🧪 Experiment to show the action of Saliva on Starch

Aim

To demonstrate that saliva (which contains the enzyme salivary amylase) breaks
down starch into simpler sugars during digestion.

Materials Required

●​ 1% Starch solution​

●​ Fresh saliva (or filtered saliva solution)​

●​ Dilute iodine solution​

●​ Two test tubes (A & B)​

●​ Dropper​

Procedure

1.​ Take 1 mL starch solution in Test Tube A and Test Tube B.​

2.​ Add 1 mL of saliva to Test Tube A.​

3.​ Leave both test tubes undisturbed for 20–30 minutes at room temperature.​

4.​ After 30 minutes, add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to both test tubes.​

Observations
Test Tube Reaction Observation Reason
with Iodine
A (Starch + No blue No colour Starch has been broken
Saliva) colour change down by salivary amylase.
B (Starch Blue-black Blue-black Starch is still present. No
only) colour colour appears digestion occurred.

Explanation

●​ Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase (or ptyalin).​

●​ Salivary amylase breaks down starch (a complex carbohydrate) into

maltose (a simpler sugar).​

●​ When iodine is added:​

○​ If starch is present → it gives a blue-black colour.​

○​ If starch is absent (digested) → no colour change occurs.​

Conclusion

✅
This experiment shows that:​
Saliva breaks down starch into simpler sugars, starting the process of
digestion in the mouth.

✅ The blue-black colour appears only when starch is present.

Food Digestion in the Alimentary Canal: Peristalsis and the Stomach

🌸 Smooth Lining of the Alimentary Canal

●​ The alimentary canal is the long tube in our body where food passes from the
mouth to the anus.​

●​ Its inner lining (walls) is soft and smooth. This allows food to move easily
without damage.​

●​ The smoothness helps in the easy movement of food through the canal.​

🌸 Peristalsis: The Movement of Food

 ●​ The walls of the alimentary canal contain muscles that contract and relax
rhythmically.​

●​ These wave-like contractions push the food forward along the canal. This
movement is called peristalsis.​

●​ Peristalsis is very important because it ensures food moves from one part of
the digestive system to the next for proper digestion.​

🌀 Peristalsis = wave-like muscle movement that pushes food forward.

🌸 Path of Food: From Mouth to Stomach
1.​ Food is chewed in the mouth and mixed with saliva.​

2.​ It passes through the oesophagus (food-pipe), where peristalsis pushes it

into the stomach.​

🌸 Role of the Stomach in Digestion

●​ The stomach is a large, J-shaped organ that expands when food enters.​

●​ Its muscular walls churn and mix the food thoroughly with digestive juices
(like HCl and enzymes).​

●​ This mixing helps to:​

○​ Break down large food particles into smaller ones.​

○​ Mix food with gastric juices that start the digestion of proteins.​

🌸 Summary Points:
●​ The smooth lining of the alimentary canal ensures food moves smoothly.​

●​ Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles that moves

food forward.​
 ●​ Food travels from the mouth → oesophagus → stomach.​

●​ The stomach is a large muscular organ where food is mixed with digestive
juices for further digestion.

🌸 Structure and Function of the Stomach Wall in Digestion

🏗️ Structure of the Stomach Wall
The wall of the stomach is made up of different layers:

1.​ Epithelium – The inner layer with special cells.​

2.​ Mucosa – A soft layer that secretes mucus to protect the stomach lining.​

3.​ Gastric Glands – Tiny glands present in the wall of the stomach. These
produce digestive substances like:​

○​ Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)​

○​ Pepsin enzyme (digests proteins)​

○​ Mucus (protects the stomach)​

🌸 Role of Gastric Secretions

Substance from Function
Gastric Gland
HCl (Hydrochloric Makes the stomach acidic (pH ~2). Helps pepsin work
acid) effectively. Kills harmful bacteria in food.
Pepsin enzyme Breaks down proteins into simpler forms (peptides). Needs
acidic pH to work.
Mucus Forms a protective layer over the stomach lining. Prevents
damage by HCl.

⚠️ Acidity Problem
●​ Normally, mucus protects the stomach lining.​
 ●​ But sometimes, excess HCl irritates the stomach lining.​

●​ This can cause a burning sensation in the stomach and food pipe. This
problem is called acidity.​

🌸 Movement of Food: Important Parts

Part Function
Esophagus Pushes food from mouth to stomach.
(Food-pipe)
Stomach Mixes food with gastric juices for protein digestion.
Pyloric A muscular valve at the end of the stomach. It controls the
sphincter movement of food into the duodenum (first part of the small
intestine).
Duodenum First part of the small intestine where further digestion happens.

🌸 Summary
●​ The stomach has gastric glands that secrete HCl, pepsin, and mucus.​

●​ HCl helps pepsin work and kills bacteria.​

●​ Mucus protects the stomach wall.​

●​ Sometimes, excess HCl causes acidity (burning sensation).

🌸 Small Intestine, Sphincters, and Alimentary Canal Structure

🌀 Sphincter Muscles and Their Role
●​ Sphincter muscles are ring-like muscles that control the movement of food
between different parts of the alimentary canal.​

●​ The pyloric sphincter is located between the stomach and small intestine.​
 ●​ It regulates the exit of food from the stomach into the small intestine in
small amounts to ensure proper digestion.​

🌀 Small Intestine
●​ The small intestine is the longest and highly coiled part of the alimentary
canal.​

●​ It is where most digestion and absorption of food occurs.​

🌀 Alimentary Canal Parts (Quick Review)

Part Function
Esophagus Transfers food from mouth to stomach.
Esophageal sphincter Controls food entry into the stomach.
Pyloric sphincter Controls food exit from stomach to small intestine.

Stomach Mixes food, starts protein digestion.

Rugae Folds inside the stomach wall, helps in expansion.

Small intestine Digestion and absorption of nutrients.

Large intestine Absorbs water and forms feces.
Caecum A pouch at the start of the large intestine.
Appendix A small, vestigial organ attached to caecum.
Colon (Ascending, Transverse, Different parts of the large intestine, absorb water
Descending, Sigmoid) and minerals.
Rectum Stores feces.
Anus Exit point for waste materials.
 🌀 Length of Small Intestine and Diet Type
Type of Animal Diet Small Why?
Intestine
Length
Herbivores (e.g., Plants (high Longer Cellulose is hard to digest, needs
cow, goat) in cellulose) more time for digestion.
Carnivores (e.g., Meat Shorter Meat is easier to digest, needs
lion, tiger) less time.

🌿 Summary
✅✅Pyloric sphincter regulates food movement from the stomach to small intestine.​

✅ The small intestine is long and coiled to help digest and absorb food.​

✅ Carnivores have a shorter small intestine because meat is easier to digest.

Herbivores have a longer small intestine for digesting cellulose-rich plants.​

🌸 Digestion in the Small Intestine

🌀 Small Intestine: The Main Site of Digestion
●​ The small intestine is the place where complete digestion of:​

○​ Carbohydrates​

○​ Proteins​

○​ Fats​
happens.​

●​ It receives digestive juices from:​

○​ Liver (via bile juice)​

○​ Pancreas (via pancreatic juice)​

🌸 Role of the Liver

 ●​ The liver produces a greenish-yellow liquid called bile juice.​

●​ Bile has two important roles:​

1.​ Emulsification of fats:​

■​ Bile breaks large fat globules into smaller ones (like soap breaks
down grease).​

■​ This increases the surface area for enzymes (like lipase) to act on
fats.​

■​ Helps in efficient digestion of fats.​

2.​ Neutralization of acidity:​

■​ The food coming from the stomach is acidic due to HCl.​

■​ Bile juice makes this food alkaline, which is necessary for the
enzymes in the small intestine to work.​

🌸 Role of the Pancreas

●​ The pancreas releases pancreatic juice into the small intestine.​

●​ Pancreatic juice contains:​

○​ Amylase (digests carbohydrates)​

○​ Lipase (digests fats)​

○​ Trypsin (digests proteins)​

🌀 Alimentary Canal Parts Recap (Focus on Large Intestine)

Part Function
Small Intestine Complete digestion and
absorption of nutrients.
Large Intestine (including caecum, ascending Absorbs water, forms and stores
colon, transverse colon, descending colon, feces.
sigmoid colon, rectum)
Appendix Small, vestigial organ attached to
the caecum.
Anus Exit point for waste.

🌸 Key Concept: Emulsification (Like Soap Action)

●​ Bile salts act like soap: They break up big fat droplets into smaller ones,
making it easier for enzymes to digest them.​

●​ This is called emulsification of fats.​

🌿 Summary
✅ The small intestine is the main site of digestion of carbohydrates, proteins,

✅
and fats.​

✅ The liver produces bile for emulsification of fats and neutralization of acid.​

✅ The large intestine absorbs water and forms feces.

The pancreas provides enzymes for the digestion of all food types.​

🌸 Role of Liver, Pancreas, and Small Intestine in Digestion

🏭 Liver
●​ The liver produces bile juice.​

●​ Bile helps in:​

1.​ Emulsification of fats – breaking large fat globules into smaller ones
(like soap action).​

2.​ Neutralizing acidic food coming from the stomach (acidic chyme).​

🏭 Pancreas
 ●​ The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.​

●​ Pancreatic juice contains:​

○​ Trypsin – digests proteins into simpler peptides.​

○​ Lipase – digests emulsified fats into fatty acids and glycerol.​

○​ Amylase – digests starch into maltose (a simple sugar).​

🏭 Glands in the Small Intestine Wall

●​ The walls of the small intestine have intestinal glands.​

●​ These glands secrete intestinal juice (also called succus entericus).​

●​ The enzymes in intestinal juice complete the digestion:​

○​ Proteins → amino acids.​

○​ Carbohydrates → glucose.​

○​ Fats → fatty acids + glycerol.​

🌀 Absorption of Digested Food

●​ After digestion, the walls of the small intestine (with villi) absorb the
digested food:​

○​ Glucose and amino acids go into the blood.​

○​ Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lymph vessels (lacteals).​
🌿 Summary Table
Organ Secretion Enzyme(s) Digestion
Liver Bile (No enzyme) Emulsifies fats; neutralizes acid
Pancreas Pancreatic Trypsin, Proteins → peptides; Fats → fatty acids
juice Lipase, + glycerol; Starch → maltose
Amylase
Small Intestinal Various Final digestion: Proteins → amino acids;
intestine juice enzymes Carbs → glucose; Fats → fatty acids +
(glands) glycerol

🌿 Absorption of Digested Food in the Small Intestine

🌸 Villi: The Absorption Units
●​ The inner lining of the small intestine has many finger-like projections
called villi.​

●​ These villi:​

○​ Increase the surface area for absorption.​

○​ Contain a network of blood vessels and lymph vessels (lacteals).​

○​ Absorb:​

■​ Glucose (carbohydrates → glucose)​

■​ Amino acids (proteins → amino acids)​

■​ Fatty acids and glycerol (fats → fatty acids + glycerol)​

●​ Once absorbed:​

○​ Blood vessels carry glucose and amino acids to all body cells for:​

■​ Energy production​

■​ Building new tissues​

■​ Repairing old tissues​

 ○​ Lymph vessels (lacteals) absorb fatty acids and glycerol.​

🌿 Large Intestine: Water Absorption & Waste Removal

🚰 Functions of the Large Intestine:
●​ After absorption in the small intestine, the unabsorbed food (mainly waste)
moves into the large intestine.​

●​ The large intestine:​

○​ Absorbs excess water from the waste material.​

○​ This makes the waste more solid (forming faeces).​

🚪 Removal of Waste (Egestion):

●​ The remaining waste (undigested material, dead cells, bacteria) is stored in
the rectum.​

●​ It is finally removed from the body through the anus.​

●​ This process is controlled by a ring of muscles called the anal sphincter.​

🌿 Summary Table: Digestion, Absorption, and Egestion

Organ Function
Small Absorption of digested nutrients through
Intestine villi.
Large Absorbs water from undigested food, forms
Intestine solid waste.
Rectum & Stores faeces and controls egestion (via
Anus anal sphincter).
🦷 Dental Caries (Tooth Decay)
🏥 What is Dental Caries?
●​ Dental caries or tooth decay is the gradual softening and damage of the
tooth enamel and dentine.​

●​ It happens when bacteria in the mouth feed on sugary food and produce
acids.​

●​ These acids dissolve minerals in the enamel and dentine, causing cavities
(holes in the tooth).​

🧫 Process of Tooth Decay

1.​ Sugary food is left on the tooth surface.​

2.​ Bacteria act on the sugar, converting it into acids.​

3.​ Acids slowly dissolve (demineralise) the enamel (hard outer layer) and
dentine (softer inner layer).​

4.​ A cavity forms, which can deepen over time (deep caries).​

5.​ If left untreated, bacteria reach the pulp (soft inner part of the tooth) and
cause inflammation and infection (toothache).​

🍬 Dental Plaque
●​ A sticky film called dental plaque forms on the teeth.​

●​ Plaque = bacteria + food particles.​

●​ Plaque prevents saliva from neutralizing the acids.​

●​ This speeds up tooth decay.​

🪥 Prevention of Tooth Decay

✅✅Brush teeth after eating, especially after sugary food.​

✅ Remove dental plaque by regular cleaning.​

✅ Visit the dentist regularly for check-ups.

Limit sugary snacks.​

🦷 Summary Table
Stage What Happens?
Healthy tooth Enamel is strong and intact.
Early caries Acid slowly softens enamel.
Cavity (deep caries) Hole forms in tooth, pain starts.
Advanced decay Bacteria infect pulp, causing pain and swelling.