Class 12 Psychology

Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude

Notes by Rahul Uniyal (9654382550)

• Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s

characteristics and behaviour patterns.
• Approaches explaining individual differences in psychological functioning.
1. Trait Approach: Personal traits cause change in behaviours. [INTERNAL FACTORS]
2. Situationism is a view which states that situations and circumstances in which one is
placed to influence one’s behaviour. [EXTERNAL FACTORS]
3. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of
influence of external (situational) factors than personality traits.
• Assessment:
1. Predict future behaviour intervention to affect a change in behaviour.
2. First step in understanding a psychological attribute.
• Formal Assessment: Objective, standardised, organised’ psychologists are trained in
making formal assessment.
• Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to another—open to
subjective interpretation.
• Attributes:
1. Attributes chosen for assessment depend upon the purpose, e.g, improvement of a weak
student intellectual strengths and weaknesses are measured.
2. An attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific
procedures.
• Some Domains of Psychological Attributes

• Assessment Methods

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1. Wechsler:
• Definition: The global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act
purposefully, and to deal effectively with his/her environment.
• Understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaption to the
environment.
• Intelligence test most widely used.

2. Gardner and Sternberg:

• An intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment but also actively modifies or
shapes it.
• Approaches to Study Intelligence

A. Psychometric Approach:
1. Uni/One-Factor Theory (Alfred Binet):
• Definition: The ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
• First psychologist who formalised the concept of intelligence in terms of mental
operations.
• Differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
• Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used

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for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment.
2. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman) [1927]:
• Employed a statistical method called factor analysis.
• Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific factors (S-factor).
(i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and common to all
performances.
(ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to excel in their respective
domains
3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone):
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas).
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills).
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns and forms).
(iv) Perceptual Speed To speed in perceiving details).
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly).
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information).
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).
4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen):
Abilities operates at two levels:
Level I – Associative learning. [output is equal to input, rote memory]
Level II – Cognitive competence. [output is more than input]
5. Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford) [1988]:
• Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents and products
(i) Operation: what the respondent does, e.g., cognition, memory retention.
(ii) Contents: the nature of materials or information on which intellectual
• operations are performed, e.g., visual, auditory.
(iii) Products: the form in which information is processed by the respondent, e.g., relations,
systems, transformations.
• Classification includes 6x5x6 categories—the model has 180 cells.
• Each cell is expected to have at least one (can have more than one) factor or ability and is
described in terms of all three dimensions.
B. Information-Processing Approach:
1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner):
• Intelligence is not a single entity; distinct types of intelligences exist independent of each
other.
• Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
• Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas and
described eight types of intelligence.
(i) Linguistic: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and
understand other. Persons high on this ‘word-smart’, e.g., poets and writers.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical: Skills in problem solving, thinking logically and critically and
abstract reasoning , e.g., scientists.
(iii) Spatial: The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images (visual
images and patterns), e.g., sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators.
(iv) Musical: The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical rhythms and patterns.
(v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: The use of the whole body or portions of it creatively and
flexibly for display, construction of products and problem solving, e.g., athletes, dancers,

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actors. .
(vi) Interpersonal: Skill of an individual to understand the needs, motives feelings and
behaviours of other people for better understanding and relationship. High among
psychologists counsellors politicians.
(vii) INTRA PERSONAL: Refers to the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, desires,
knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to
effectively relate to others, eg, philosophers.
(viii) Naturalistic: Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world and
sensitivity to the features of the natural world, eg, botanists, zoologists.
2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) [1985]:
• Definition: The ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals
and those of one’s society and culture.
• Three Basic Types of Intelligence:
(i) Componential Intelligence/Analytical Intelligence: The analysis of information to solve
problems
Three components:
(a) Knowledge Acquisition—responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing
things.
(b) Meta or Higher Order Component—planning concerning what to do and how to do it.
(c) Performance Component—actually doing things .
(ii) Experiential/Creative Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve novel
problems.
— Ability to integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and
inventions.
— Quickly find out what information is crucial in a given situation.
(iii) Contextual/Practical Intelligence: The ability to deal with environmental demands
encountered on a daily basis—
— may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’
— easily adapt to their present environment/select a more favourable environment, modify
the environment to fit their needs.
3. Planning, Attention-arousal and Simultaneous-Successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence
(J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby) [1994]
• Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems,
called the functional units of brain
• These units are responsible for—
(i) Arousal/Attention:
— Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
— An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem.
— Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention and attend to stimuli.
(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
— Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate – them into a
meaningful pattern for comprehension, e.g., RSPM.
— Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to the
recall of another, e.g., learning of digits, letters. .
(iii) Planning:
— Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target,

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and evaluate their effectiveness.
— If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
• These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by
reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment.
• These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature, yet each has its own distinctive
function.
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Nagliery):
• Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age.
• Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions
presumed to be independent of schooling.
• Results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning
problems.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE:

The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins
and adopted children.

CORRELATION OF INTELLIGENCE
• Separated early in childhood-—show considerable similarity in their intellectual,
personality and behavioural characteristics.
• Adopted Children—children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than
adoptive parents.
• Role of Environment—as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move closer
to that of their adoptive parents.
• Disadvantaged Children—adopted into families with higher socio-economic status exhibit
a large increase in their intelligence scores.
1. Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family
background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
2. There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of
complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
3. Heredity sets a range within which an individual’s development is actually shaped by the
support and opportunities of the environment.

• Assessment of Intelligence
1905: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to formally
measure intelligence.
1908: Gave the concepts of Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a person’s intellectual
development relative to people of her/his age-group.

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Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
Retardation was being two mental age years below the chronological age.
1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient
(IQ). IQ refers to ratio between MA and CA. Formula—mental age divided by chronological
age, and multiplied by 100 (to avoid the decimal point).
• Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age.
• Frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called
the normal curve—symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.

VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE
1. Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as
significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits
in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period.
In order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show:
(i) Significantly sub average intellectual functioning, e.g., IQ below 70.
(ii) Deficits in adaptive behaviour or the capacity to be independent and deal effectively
with one’s environment.
Deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between 0-18 years.

Mild retardation—development is typically slower than that of their peers but they can
function quite independently, hold jobs and families. Level of retardation increases—lag
behind their peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in self-care skills and
simple social and communication skills.
2. Intellectual Giftedness:
Lewis Term an (1925): Study to show how intelligence was related to occupational success
and life adjustment. These individual show higher performance because of their outstanding
potentialities.
Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of
areas.
• Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity and high
commitment.

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• Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger attention span, good
memory, sensitivity to environmental changes, early appearance of language skills.
• Other characteristics are advanced logical thinking and problem solving, high speed in
processing information, high-level creative thinking, high self-esteem, independence.
• Incorrect to equate with brilliant academic performance: each gifted student possesses
different strengths, personalities and characteristics, e.g., athletes.
Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, e.g., social, and are often called
prodigies.
Types of Intelligence Tests,
Individual or Group Test

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

Verbal, Non-verbal or performance Tests

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their
environment. The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to develop. ‘
Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art and
literature.

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Sternberg:
• Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of
culture.
Vygotsky (Russian psychologist):
• Culture provides a social context in which people live, grow and understand the world
around them.
• Elementary mental functions (e.g., walking, crying) are Universal; the manner in which
higher mental functions such as problem-solving and thinking operate are largely culture
produced.

• Equal attention given to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and their integration:
(i) Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem-solving
and effective communication).
(ii) Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the
needy, concern about others and recognising others perspectives).
(iii) Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty,
politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation).
(iv) Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance
and goal-directed behaviour).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and
regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence.
(i) Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ
is used to express intelligence.
(ii) Salovey and Mayer: The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

SPECIAL ABILITIES
Aptitude indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after
training.
(i) People with similar intelligence differed widely in acquiring certain knowledge or skills,
called aptitudes.
(ii) With proper training, these abilities can be considerably enhanced.
Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that
activity.

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(i) In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and
interest.
Aptitude Tests

• Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are
novel and appropriate.
• It refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to came up with unique
solutions to problems.
• Creativity involves the production of same thing new and original it may be an idea, object
or solution to a problem.
• Creativity can get manifested in different levels and in different areas.
• Everyday creativity/Day to day creativity. It could be reflected in day to day activities like
writing, teaching, storytelling, flower arrangement, dance etc.
• Special talent creativity/Higher order creativity. It is related to outstanding creative
achievements e.g. inventions and discoveries.
• Creativity is always reality oriented, appropriate, constructive and socially desirable.
• Everyday creativity could be seen in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit
creativity and that all may not be operating at the same level.
• Researches suggest that children mostly express their imagination through physical
activities and in non-verbal ways, although when language and intellectual functions are
fully developed and store of knowledge is adequately available then creativity is expressed
through verbal modes too.
• There is no disagreement that creativity in determined by both heredity and environment.
• Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity.
• Environmental factors stimulate the development of creativity.
• No amount of training can transform an average person to develop special talent creativity
or higher order creativity like Tagore, Einstein or Shakespear.
CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE:
• Certain level of intelligence in necessary to be creative, but a high level of intelligence,
however does not ensure that a person would certainly be creative.
• Researchers have found that both high and law level of creativity can be formed in highly
intelligent children and also children of average intelligence.
• Relation between creativity and intelligence is positive.

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Aptitude: A combination of characteristics indicative of individual’s potential to acquire
some specific skills with training.
• Aptitude Tests: Tests meant to measure individual’s potential to predict future
performance.
• Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas regarding a topic.
• Case Study: An intensive study of an individual or a situation to develop general principles
about behaviour.
• Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental activities association with thought,
decision making, language, and other higher mental processes.
• Cognitive Assessment System: A battery of tests designed to measure the four PASS
(Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-Successive) process.
• Componential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think
critically and analytically.
• Contextual Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the practical intelligence
used in solving everyday problems.
• Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects, and problem solutions that are novel and
appropriate.
• Culture-fair Test: A test that does not discriminate examinees on the basis of their culture
experiences.
• Emotional Intelligence: A cluster of traits or abilities relating to the emotional side of life
abilities such as recognising and managing one’s own emotions, being able to motivate
oneself and restrain one’s impulses, recognising and managing others’ emotions, and
handling interpersonal relationship in an effective manner. It is expressed in the form of an
emotional quotient (EQ) score.
• Experiential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the ability to use past
experiences creatively to solve novel problems.
• Factor Analysis: Mathematical procedure, involving correlations, for sorting trait terms or
test responses into clusters or factors; used in the development of test designed to discover
basic personality traits. It identifies items that are homogeneous or internally consistent and
independent of others.
• Fluid Intelligence: Ability to perceive complex relationship, reason abstractly, and solve
problems.
• Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living things are passed on in their genes.
• Group Test: A test designed to be administered to more than one individual at the same
time, in contrast to individual test.

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• Individual Differences: Distinctiveness and unique variations among people’s
characteristics and behaviour patterns.
• Individual Test: A test that must be given to a single individual at a time, typically by a
specially trained person. The Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests are examples of
individual test.
• Intellectual Giftedness: Exceptional general intellectual efficiency shown in superior
performance in a wide range of tasks.
• Intelligence: The capacity to understand the world, to think rationally, and to use
resources efficiency when faced with challenges.
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): An index derived from standardised intelligence tests
indicating a ratio of mental age to chronological age.
• Intelligence Test: Test designed to. measure person’s level of intelligence.
• Interest: An individual’s preference for one or more specific activities.
• Interview: Purposeful conversation through face to face interaction.
• Mental Age (MA): A measure of intellectual functioning combined with varying degrees of
deficits in adaptive behaviour.
• Mental Retardation: Sub-average intellectual functioning combined with varying degrees
of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
• Normal Probability Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution. Most scores
are found near the middle and fewer and fewer 6ccur towards the extremes. Many
psychological characteristics are distributed in this manner.
• Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score
on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test.
• Observational Method: Employing systematic, organised and objective procedures to
record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time.
• Observation method: Employing systematic organised and objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomena occurring naturally.
• Performance Test: A test in which the role of language is minimised, the task requiring
overt motor responses other than verbal.
• Planning: In Das PASS model of intelligence, it involves goal setting, strategy selection, and
monitoring of goal-oriented.
• Problem-solving Behaviour: The activity and mental processes involved in overcoming the
obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie between an animal and its goal.
• Psychological Test: An objective and standardised in instrument for measuring an
individual’s mental and behavioural traits; used by psychologists to help people make
decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves.
• Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives, potential and limitation.
• Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels of physical stimulation. –
• Simultaneous Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model that involves integrating
elements of the stimulus situation into composite and meaningful patterns.
• Situationism: A principle which states that situations and circumstances outside oneself
have the power to influence behaviour.
• Successive Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model where elements of the
stimulus situation are responded to sequentially.
• Values: Refers to the enduring beliefs about an ideal made of behaviour.

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• Verbal Test: Test in which a subject’s ability understand in making and use words and
concepts is important in paking the required responses.
NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence?

Ans. Psychological motion of intelligence is quite different from the common sensed motion
of intelligence.
Generally people saw intelligence as mental alertness, ready art, quickness in learning and
ability to understand relationships.
Oxford dictionary explained intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning understanding
and knowing.
Accordingly Alfred Binet also used these attributes and defined intelligence as ability to
judge well, understand well and reason well.Later Wechsler gave a comprehensive
definition in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaptation to environment. He
defined intelligence as “the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally,
act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment.”
Present day psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg emphasized that “Intelligent
individual not only adapts to the environment, but actively modifies or shapes it.”
Sternberg views intelligence as “ the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to
accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.”

2.What extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture)? Discuss. (CBSE 2014)
Ans. (i) Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a
question of debate.
(ii)Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture.
(iii)Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption
studies and environmental studies.
On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows:
(i)Identical twins reared together correlate 0.90
(ii)Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments correlate
0.72
(iii)Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60
(iv)Siblings reared together correlate 0.50
(v) Siblings reared apart correlate 0.25
•Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years
These studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their
biological parents.
These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature.
•Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years
According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of their
adoptive parents.
Environmental Studies
Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies.
(i) The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer to
that of their adoptive parents.
(ii)On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted
into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their intelligence
scores.

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(iii)Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good family
background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence.
(iv)There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture).
(v)Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment
facilitates the development of intelligence.

3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. (CBSE 2008)

Ans. Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic
principles:
(i)Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences.
(ii)The intelligences are independent from each other.
(iii)Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem. Gardner
has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess them in equal
proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence of one type of
intelligence over the others.
Following are the eight types of intelligence:
1.Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding etc. Poets
exhibit this ability better than others.
2.Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and
manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work.
3.Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation of
images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images.
Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and painters have highly
developed spatial intelligence.
4.Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for
singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music etc.
5.Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor
movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc.
6.Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of other
people.sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers have high degree
of inter-personal intelligence.
7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a sense of
identity, e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders.
8.Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and making
a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists,
students of biological sciences etc.

4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence? (CBSE 2012-13)
Ans. 1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information
processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select
environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.
3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem solving.
4. According to him there are three types of intelligences:
(i)Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive processes
that underlie an intelligent behaviour.
This dimension serves three different functions:
(a)Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in learning, encoding,

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combining and comparing information.
(b)Metacomponents: ‘Meta’ means higher. These are executive processes. They control
monitor and evaluate cognitive processing.
(c)Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared by
metacomponents to perform a task.For example, While studying students plan the lesson
chapterwise, they make
schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to comprehend
well.
(ii)Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences effect
intelligence and how intelligence effects a person’s experiences.
(а)Experiential intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to make use of one’s past
experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively.
(b)This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people.
(c) For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out of the
room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge of getting out
from this situation by watching out a movie few years back.
(iii)Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal with
environmental demands on daily basis.
(a)It is individual’s ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day life.
(b)It may be called street smartness or ‘business sense’.
(c)People high in this ability are successful in life.
•It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands and adapt to
different contexts with available resources.

5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three ‘neurological

systems’. Explain with reference to PASS model.
Ans. According to PASS model, theory based on information processing approach,
intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of the three neurological
systems called the functional units of the brain.
These units are responsible for:
•the arousal and attention. • the simultaneous and successive processing.
•the planning.
Arousal and Attention
(i)State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli.
(ii)Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
(iii)Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a problem.
(iv)Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and
performance. Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading,
learning and revising the contents of the material to be learnt.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various concepts and
integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension!
For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing appropriate pattern
by comprehending relationship.
Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one recall leads to
another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables.
Planning:
1.After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
2.Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their effectiveness. Planning allows

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us to think of possible courses of action and implementing them.
3.If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or the situation.
4.For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set goals, plan a time
schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems or think of other ways to meet
your goals.

6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?

Ans. Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and achievements in art of
literature, affects the process of intellectual development.
•According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture.
•Vyotsky believes that while elementary7 mental operations are common, higher mental
activities like problem-solving and thinking are culturally produced.
•Technological Intelligence
(i)Promotes an individualistic pattern of action.
(ii)Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess this kind of intelligence.
(iii)They are well versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, speed, moves
abstraction, generalisation, creativity, Minimum moves etc.
•Integral Intelligence
(i)Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence.
(ii)It views intelligence from a holistic perspective.
(iii)It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as well as their
integration.
(iv)‘Buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire.
(v)It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components. .
It includes:
(i)Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving).
(ii)Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others, respecting opinions of others).
(iii)Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring). ‘
(iv)Entrepreneurial competence commitment, persistence, patience).

7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the bases of their IQ scores?
Ans.(i)IQ is an index of brightness.
(ii)It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age.
(iii)The concept of IQ was given by William. Stern w7ho gave the formula to calculate IQ i.e.,

•IQ is relatively stable.

•It is a good predictor of potential.
•IQ scores are distributed in a population in such a way that most people tend to fall in the
middle range of the distribution.
•This can be shown in the form of following table

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8.Discuss various types of intelligence tests.
Or
How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
(CBSE 2008, 2014)
Ans. Types of Intelligence Tests:
Individual or group tests based on contact: .
Individual Test:
(i)Administered to one individual at a time.
(ii)Requires the administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to
his/her feelings, mood and expressions during the testing sessions which provides
understanding of other aspects of subjects personality.
(iii)Allows people to answer orally or in written form or manipulate the objects as per the
tester’s instructions.
• Example: Stanford Binet intelligence scale, WAIS, WISSC, Alexander Pass along test.
Group Test:
(i)Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously.
(ii)Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
(iii)Seek answers in a Multiple-choice format.
(iv)It is relatively economical and less time consuming.
(v)Example: Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Group Test on Intelligence by S.
Jalota.
Verbal, Non-verbal and Performance Tests based on Mode of Administration: Verbal
Tests:
(i)Requires subject to give verbal responses either orally or in written form.
(ii)Can be administered to literates only. ,
(iii)Example: CIE, Verbal Group Test, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale.
Non-verbal Test:
• Has pictures or illustrations as test items.
•Example: Ravens progressive matrices. In this test the subject examines an incomplete
pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete the pattern.
•Reduces culture biases.

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•Example: SRPM, CIE Non-verbal group test of Intelligence.
Performance Test:
•Requires the subject to manipulate objects to perform the test.
•Written language is not necessary for answering the items.
•Example: Kohs’s Block designs test. Here the subject is asked to arrange the blocks in a
specified period to produce a given design, Bhatia’s Battery performance test.
•Can be administered to persons from different cultures and reduce culture biases.
•Example: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, Kohs Block designs test.
Culture Biased or Culture Fair Tests based on Nature of Items used:
•Psychological tests that show a bias toward the culture in which they are developed are
Culture Biased Tests.
•Tests developed-in-America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural
ethos. (Middle class white subjects perform well on these tests). The items do not consider
favourably to Asians and Africans.
•Culture Fair Tests: One does not discriminate against as individuals belong to different
cultures.
•Non-verbal and Performance Tests reduce cultural influences.
To overcome the limitation of Culture biased tests, Culture fair tests were developed, e.g.
non-verbal and performance tests are called so because people of any culture could take
them. For e.g. Standard progressive Matrices and Bhatia’s Battery Performance Test.
9. Discuss how interplay of Nature and Nurture influences intelligence.
Or
All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their
intellectual ability? Explain. (CBSE 2014)
Ans. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual
ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Some possess high IQ
range while others have average or below average.
All the scores gradually and symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch
the X-axis.
(i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve,
called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value,
called the mean.
(ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2
percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their
IQ score is more than 130.
(iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in
a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence.
(iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation
refers to sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in
four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation.
The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e., they
enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity.

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10.Which of the two lQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and
Why?
Ans. (i) IQ is a good predictor of potential.
(ii) EQ is a good predictor of success.
-Researchers had proved that—EQ helps in dealing with students who are stressed and face
challenges of the outside world.
-It improves the academic performance.
-It is very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom.
-They are less anti-social and more co-operative.

11. How is ‘Aptitude’ different from ‘interest1 and intelligence?

Ans. Aptitude:
(i)Aptitude refers to combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s potential to
acquire some specific skills with training.
(ii)It is specific mental ability or teach ability of an individual to learn a particular skill.
(iii)It is the potentiality to perform a particular activity.
(iv)Aptitude is a determiner to learn a particular skill.
Interest:
(i)Interest refers to preference for a particular activity or what one enjoys doing.
(ii)Interest are acquired/learnt.
(iii)Interest is a facilitator.
An individual with high scientific aptitude having strong interest in mechanical activities is
more likely to be successful mechanical engineer.
(i) Intelligence is a global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act
purposefully and to deal effectively with her/his environment.
(ii)Intelligence is a general mental ability.
(iii)It is product of heredity and environment.
(iv)It does not require training for the growth.

12.How is creativity related to intelligence?(Delhi Board 2010)

Or
How creativity and creativity tests are related but different from each other?
Ans. Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated because high ability is component
of creativity, A highly intelligent person may not be creative but all the creative persons are

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definitely high in intelligence. _
(i)Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,
appropriate and useful.
(ii) Intelligence is subset of creativity.
(iii) Terman found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. The same time,
creative ideas could come from persons who did not even one of those identified as gifted,
followed up through out their adult life, had become well known for creativity in some field.
(iv)Researchers have found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly
intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The same person can be
creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent once must be creative.
Creative tests are different from intelligence tests:
(i)Creative tests measure creative thinking ability whereas intelligence tests measure
general mental ability.
(ii) Creative tests measure convergent and divergent thinking whereas intelligence test
measure convergent thinking only.
(iii)Creative tests measure imagination and spontaneous expression to produce new ideas,
to see new relationship, to guess causes and consequences and ability to put things in a new
context. Intelligence tests measure potential.
(iv)In creative tests questions are open-ended that have no specified answers whereas
intelligence tests mostly use close-ended questions.

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