LASERS

LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION

OF RADIATION
 LASER Sources Ordinary Sources
Monochromatic May or may not be Polychromatic
Highly Intense Intensity decreases rapidly with
distances
Small angular Spread (Divergence low) High angular Spread (Divergence high)

Highly coherent Not coherent

Highly Directional Not directional

Eg. Ruby Laser, Helium neon laser Eg. LED, sodium vapour lamp, CFL lamp
What makes lasers special?
 Interaction of radiation with matter
ABSORPTION

E2

( E2 - E1 )
E1 Nab= B12 N1 Q Δt
N 1 is the number of atoms in the state E1
Q is the energy density of the incident beam
B12 is the probability of an absorption transition.
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

E2

h ( E2 - E1 )

E1

N2 is the number of atoms in the state E2

A21 is the probability of an Spontaneous Emission.

Nsp=A21 N2Δt
 STIMULATED EMISSION

E2

h

E1

N2 is the number of atoms in the state E2 Nst=B21 N2 Q Δt

Q is the energy density of the incident beam
B21 is the probability of an Stimulated Emission
 Spontaneous Stimulated emission
absorption
emission

h
E
 Population
The number of active atoms occupying a particular
energy state is called population of that energy state.

E2 E1
E2
>

E1
N1 > > N2
Ground state
 Meta stable state
•Excited state de-excite to ground state in 10-8 sec

• Meta stable state de-excite to ground state in 10-3 sec

•Meta stable states are extremely important because

they assist in maintaining population inversion.

10-8 sec 10-3 sec

Normal excited state Metastable excited state

 Population Inversion

E2 E1
E2
>

E1 N 2 > > N1
Population Inversion
When this situation occurs the population distribution between the levels E1 and E2 is said
to be inverted and the medium is said to have gone into the state of population inversion.
OPTICAL RESONATOR
 Active Medium

• A medium in which light gets amplified is called an active medium

• The medium may be solid, liquid or gas.

• Out of different atoms in the medium, only a small fraction of atoms

of a particular species are responsible for stimulated emission and
consequent light amplification. They are called active centers. The
remaining bulk of the medium plays the role of host and supports the
active centers.
 Resonance Cavity

Mirror Mirror
Ef

Ei

active medium
Mirror Spontaneous emission Mirror
Ef

Ei
 Stimulated emission
Mirror Mirror
Ef

Ei
 Feed-back by the cavity
Mirror Mirror
Ef

Ei
 Stimulated emission
Mirror Mirror
Ef

Ei
 Feed-back by the cavity
Mirror Mirror
Ef

Ei
 After several round trips…
Mirror Mirror
Ef

Ei

Laser beam
Photons with:
- same energy : Monochromatic
- same direction of propagation : Spatial coherence
- all in synchrony
 •The process of supplying energy to the medium with a view to
transfer it into the state of population inversion is known as
pumping.

TYPES OF PUMPING:

• Optical pumping
• Electric discharge or excitation by electrons
• Inelastic atom-atom collisions
• Thermal pumping
• Chemical reactions
An external light source like xenon flash lamp is used to produce more
electrons (a high population) in the higher energy level of the laser medium.
Optical pumping is used in solid-state lasers such as ruby lasers.
A high voltage electric discharge (flow of electrons, electric charge, or electric current) is
passed through the laser medium or gas. The intense electric field accelerates the electrons to
high speeds and they collide with neutral atoms in the gas. As a result, the electrons in the
lower energy state gains sufficient energy from external electrons and jumps into the higher
energy state. This method of pumping is used in gas lasers such as argon lasers.
Inelastic Atom-Atom Collisions
Like the electric discharge method, here also a high voltage electric discharge acts as a
pump source. Initially, during electric discharge, the lower energy state electrons in gas X or
atom X gets excited to X+ due to continuous collision with electrons. The excited state
electrons in gas X+ now collide with the lower energy state electrons in gas Y. As a result, the
lower energy state electrons in gas Y gains sufficient energy and jump into the excited state
Y+. This method is used in the Helium–Neon (He-Ne) laser.

Chemical Reactions
If an atom or a molecule is produced through some chemical reaction and remains in an
excited state at the time of production, then it can be used for pumping. The hydrogen
fluoride molecule is produced in an excited state when hydrogen and fluorine gas
chemically combine. The number of produced excited atoms or molecules is greater than
the number of normal state atoms or molecules. Thus, population inversion is achieved
we can achieve population inversion by heating the laser medium. In thermal
pumping, heat acts as the pump source or energy source. In this method,
population inversion is achieved by supplying heat into the laser medium.
 2- LEVEL LASER

Population inversion cannot be achieved in a two energy level system. Under

normal conditions,
N1 > N2
When temperature increases, the population of higher energy state (N2) also
increases. However, the population of higher energy state (N2) will never exceeds
the population of lower energy state (N1).
At best an equal population of the two states can be achieved which results in no
optical gain.
N1 = N2
Therefore, we need 3 or more energy states to achieve population inversion. The
greater is the number of energy states the greater is the optical gain.
 EINSTEIN’S COEFFICIENTS

Let N1 and N2 represent the number of atoms per unit volume in level 1 and 2, respectively;
The levels correspond to energies E1 and E2.
The number of absorption per unit time per unit volume = N1 B12Q

In spontaneous emission, the probability per unit time of the atom making a downward
transition is independent of the energy density of the radiation field and depends only on the
levels involved in the transition

rate of spontaneous emissions to the lower energy level= N 2 A21

In the case of stimulated emission, the rate of stimulated emissions = N 2 B21Q

At thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transitions must be equal to the number of downward
transitions.
N1 B12Q = N 2 A21 + N 2 B21Q
 N ab = N sp + N st
N1 B12Q = N 2 ( A21 + B21Q)
N1
B12Q = A21 + B21Q
N2
 N1 
 B12 − B21 Q = A21
 N2 
A21 ………………………(5)
Q =
 N1 
 B12 − B21 
 N2 

 
 
A21  1 
Q =
B21  N 1  B12  
   − 1
 N 2  B21  
 From the Boltzmann’s law, we have the following expressions for the ratio of the populations of two levels at t

= exp (E2 − E1 ) / kT  = exp hv / kT 

N1
N2
 
A21  1 
………………………(6)
Q =  
B21  B 
 exp (hv / kT )  ( 12
) − 1 
 B21 
Now, according to Planck’s law the energy density of radiation is given by
8  hv 3  1 
Q=  exp (hv / kT ) − 1
……………………(7)
c3  
Comparing Eq. (6) and eq. (7) we get,
A21 8  hv 3 ……………………………………… (8)
=
B 21 c3

From the above expression, it is evident the probability of spontaneous emission will dominate over the probability stimulated
emission as frequency increases. This is why it is difficult to fabricate lasers in x-ray region.
And, Probability of stimulated absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated emission i.e B12 = B21.
The coefficients A21, B21 and B12 are known as “Einstein Coefficient”
Helium-neon laser

The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:

• Pump source (high voltage dc power supply)
• Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)
• Resonating cavity
• The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture of
helium and neon gas contained in a long and narrow discharge tube
at low pressure. The partial pressure of helium is 1 mbar whereas
that of neon is 0.1 mbar in the ratio 10:1
• Neon atoms are the active centers
• Helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms
• He-Ne laser in a four level laser

• Stimulated emissions:
• Transitions: E6 E5 = 3.39 m
E6 E3 = 6328 A0
E4 E3 = 1.15 m
 Excitation by collision with
F3 electrons E6
3.39 m
E5

F2 E4 6328 A0
1.15 m
E3

Spontaneous emission
(~6000 A0)
E2
Energy

Energy transfer
through atomic
collisions
De-excitation by collisions

F1 E1

Neon
Helium
Advantages of helium-neon laser

• Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
• High stability
• Low cost
• Operates without damage at higher temperatures
• More directional and highly monochromatic
• Continuous laser beam without the need for separate cooling arrangements.

Disadvantages of helium-neon laser

• Low efficiency
• Low gain
• Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks
• Mirrors are usually eroded by the gas discharge and have to
be replaced
Nd:YAG LASER
The active medium of this laser is a crystalline rod made of Yttrium Aluminum Garnett (YAG) with
about 1.5% of the rare earth metal neodymium (Nd) included as an impurity.

The laser rods are typically of length of about 5 to 10 mm with a diameter 6 to 9 mm..

A linear flashtube and the lasing medium in the form of rod are placed inside a highly reflecting
elliptical cavity.

One mirror is maid totally reflecting while the other is about 90% transmitting to give an output.

Pumping is achieved by using intense flash of light from krypton flash lamp .
 Non Radiative transition

Non Radiative transition

• Nd3+ ions are excited from the ground state to the multiple energy states of E4.

• The excited Nd3+ ions quickly decay to the metastable upper laser level E3, releasing their
excess energy to the crystal lattice.

• This creates a population inversion between E3 and E2 levels.

• In the E3 state, Nd3+ ions are stimulated

to emit 1.064 micrometer laser transition and drop to the lower level E2.
 CO2 LASER
Pumping:- Electrical discharge method

Active Medium: - The active medium is a gaseous mixture

of CO2:N2:He in the ratio of 1:4:5.The active centres are
the CO2 molecules. The purpose of N2 gas molecules is to
help in excitation of CO2 molecules by colliding with the
CO2 molecules & transferring the energy to them. When electrical discharge occurs in the gas the electrons collide with N2
Salient Features:- molecules & they are raised to metastable state where they spend
sufficient amount of time.
● Uses four-level pumping scheme Then these N2 molecules transfer their own energy to ground state
● The active centers are CO2 molecules CO2 molecules & hence CO2 molecules are uplifted to energy level E5
which is ‘Asymmetric Stretching Mode energy level’ & N2 molecules
● Electrical discharge is the pumping agent gets de-excited to their ground state.Thus population inversion is
● High efficiency (40%) and high power output (several achieved between E5 & E4 or E5 & E3.
kilowatts) The following transitions are possible:-E5 → E4 levels produces far IR
radiation at the wavelength10.6 mm (1,06,000Å). E5 → E3 levels
● Operates in CW mode produces far IR radiation at 9.6 mm (96,000Å) wavelength.
 When a forward bias is applied to the diode the holes are injected
into the p-side of the junction and the electrons are injected into the
n-side.
The recombination of holes and electrons within the junction region
results in recombination radiation.
If the current density is large enough a population inversion can be
obtained between the electron levels and hole levels.
If the emission is not stimulated the device is called a light emitting
diode. To convert a LED into a laser diode, a high current is
required to achieve population inversion.
Advantages:
(1) Simple, compact and highly efficient.
(2) Requires little power and little auxiliary equipments.
(3) Output can be controlled by controlling the junction current.

Disadvantages:
(1) Compared to He-Ne laser, diode laser gives more divergent beam having an angular spread of the order a 50 to 150.
(2) Less monochromatic
(3) Highly temperature sensitive.
 Applications of Lasers
• Optical storage devices

• Communications

• Consumer electronics

• Machining and instrumentation

• Defence

• Surgery

• Front end research

•Holography
Hologram

Laser Beam Mirror

Reference beam


Object
Object beam

Hologram

Photo plate

Construction of Image
 Eye

First order

Laser Beam

Zero order

First order
Hologram

Virtual Image Real Image

Reconstruction of image