on 3–5V with low current usage.
4. ✅ Good Accuracy for Basic Use
o Temperature accuracy: ±2°C
o Humidity accuracy: ±5% RH
5. ✅ Simple 1-Wire Communication Interface
o Requires only one data pin for communication.
6. ✅ Compact and Inexpensive
o Ideal for hobby and low-cost environmental monitoring projects.
3. i) Explain the Three Main Types of Machine
Learning and Its Use in Robotics (6 Marks)
Machine Learning (ML) is a method where computers learn from data without
being explicitly programmed. In robotics, ML helps robots adapt, learn from
their environment, and improve performance over time.

Three Main Types of Machine Learning:

1. Supervised Learning
o Definition: The robot learns from labeled data (input-output
pairs).
o Use in Robotics: Object recognition, pose estimation, and
predicting outcomes based on past data.
o Example: A robot learns to classify images of tools (hammer,
wrench) by being trained on labeled datasets.
2. Unsupervised Learning
o Definition: The robot learns patterns from unlabeled data.
o Use in Robotics: Clustering sensor data, anomaly detection, or
finding patterns in environments.
o Example: A cleaning robot groups rooms by usage patterns
(kitchen, bedroom) without labels.
3. Reinforcement Learning
o Definition: The robot learns by trial and error, receiving rewards
or penalties.
o Use in Robotics: Navigation, motor control, and real-time
decision-making.
o Example: A robotic arm learns the best way to pick up a cup by
maximizing grip success.

3. ii) How ML Helps Robots Perceive, Decide,

and Act in Dynamic Environments (6 Marks)
Machine learning enables robots to work in dynamic, unpredictable
environments by helping them learn from data and adapt in real time.

1. Perceive

 Robots use ML algorithms to interpret sensor data (camera, LiDAR,

microphones, etc.).
  ML helps with object detection, speech recognition, and scene
understanding.
 Example: A robot uses a camera and ML to detect pedestrians and
traffic signs.

2. Decide

 ML models analyze data and help robots make decisions based on

learned patterns.
 Algorithms like decision trees, neural networks, and probabilistic
models are used.
 Example: A delivery robot decides which route is fastest while avoiding
obstacles.

3. Act

 ML refines how robots perform actions (grasping, walking, turning).

 Reinforcement learning helps improve motion control and robot arm
precision.
 Example: A robot adjusts its grip strength in real-time based on object
feedback.

4. i) Distinguish Between Human Vision,

Machine Vision, and Robot Vision (6 Marks)
Ans-

Feature Human Vision Machine Vision Robot Vision

The biological ability Use of cameras and Combination of
to see, process, and computers to machine vision with
understand the inspect and analyze robotic control to
Definition
environment images, mainly for enable robots to see
through eyes and quality control and and interact with
brain. inspection. their environment.
Integrated into
Done by specialized
Done naturally by robots to perform
software focusing
the human brain, actions based on
Processing on specific tasks
very flexible and visual inputs (e.g.,
like detecting flaws,
intelligent. object picking,
reading barcodes.
navigation).
 Feature Human Vision Machine Vision Robot Vision
More dynamic than
Extremely flexible Usually rigid and basic machine vision
and adaptive to new task-specific, needs — combined with
Flexibility
or complex retraining for new robot control
environments. tasks. systems to adapt
and react.
Industrial Autonomous robots,
Daily life activities
inspection, product drones, surgical
Applications like driving, reading,
quality checks, robots, warehouse
sports.
surveillance. automation.

4. ii) What is Computer Vision, and How Does

It Differ from Traditional Image Processing?
(6 Marks)
What is Computer Vision?

 Computer Vision is a field of artificial intelligence where computers

are trained to interpret and make decisions from visual
information (images or videos) like humans.
 It involves tasks like object recognition, image classification, face
detection, scene understanding, and motion tracking.

Difference Between Computer Vision and Traditional Image

Processing

Traditional Image
Feature Computer Vision
Processing
To enhance or manipulate
To understand and interpret
Goal images without understanding
visual information.
their meaning.
Extracting high-level Performing operations like
information like object filtering, resizing, color
Focus
detection, classification, and adjustment, and edge
decision-making. detection.
 Traditional Image
Feature Computer Vision
Processing
Uses mathematical operations
Uses machine learning, deep
Techniques like convolution, histogram
learning, and AI models.
equalization, thresholding.
Example Identifying a cat in an image. Sharpening a blurry image.

5. i) Describe the Basic Architecture of the

Robot Operating System (ROS) and Its Key
Components (6 Marks)
Robot Operating System (ROS) is an open-source middleware framework
designed to help build modular and scalable robotic applications. It provides
tools, libraries, and communication infrastructure for controlling robots.

Basic Architecture of ROS:

ROS follows a distributed architecture where different processes (called

nodes) run separately and communicate with each other.

Key Components of ROS:

1. Nodes
o Small, modular programs that perform specific tasks.
o Example: A camera node processes image data; a motor node
controls wheels.
2. Master
o The central coordinator that registers nodes and manages
communication.
o Without the master, nodes cannot discover or talk to each other.
3. Topics
o Communication channels where nodes publish or subscribe
data.
o Example: A sensor node publishes data to the /temperature topic,
and a controller node subscribes to it.
4. Messages
o Data structures sent between nodes via topics.
o Example: A message might contain position, velocity, or sensor
values.
5. Services
o A way for nodes to request and receive information using a
client-server model (like a function call).
6. Parameter Server
 o Stores configuration data (like robot dimensions or speed limits)
that nodes can access.

5. ii) Explain the Role of ROS Nodes and

Topics in Facilitating Communication within a
Robotic System (6 Marks)
ROS Nodes

 Nodes are the building blocks of any ROS-based robotic system.

 Each node performs one specific task (e.g., image processing, sensor
data collection).
 Nodes run independently, allowing a modular and fault-tolerant
system.
 Example:
o camera_node captures images.
o navigation_node processes those images for mapping and
movement.

ROS Topics

 Topics are communication channels for message passing.

 A node can:
o Publish data to a topic (output),
o Subscribe to a topic to receive data (input).
 This publisher-subscriber model enables real-time and
asynchronous communication.

6. i) What is Gazebo in ROS? (6 Marks)

Gazebo is a powerful 3D robot simulation tool that integrates with ROS
(Robot Operating System). It allows developers to simulate robots in a
virtual environment before using them in the real world.

Key Features of Gazebo:

  Provides realistic physics simulation using engines like ODE, Bullet,
or DART.
 Simulates sensors (camera, LiDAR, IMU, GPS, etc.).
 Supports robot models and environments.
 Integrates with ROS to test robot software with simulated hardware.

Role in ROS:

 Allows developers to test algorithms, train robots, and debug

code without using real hardware.
 Uses ROS plugins to simulate sensors, control movement, and interact
with the robot model.

Example Use:

 A robot arm can be tested in Gazebo for path planning and collision
detection before being deployed physically.

6. ii) Explain About URDF and SDF Format (6

Marks)
1. URDF (Unified Robot Description Format)

 What it is: An XML format used in ROS to describe the physical

structure of a robot.
 Used for: Defining robot links, joints, dimensions, and visual
appearance.
 Features:
o Defines only one robot per file.
o Works well with Rviz (ROS visualization tool).
o Limited support for simulation properties (like friction or collision
dynamics).

2. SDF (Simulation Description Format)

 What it is: A more advanced XML format used in Gazebo for

simulation.
 Used for: Defining robots, sensors, actuators, and environments.
 Features:
o Allows multiple robots in one file.
 o Includes physics, lighting, and sensor configurations.
o More detailed and simulation-specific than URDF.

Comparison Between URDF and SDF:

Feature URDF SDF

Format Type XML XML
Use in ROS Yes (mainly for robot models) Yes (via Gazebo integration)
Use in Gazebo Limited (via conversion) Native support
Level of Detail Basic physical model Advanced simulation properties

Conclusion:

 Gazebo is the preferred simulator for testing ROS-based robots in a

virtual world.
 URDF is used for modeling robots in ROS tools like Rviz.
 SDF provides more advanced features for full simulation in Gazebo,
including environments and dynamics.

7. i) What are Industrial Robots? (6 Marks)

Industrial robots are automated, programmable machines that are used in
manufacturing processes for tasks such as assembly, welding, painting,
packaging, and material handling. These robots are designed to perform
repetitive and precise operations in industrial environments.

Key Features of Industrial Robots:

1. Automation: Reduces human labor and increases efficiency by

automating repetitive tasks.
2. Precision and Accuracy: Industrial robots perform tasks with high
precision, minimizing errors and defects.
3. Flexibility: Can be reprogrammed for different tasks, making them
adaptable to various production needs.
4. Safety: In hazardous environments, robots can handle dangerous
operations, keeping human workers safe.

Applications in Industry:
  Automobile manufacturing: Used for welding, painting, and
assembly of parts.
 Electronics: For component assembly and testing.
 Packaging: Automated packing and palletizing.

7. ii) Explain the Various Types of Industrial

Robots (6 Marks)
Industrial robots are classified based on their structure and movement
capabilities. Here are the common types:

1. Articulated Robots (Robotic Arms)

 Structure: Robots with a series of joints (resembling a human arm).

 Degrees of Freedom: Typically have 4 to 6 DOF (Degrees of
Freedom).
 Applications: Welding, material handling, painting, assembly.
 Example: A 6-DOF robotic arm used for assembly lines.

2. SCARA Robots (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot

Arm)

 Structure: A robot with two parallel joints that provide horizontal

movement.
 Degrees of Freedom: 4 DOF (3 translational and 1 rotational).
 Applications: High-speed assembly, pick-and-place operations.
 Example: Used for placing electronic components on PCBs (Printed
Circuit Boards).

3. Cartesian Robots (Linear Robots)

 Structure: Robots with a linear movement along the X, Y, and Z axes.

 Degrees of Freedom: 3 DOF (linear movement along three axes).
 Applications: CNC machines, 3D printing, and material handling.
 Example: Robots used for 3D printing and CNC machining.

4. Cylindrical Robots

 Structure: A robot with a cylindrical coordinate system, offering a

combination of linear and rotational movement.
 Degrees of Freedom: 3 DOF (two linear and one rotational).
 Applications: Welding, assembly, and packaging.
  Example: Robots used in small assembly tasks and loading/unloading
machines.

5. Delta Robots (Parallel Robots)

 Structure: A type of parallel robot with three arms connected to a

fixed base, designed for fast, precise movements.
 Degrees of Freedom: Typically 3 DOF (for movement in a 3D space).
 Applications: High-speed picking and packing, assembly tasks in the
food industry.
 Example: Robots used in fast food processing and packaging lines.

6. Polar Robots

 Structure: Robots with a rotational base, and an arm that moves in a

polar coordinate system.
 Degrees of Freedom: 3 DOF (2 rotational and 1 linear).
 Applications: Handling heavy objects and performing drilling or
grinding operations.
 Example: Robots used for machining, material handling, and
assembly.

Conclusion:

Industrial robots play a key role in modern manufacturing, offering efficiency,

precision, and safety. Understanding the different types of industrial robots
allows industries to select the right one based on task requirements and
workspace constraints.

8. i) What are the Basic Components of a

Robot? Write in Detail About Robot Anatomy
(6 Marks)
A robot is composed of several key components that work together to
perform specific tasks. The robot's design can be broken down into its
anatomy, which includes both hardware and software elements.

Basic Components of a Robot:

1. Sensors
 o Purpose: Sensors help robots perceive their environment by
gathering data about temperature, pressure, position, light,
sound, etc.
o Examples: Cameras, accelerometers, LiDAR, ultrasonic sensors,
force sensors.
2. Actuators
o Purpose: Actuators are the components that perform the
movement of the robot. They convert energy (electric, hydraulic,
or pneumatic) into mechanical movement.
o Examples: Motors (DC, stepper, servo), hydraulic pistons,
pneumatic cylinders.
3. Controller
o Purpose: The controller acts as the brain of the robot,
processing inputs from sensors and providing control signals to
the actuators.
o Examples: Microcontrollers (e.g., Arduino, Raspberry Pi),
industrial robot controllers.
4. Power Supply
o Purpose: Supplies the necessary power to the robot’s
components (sensors, actuators, controller).
o Examples: Batteries, fuel cells, power converters.
5. End Effector
o Purpose: The part of the robot that directly interacts with the
environment to complete tasks.
o Examples: Grippers, welding torches, tools.
6. Body/Structure
o Purpose: The body is the frame or skeleton that supports the
components of the robot. It determines the robot's form and
mobility.
o Examples: Chassis, arms, joints, and legs.

Robot Anatomy (In Detail):

1. Sensors:
o Robots have a variety of sensors, including visual, tactile, and
proximity sensors. These sensors allow the robot to "see" and
"feel" its environment. For example, a robot arm may use force
sensors to apply precise pressure when picking up an object.
2. Controller:
o The controller uses algorithms and software to process sensor
data and control the robot's movements. It can be programmed
to follow specific tasks, such as navigating a path or assembling
products.
 3. Actuators:
o Actuators are like muscles in the robot, responsible for
movement. A robotic arm might have servo motors to move its
joints and DC motors to rotate its base.
4. End Effector:
o The end effector is the "tool" that interacts with the environment.
For example, in a welding robot, the end effector is the welding
torch, while in a robot designed to move packages, the end
effector might be a gripper.

8. ii) Explain Servo and Non-Servo Control

System in the Context of Robotics with Neat
Diagram (6 Marks)
Servo Control System in Robotics

 Definition: A servo control system uses a feedback mechanism to

control the position, speed, or torque of a robotic joint or motor. It
ensures that the robot performs tasks with high precision and
accurate positioning.
 Components:
1. Motor/Actuator: Performs the movement.
2. Sensor: Provides feedback on the current position or speed.
3. Controller: Compares the desired position to the actual position
and adjusts accordingly.
4. Power Supply: Supplies energy to the motor.
 Working:

o A servo motor receives an input signal representing the desired

position.
o The motor turns until the feedback sensor detects that the
desired position has been reached.
o The controller adjusts the motor's movement continuously until
the position is exact.

 Applications:

o Robot arms, drones, and precision tasks such as welding,

picking, and assembly.
Non-Servo Control System in Robotics

 Definition: A non-servo control system is used in robots where the

position or speed is not adjusted automatically by feedback. The
system operates based on predefined commands and does not
continuously correct or adjust its actions.
 Components:
1. Motor/Actuator: Drives the robot's movement.
2. Controller: Sends commands to the motor, but without
continuous feedback for adjustment.
3. Power Supply: Supplies energy to the motor.
 Working:

o The motor is commanded to run at a constant speed or follow a

fixed path.
o No feedback loop is used to correct errors. It operates based on
open-loop control.

 Applications:

o Simple robots for transportation, material handling, and

packaging where precision is not crucial.

Comparison Between Servo and Non-Servo Control Systems:

Feature Servo Control System Non-Servo Control System

Uses feedback for precise No feedback, operates on
Feedback
control and correction. predefined inputs.
High precision in positioning Low precision, can result in
Precision
and motion control. errors over time.
Robotics arms, drones, surgical Conveyor belts, simple
Applications
robots. material handling robots.
Control
Closed-loop control system. Open-loop control system.
Type

9. i) What is Arduino? Provide an Overview

and Key Features (6 Marks)
Definition:
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use
hardware and software. It consists of microcontroller boards (like
Arduino Uno, Nano, Mega) and the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development
Environment), which allows users to write, upload, and run code on these
boards.

Overview of Arduino:

 Arduino boards are designed to sense inputs (like light, temperature,

or button presses) and control outputs (like LEDs, motors, or
displays).
 The platform is popular among students, hobbyists, and engineers
for building robotics, automation, and IoT projects.
 Arduino uses a simplified version of C/C++ programming.

Key Features of Arduino:

Feature Description
Each Arduino board has a built-in microcontroller (e.g.,
Microcontroller
ATmega328P in Uno).
Can read inputs (from sensors) or send outputs (to
Digital I/O Pins
actuators).
Can read analog signals from sensors like temperature or
Analog Inputs
light sensors.
USB Interface Easy programming through a USB cable using Arduino IDE.
Hardware and software are freely available and
Open Source
customizable.
Wide
Huge online support and libraries for quick development.
Community

Common Arduino Boards:

 Arduino Uno (most popular and beginner-friendly)

 Arduino Nano (compact size)
 Arduino Mega (more pins and memory)
9. ii) Explain the Working Principle and
Applications of Ultrasonic Sensor (6 Marks)
Working Principle of Ultrasonic Sensor:

An ultrasonic sensor works on the principle of echo-sounding using

ultrasound waves (typically at 40 kHz). It measures the distance to an
object by emitting ultrasonic waves and detecting the time it takes for the
echo to return.

Steps in Working:

1. Trigger Pulse: The sensor is triggered by sending a short electrical

pulse (usually 10 µs).
2. Ultrasonic Wave Emission: The sensor emits an ultrasonic sound
wave at 40 kHz from its transmitter.
3. Echo Detection: When the wave hits an object, it reflects back to the
receiver.
4. Time Calculation: The time between sending and receiving the signal
is measured.
5. Distance Calculation:

(Divided by 2 because the wave travels to the object and back.)

Diagram of Ultrasonic Sensor:

Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors:

Application Description
Used in autonomous robots and vehicles for object
Obstacle Detection
avoidance.
Distance Measures distance to walls, objects, or people in
Measurement smart systems.
Detects liquid or solid levels in tanks (non-contact
Level Sensing
method).
Installed in cars to detect how close the vehicle is to
Parking Assistance
an obstacle.
Detects movement of objects or people in restricted
Security Systems
areas.
Conclusion:

 Arduino provides a simple platform for building robotics and sensor-

based systems.
 Ultrasonic sensors are widely used for accurate distance
measurement and object detection in various automation and
robotic applications.

10. i) How Do Tilt Sensors Operate, and What

Are the Areas Where They Find Application?
(6 Marks)
Working Principle of Tilt Sensor:

A tilt sensor detects orientation or inclination with respect to gravity. It

operates by sensing changes in angle or position when the device it’s
attached to is tilted.

There are two main types:

1. Mercury or Ball-Based Tilt Sensor:

o Contains a conductive ball or liquid (like mercury) inside a
casing.
o When the sensor tilts, the ball rolls and makes or breaks contact
between electrodes.
o This contact completes or breaks an electrical circuit, indicating
a change in position.
2. MEMS-Based Tilt Sensor (Micro-Electro-Mechanical System):
o Uses microscopic mechanical parts and accelerometers to detect
changes in tilt with more precision.

Applications of Tilt Sensors:

Area of Application Description

Mobile Phones Screen rotation (portrait to landscape).
Gaming Controllers Motion sensing for interactive gameplay.
Monitoring the tilt angle of heavy equipment to
Industrial Machinery
prevent accidents.
Robotics Helps in self-balancing and posture detection.
Aerospace and Aircraft leveling, car rollover detection, and stability
Automotive control.
 Area of Application Description
Adjusting angle of solar panels for maximum
Solar Panels
sunlight.

10. ii) What is the Working Principle of a

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), and How
Does Its Resistance Change With Varying
Light Intensity? (6 Marks)
Working Principle of LDR:

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), also called a photoresistor, is a

passive electronic component whose resistance changes with the
intensity of light falling on it.

 It is made from a semiconductor material like cadmium sulfide

(CDs).
 In darkness, the resistance is high (in the range of mega-ohms).
 When light falls on the LDR, photons energize the electrons,
increasing conductivity.
 As a result, the resistance decreases with increasing light intensity.

Resistance Behavior:

Light Intensity Resistance of LDR

Low (dark) High resistance (~1 MΩ)
Medium Moderate resistance
High (bright) Low resistance (~few kΩ)

Applications of LDRs:

Application Description
Automatic Street Turns lights ON at night and OFF during the day based
Lights on ambient light.
Solar Garden
Activates lighting circuits in low-light conditions.
Lamps
Light Meters Used in photography to measure light intensity.
Burglar Alarms Detects changes in light when an intruder crosses a
 Application Description
light beam.
Line-Following
Helps robots detect dark or light paths on surfaces.
Robots

11. i) Comparison Between Microprocessor

and Microcontroller (6 Marks)
Feature Microprocessor Microcontroller
A CPU on a single chip; A small computer on a single
Definition
general-purpose processor chip with CPU, memory, and I/O
Only CPU; external RAM, Includes CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O
Components
ROM, and I/O needed ports, and timers on one chip
Application Used in PCs, laptops, and Used in embedded systems
Type high-end systems like washing machines, robots
Higher due to external Lower; integrated design
Cost
components reduces cost
Lower; optimized for
Power Higher, as more
embedded, battery-powered
Consumption components are external
systems
Slower than microprocessors (in
Speed Generally faster (in GHz)
MHz)
More flexible for complex Designed for specific control-
Flexibility
systems oriented tasks

Example:

 Microprocessor: Intel i5, AMD Ryzen

 Microcontroller: 8051, AVR, Arduino (ATmega328P), PIC

11. ii) Pin Details of 8051 Microcontroller and

Explanation (6 Marks)
The 8051 microcontroller is a popular 40-pin integrated chip used for
embedded applications. It includes an 8-bit CPU, 4 I/O ports, RAM, ROM,
timers, and a serial port.

Pin Diagram of 8051:

Key Pins and Their Functions:

Pin
Name Function
No
9 RST Reset Pin: Active HIGH. Resets microcontroller.
Crystal Oscillator input: Provides clock signal (usually
18-19 XTAL1/2
11.0592 MHz).
External Access: If HIGH, accesses internal ROM; if LOW,
31 EA
uses external ROM.
30 ALE Address Latch Enable: Used for external memory interfacing.
29 PSEN Program Store Enable: Enables external program memory.
1–8 Port 1 General-purpose I/O (no alternate function).
10–17 Port 3 I/O + alternate functions (like Rx, Tx, INT, T0, T1).
21–28 Port 2 I/O or higher address lines (A8–A15).
Multiplexed address/data bus (A0–A7, D0–D7). Requires
39–32 Port 0
external pull-ups.
40 Vcc Power Supply (+5V).
20 GND Ground.

12. i) Describe the GPIO Pins of Raspberry Pi

and Their Uses in Hardware Interfacing (6
Marks)
What are GPIO Pins?
GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pins are programmable digital
pins on the Raspberry Pi used to interface with external hardware like
sensors, motors, LEDs, and other devices.

Key Features of GPIO Pins:

 Input Mode: Read signals from buttons, sensors, switches.

 Output Mode: Send signals to control LEDs, motors, relays.
 PWM Support: Some GPIOs support Pulse Width Modulation for
motor control or LED dimming.
 I2C, SPI, UART: GPIO pins also support serial communication
protocols for complex device interfacing.

GPIO Pin Layout (Raspberry Pi 3/4 – 40-pin header):

Total: 26 GPIO pins (numbered BCM 0 to 27)

 Other pins: Power (3.3V/5V), Ground, and Serial Communication lines

Uses in Hardware Interfacing:

Device Type GPIO Use Example

LED Turn ON/OFF using digital output
Button/Switch Detect input when pressed
Sensors (e.g. DHT11,
Read data via digital/analog inputs
LDR)
 Device Type GPIO Use Example
Motors Control direction/speed via motor driver and PWM
Displays (LCD/OLED) Show data using SPI or I2C interfaces
Connect actuators and sensors for smart
IoT Devices
automation

12. ii) Explain the Architecture and Working

of an Arduino Board (6 Marks)
Overview:

An Arduino board is an open-source microcontroller platform that allows

users to interface sensors and devices easily using programming via the
Arduino IDE.

Architecture of Arduino Uno:

Component Description
Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8-bit AVR microcontroller
14 pins (D0 to D13), some with PWM support (D3, D5, D6,
Digital I/O Pins
D9, D10, D11)
Analog Inputs 6 pins (A0 to A5) for sensors like temperature, light, etc.
Power Pins 3.3V, 5V, GND, VIN
Crystal
16 MHz – provides timing for instruction execution
Oscillator
Reset Button Restarts the program on the microcontroller
Connects Arduino to PC for programming and serial
USB Interface
communication
Voltage
Maintains consistent voltage to the board
Regulator

Working of Arduino:

1. Program Writing: User writes code in the Arduino IDE using simplified
C/C++.
2. Uploading: Code is uploaded via USB cable to the Arduino.
3. Execution:
o Microcontroller reads input from pins (e.g., sensors).
o Processes logic based on program.
 o Sends output signals to devices (e.g., LEDs, motors).
4. Loop: Code runs in a loop() repeatedly until reset or power-off.

Block Diagram (Textual):

13. i) Define Control System in Robotics (6

Marks)
A control system in robotics is a system that manages, commands,
directs, or regulates the behavior of a robot to achieve a desired output or
goal.

Definition:
A control system is a set of devices or algorithms that governs the motion
or operation of a robot by using feedback from sensors or pre-programmed
inputs.

Purpose of Control System in Robotics:

 To maintain accuracy and precision in movement.

 To enable robots to respond to external stimuli.
 To allow robots to perform repetitive tasks consistently.
 To ensure safety and efficiency during robot operation.

Basic Components of a Robotic Control System:

Component Function
Controller Processes input and sends control signals
Actuators Perform movement (e.g., motors, servos)
Sensors Provide data about environment or robot state
Feedback
Adjusts system based on output vs desired goal
Mechanism

Example:

In a robotic arm:

 The controller sends a signal to rotate a joint.

 The motor moves the joint.
 A sensor checks the joint’s position.
 If there's an error, the controller corrects it.

13. ii) Explain the Open and Closed Loop

Control System With Suitable Example (6
Marks)

1. Open Loop Control System:

  No feedback is used to adjust the output.
 The system performs an action based on the input command only.
 Cannot correct errors automatically.

Block Diagram:

13. i) Define Control System in Robotics (6

Marks)
A control system in robotics is a set of devices and algorithms that
manage, command, direct, or regulate the behavior of a robot. It ensures
that the robot performs its tasks accurately, efficiently, and safely.

Key Functions of a Control System:

 Converts input commands (from human or sensors) into mechanical

actions.
 Maintains stability, direction, speed, and force.
 Ensures the robot responds correctly to external and internal
changes.

Example: In a robotic arm, the control system makes sure the joints move to
the correct angle as per the given input.
13. ii) Open and Closed Loop Control System
with Example (6 Marks)
Open-Loop Control System:

 No feedback is used.
 The system does not measure or correct its output.
 Output depends only on input commands.

Example:

 Washing machine: Operates for a fixed time regardless of how clean

the clothes are.
 Simple robotic arm: Moves to a position without checking if it
reached the exact location.

Closed-Loop Control System:

 Uses feedback to compare actual output with the desired output.

 Adjusts the operation based on the feedback.
 More accurate and adaptive.

Example:

 Self-balancing robot: Uses sensors like gyroscopes to detect tilt and

correct its position.
 Temperature-controlled oven: Adjusts heat based on temperature
feedback.

Comparison Table:

Open-Loop
Feature Closed-Loop System
System
Feedback Not used Used
Accuracy Lower Higher
Complexity Simple More complex
Cost Low Higher
Example Fan with timer Air conditioner with thermostat
14. i) Sensors Used in Designing a Vacuum
Cleaning Robot (6 Marks)
A vacuum cleaning robot (like a Roomba) uses various types of sensors to
clean autonomously and avoid obstacles.

Key Sensors:

Sensor Type Function

Infrared (IR)
Detects nearby obstacles or edges (like stairs).
Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor Measures distance to obstacles using sound waves.
Bump Sensor Detects collisions when robot physically hits something.
Wheel Encoder Tracks wheel rotations to estimate movement/distance.
Gyroscope / IMU Maintains orientation and balance.
Dust Sensor Detects the amount of dirt to increase suction power.
Cliff Sensor Prevents falling off stairs or ledges.

These sensors help the robot navigate, avoid obstacles, clean

efficiently, and stay safe.

14. ii) Role of Sensors in Robotics (6 Marks)

Importance of Sensors in Robotics:

Sensors act as the “eyes, ears, and skin” of a robot, enabling it to interact
with its environment intelligently.

Role of Sensors:

1. Perception:
o Sensors collect data about the environment (light, temperature,
motion, distance, etc.).
o Example: Camera detects a human; LIDAR maps a room.
2. Decision-Making:
o Robots process sensor data using algorithms or AI to make
decisions.
o Example: Avoid obstacles if ultrasonic sensor detects a wall.
3. Control:
 o Sensors help in feedback control, allowing robots to adjust
their movements.
o Example: A line-following robot adjusts its wheels based on IR
sensor input.

15. i) What are the Fundamental Steps

Involved in Digital Image Processing? (6
Marks)
Digital Image Processing (DIP) refers to the use of computer algorithms
to perform image processing on digital images. The goal is to improve image
quality or extract useful information.

Fundamental Steps:

1. Image Acquisition
o Capturing the image using a camera or sensor.
o Converts physical image to digital format.
2. Preprocessing
o Improves image quality by reducing noise, adjusting contrast,
etc.
o Common techniques: filtering, smoothing, resizing.
3. Image Enhancement
o Highlights important features (e.g., sharpening edges, improving
brightness).
4. Image Segmentation
o Divides the image into meaningful parts (e.g., objects,
backgrounds).
o Used in object detection and recognition.
5. Feature Extraction
o Identifies key information like shapes, colors, or textures from
the image.
6. Image Recognition / Classification
o Uses algorithms (including AI) to classify objects within the
image (e.g., detecting a face, a car, etc.).
7. Image Compression and Storage
o Reduces the size for efficient storage and transmission.

These steps are commonly used in robotics for object detection, navigation,
and manipulation.
15. ii) Basic Principles to Integrate Artificial
Intelligence into Robotics (6 Marks)
Integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) into robotics helps machines learn,
reason, and act intelligently in dynamic environments.

Basic Principles for AI Integration:

1. Perception and Sensing

o Use of sensors and cameras for robots to gather data.
o AI processes this data to "understand" the environment.
2. Machine Learning and Adaptation
o Implement ML algorithms to help robots learn from past
experiences.
o Example: A robot arm improves its pick-and-place accuracy over
time.
3. Planning and Decision-Making
o AI helps robots make smart decisions using techniques like path
planning, reinforcement learning, etc.
4. Natural Language Processing (NLP)
o Enables robots to understand and respond to human
commands.
o Example: Voice-controlled assistant robots.
5. Autonomous Navigation
o AI enables robots to self-navigate using computer vision and
mapping (SLAM).
6. Human-Robot Interaction (HRI)
o AI enhances safety, collaboration, and communication between
humans and robots.

i) Explain Edge Detection in Image Processing

(6 Marks)
Edge detection is a technique in image processing used to identify
boundaries or outlines of objects within an image. It helps simplify the
image data by highlighting areas of intensity change, which often
correspond to object edges.

Purpose of Edge Detection:

  Detect shapes, objects, or boundaries.
 Used in object recognition, segmentation, and tracking.
 Helps robots or computer systems understand the environment.

How It Works:

Edge detection finds areas where the brightness of pixels changes

sharply. These changes typically represent edges.

Common Edge Detection Operators:

Operator Description
Sobel Detects edges using horizontal and vertical gradients.
Prewitt Similar to Sobel, but slightly simpler.
Advanced multi-stage algorithm with noise reduction and
Canny
accurate detection.
Detects edges based on second-order derivatives (sensitive to
Laplacian
noise).

Applications:

 Face detection
 Object tracking in robotics
 Medical imaging (e.g., detecting tumors)
 Self-driving vehicles for lane detection

ii) Python Code for Edge Detection (6 Marks)

Here is a sample Python code using OpenCV for edge detection with the
Canny algorithm:
Explanation of Code:

 cv2.imread(): Loads the image in grayscale.

 cv2.Canny(): Performs Canny edge detection. Thresholds define edge
sensitivity.
 matplotlib.pyplot: Displays the image side-by-side.

17. i) Comparison between Microprocessor

and Microcontroller (6 Marks)
Feature Microprocessor Microcontroller
A compact system with CPU,
A CPU used to perform
Definition RAM, ROM, I/O, and timer on one
computations.
chip.
Only CPU; external RAM, All components (RAM, ROM, I/O,
Components
ROM, I/O needed. timer) built-in.
Computers, servers, and Embedded systems like washing
Used in
high-end systems. machines, robots.
More expensive (requires
Cost Cost-effective.
extra parts).
Power High, due to external
Low, optimized for power.
Consumption peripherals.
Moderate speed, optimized for
Speed High processing power.
control tasks.
Application Data-intensive tasks Control-oriented tasks (sensing,
Focus (computation-heavy). automation).

Conclusion: Microprocessors are better for processing-heavy tasks, while

microcontrollers are ideal for embedded control applications in robotics,
automation, and IoT.

17. ii) PIN Details of an 8051 Microcontroller

(6 Marks)
The 8051 microcontroller has 40 pins. It is an 8-bit microcontroller widely
used in embedded systems.

8051 Pin Diagram Summary:

Pin
Name Function
No.
1-8 P1.0 - P1.7 Port 1: General-purpose I/O port.
9 RST Reset Pin: High pulse resets the microcontroller.
Port 3: I/O port with alternate functions (RxD, TxD, INT,
10-17 P3.0 - P3.7
T0, T1, WR, RD).
XTAL2,
18-19 Crystal oscillator pins (for clock input).
XTAL1
20 GND Ground.
21-28 P2.0 - P2.7 Port 2: Higher-order address bus (also I/O port).
Program Store Enable (used to read external program
29 PSEN
memory).
Address Latch Enable (used to latch address from
30 ALE/PROG
data).
External Access: 0 = use external ROM, 1 = use
31 EA/VPP
internal memory.
Port 0: Multiplexed low-order address/data bus (also
32-39 P0.0 - P0.7
I/O).
40 VCC Power supply (+5V).

Explanation of Important Ports:

 Port 0: Dual-purpose (I/O + address/data lines when external memory

is used).
 Port 1: Simple digital I/O.
 Port 2: I/O or upper address bus.
 Port 3: I/O with alternate functions (UART, timer, interrupt control).

Applications:

 Robotics controllers
 Embedded systems
 Sensor interface units
 Industrial automation
18. i) What is a Microcontroller? Explain the
Different Types of Microcontrollers (6 Marks)
What is a Microcontroller?

A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to control a

specific task in embedded systems. It includes a CPU, memory (RAM and
ROM), I/O ports, and timers all on a single chip.

Example: Used in washing machines, robots, automatic lighting, and remote

controls.

Types of Microcontrollers:

1. Based on Bit Size:

Type Description
8-bit Handles 8-bit data; simple control tasks. Example: 8051, AVR
16-
More precision and speed. Example: MSP430
bit
32-
High performance; used in complex systems. Example: ARM Cortex-M
bit

2. Based on Memory Architecture:

 Harvard Architecture: Separate memory for program and data

(faster).
 Von Neumann Architecture: Single memory for both program and
data (simpler).

3. Based on Application:

Type Application
General Purpose Used in a wide variety of devices.
Embedded- Tailored for specific functions (e.g., motor control,
specific medical devices).
 4. Popular Microcontrollers:

 8051: Classic 8-bit microcontroller.

 AVR (e.g., ATmega328): Used in Arduino boards.
 PIC: Popular in industrial use.
 ARM Cortex: Advanced 32-bit MCUs used in modern systems.

18. ii) Architecture and Key Components of a

Raspberry Pi Board (6 Marks)
The Raspberry Pi is a low-cost, credit-card-sized single-board computer
used for learning, prototyping, and IoT applications.

Key Components of Raspberry Pi:

Component Function
Executes instructions and controls overall
CPU (ARM Processor)
processing.
Temporary memory for running programs (ranges
RAM
from 512MB to 8GB).
General Purpose Input/Output pins for connecting
GPIO Pins
sensors, LEDs, etc.
USB Ports Connect keyboard, mouse, and other USB devices.
HDMI Port Connects to display or monitor.
Camera Interface (CSI) Connects to Raspberry Pi camera module.
Display Interface (DSI) Connects to touchscreens or displays.
Stores operating system and files (acts as hard
SD Card Slot
drive).
Ethernet/WiFi/
Network communication and device connectivity.
Bluetooth
Power Supply Port Provides 5V power via USB-C or micro-USB.
Audio Jack Connects to headphones or audio output.

How They Contribute to Functionality:

 GPIO pins: Enable interfacing with external hardware (sensors,

motors).
 CPU + RAM: Allows it to run full OS like Raspberry Pi OS (Linux).
  SD card: Stores bootable OS, making the Pi a complete computer.
 Wireless and USB interfaces: Enable it to be used for IoT,
robotics, AI, and more.

Applications:

 Home automation
 Robotics
 IoT devices
 Media centers
 Educational projects

19. i) Significance of ROS Messages and

Services (6 Marks)
ROS (Robot Operating System) uses a modular architecture
where various components (nodes) must communicate and
share data. This is achieved using messages and services,
which are core communication tools.

ROS Messages:

 Definition: ROS messages are structured data formats used for

sending information between nodes via topics.
 Example: A sensor_msgs/Temperature message carries temperature
sensor data.

Importance:

 Enables continuous data exchange between sensors, controllers, and

actuators.
 Used for real-time communication, e.g., streaming camera or LIDAR
data.
 Promotes modularity: Each node can focus on a single task (e.g.,
sensing, actuation).
ROS Services:

 Definition: ROS services are used for request-reply style

communication.
 A node sends a request and waits for a specific response.
 Used for one-time actions (not continuous like topics).

Example:

 A mobile robot service to move to a specific location.

o Request: target coordinates
o Response: success or failure

Importance:

 Ideal for tasks like “start motor,” “reset sensor,” or “get status.”
 Enables controlled and synchronized execution of actions.

19. ii) Basic Architecture of Robot Operating

System (ROS) and Key Components (6 Marks)
ROS Architecture Overview:

ROS is not an OS but a middleware framework that provides tools and

libraries to build robot applications. It uses a distributed system of
processes (nodes) that communicate over a network.

Key Components of ROS:

Component Description
Independent modules that perform computation (e.g.,
Nodes
camera node, motor controller node).
Channels for asynchronous, one-way communication (used
Topics
with messages).
Predefined formats for data exchange between nodes (e.g.,
Messages
Pose, Velocity).
Services Synchronous, two-way communication (request-reply).
Keeps track of all nodes, topics, and services. Acts like a
Master
central registry.
 Component Description
Parameter Stores configuration data (e.g., robot name, max speed).
Server Accessible by all nodes.
Files used to record and playback ROS data (for debugging
Bags
and testing).
XML files used to start multiple nodes and set parameters at
Launch Files
once.

Communication Flow in ROS:

1. Master Node initializes and connects publishers and subscribers.

2. Publisher Node sends data (e.g., camera stream).
3. Subscriber Node receives and uses the data (e.g., image processing).
4. Service Client sends request; Service Server responds.
5. Parameters provide tuning and configuration without changing code.

20. i) Common Applications of ROS in

Robotics (6 Marks)
The Robot Operating System (ROS) is widely used in various areas of
robotics due to its modularity, flexibility, and open-source support.
Some of its common applications include:

1. Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs):

 Example: Self-driving delivery robots and warehouse AGVs.

 ROS helps with navigation, mapping (SLAM), and obstacle avoidance
using packages like nav_stack and move_base.

2. Robot Manipulators:

 Used in industrial arms (e.g., robotic welding, pick and place).

 ROS integrates with MoveIt! for motion planning, kinematics, and
control.
3. Drones and UAVs:

 For aerial mapping, surveillance, and delivery.

 ROS supports flight control, GPS integration, and camera data
processing.

4. Humanoid Robots:

 ROS is used for controlling joints, sensors, vision, and speech.

 Example: Pepper, NAO, and TurtleBot platforms use ROS for
perception and interaction.

5. Service Robots:

 Robots used in homes, hospitals, or hospitality (e.g., cleaning, guiding).

 ROS enables voice commands, face recognition, and task automation.

6. Simulation and Research:

 ROS works with Gazebo and Rviz for simulating robotic environments.
 Ideal for prototyping before real-world testing.

20. ii) Feasibility of Implementing ROS on

Embedded Systems or Specialized Hardware
(6 Marks)
Yes, it is feasible to implement ROS on embedded systems and
specialized hardware, although there are some considerations such as
processing power, memory, and real-time requirements.

Lightweight ROS Versions:

 ROS 2 is better suited for embedded systems due to:

 o Real-time communication (using DDS)
o Support for microcontrollers via micro-ROS

Example:

ROS on Raspberry Pi (Embedded Platform):

 Use case: Building a home service robot using a Raspberry Pi 4.

 It runs ROS (or ROS 2) and connects with sensors (e.g., ultrasonic, IR)
and actuators (motors).
 The robot uses ROS packages for movement and mapping, and GPIO
pins for sensor data collection.

Example: ROS on STM32 using micro-ROS:

 Use case: Integrating a ROS-based system into a small drone or

wearable robot.
 micro-ROS enables running ROS 2 nodes on STM32
microcontrollers, connecting to a main ROS system via serial or WiFi.
 Enables cost-effective, low-power, real-time control.

Advantages:

 Makes ROS more accessible for IoT and low-power robotics.

 Enables edge computing and local sensor data processing.