Hard Handover

Defined as “break-before-make.” where the existing connection to the

current cell is broken before establishing a new connection with the
target cell.
Used in GSM (2G) and LTE (4G). In GSM, the Base Station Controller
(BSC) under the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) manages hard
handovers; in LTE, the eNodeB manages hard handovers via the X2 or
S1 interfaces.
Because the old link is torn down first, there is a brief
interruption in service. GSM aims for a maximum handover duration of
60 ms to minimize dropped calls.
Simpler to implement since only one cell is connected at a time.

Soft Handover
Defined as “make-before-break,” where the Mobile Station (MS)
establishes a connection with the new cell before releasing the
connection to the old cell.
Used in CDMA networks (e.g., UMTS/3G). During soft handover, the MS
communicates simultaneously with multiple Base Transceiver Stations
(BTSs) or Node Bs; their signals are combined to improve call
quality.
Since the MS remains connected to more than one cell during the
transition, call drops are reduced and signal quality is enhanced.
Requires coordination among multiple BTSs or Node Bs and more
complex signal combining.

Key Differences (per syllabus)

Hard handover breaks the old link first, then makes the new one;
soft handover makes the new link before breaking the old one.
Hard handover entails a short interruption; soft handover avoids
interruptions by combining signals from multiple cells.
Hard handover is used in GSM (2G) and LTE (4G); soft handover is
used in CDMA/UMTS (3G).
Mobile Terminated Call (MTC) Process
1. User dials a GSM subscriber’s phone number.
2. PSTN identifies the number and forwards the call setup request to
GMSC.
3. GMSC queries the HLR to find the subscriber’s location.
4. HLR requests MSRN from VLR.
5. VLR assigns MSRN and sends it back to HLR.
6. HLR forwards MSRN to GMSC, which routes the call to the correct
MSC.
7. MSC queries VLR for subscriber status.
8. If available, MSC pages the subscriber.
9. MS responds, security checks are performed, and the call is
connected.

Mobile Originated Call (MOC) Process

1. The MS initiates a request for a new connection.
2. BSS forwards the request to MSC.
3. MSC verifies the user’s subscription and availability.
4. MSC checks resource availability within the GSM network and PSTN.
5. If all resources are available, the call is set up and
established.

Hidden Terminal Problem (per syllabus)

Occurs when two Mobile Stations (e.g., A and C) cannot hear each
other’s transmissions (because they are out of each other’s radio
range), yet both A and C can reach a common receiver (B).
If A and C both transmit to B simultaneously, their signals collide
at B, causing data loss. Because A and C are hidden from each other,
each believes the channel is idle and begins transmitting.

Exposed Terminal Problem

It occurs when a node (e.g., B) wants to send data to another node
(C) but senses a nearby transmission from node A to D.
 Since B hears A's transmission, it assumes the channel is busy and
waits, even though its transmission to C would not cause
interference.
This leads to unnecessary delay and underutilization of the channel.

RTS/CTS Mechanism in CSMA/CA (per syllabus)

RTS (Request to Send): Before sending actual data, a sender
transmits an RTS frame to the intended receiver, indicating its
desire to transmit and the length of the forthcoming transmission.
CTS (Clear to Send): If the receiver is ready and the medium is
free, it replies with a CTS frame, granting the sender permission to
send data and specifying the duration of the reserved channel.

How RTS/CTS Avoids Hidden Terminals

When A sends an RTS to B, both B and any nearby station (including
C, if C can hear B) hear the RTS.
B responds with a CTS; when C hears the CTS, C knows that B is about
to receive data from A and that it must remain silent for the
specified duration—even though C did not hear A’s RTS.
This coordination prevents C from transmitting while A is sending to
B, thus avoiding a collision at B.
By exchanging RTS and CTS before data transmission, nodes that
cannot sense each other (hidden terminals) are informed that the
channel will be used, preventing overlapping transmissions that
would collide at the receiver.

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

TMSI: A temporary 4-byte ID assigned by the VLR for use in a local
area, replacing the permanent IMSI over the air.
Purpose:
• Subscriber Privacy: Prevents exposing IMSI, avoids tracking.
• Frequent Updates: Periodically refreshed to prevent reuse by
eavesdroppers.
• Local Identification: New TMSI assigned when roaming; HLR
 retains IMSI.

GSM Network Components

Mobile Station (MS) & SIM
MS is the mobile device (handset). SIM contains IMSI and secret key
(Ki) for authentication; enables personal mobility.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

Manages radio interface (Um) with MS; handles
modulation/demodulation and voice/data transfer.

Base Station Controller (BSC)

Controls multiple BTSs; manages radio resources, handovers, power
control, and cell config; connects to BTS via Abis.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

Core switching unit; routes calls/data between BSCs and external
networks; coordinates handovers and roaming.

Home Location Register (HLR)

Central database with subscriber’s permanent data (IMSI, services,
keys); used by GMSC to locate VLR.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

Temporary database for roaming subscribers; stores TMSI, MSRN,
service profile, and auth credentials.

Authentication Center (AUC)

Contains authentication algorithms and cryptographic keys; verifies
subscriber and generates ciphering keys.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Contains lists of mobile equipment identities (IMEIs). Classifies
devices as “white-listed” (allowed), “grey-listed” (monitored), or
“black-listed” (denied). Prevents network access by stolen or
unauthorized handsets.

Gateway MSC (GMSC)

Interfaces GSM network with external networks (PSTN); queries HLR
for MSRN to route incoming calls.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Comprises all BTSs and BSCs; manages radio network functions,
including channel assignment and intra-BSS handovers.

Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Includes MSC, HLR, VLR, AUC, and EIR; responsible for call control,
subscriber management, authentication, roaming, and databases.

Operations and Support System (OSS)/Operations & Maintenance Center (OMC)

Monitors network performance, handles failures, and optimizes
operations.