Thierry Bineli Betsi

PhD, P. Geo
4/2/2025 GLEN 324_2025 1
 MINING GEOLOGY
LECTURES OUTLINE
I. General Introduction

II. Mining Value Chain and Operations

III. Mining Methods-cont.

IV. Mine Mapping Method and techniques

V. Sampling and Sampling Errors

VI. Quality Assurance-Quality Control

VII. Ore Processing

VIII. Resource/ReserveThierry
estimation
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 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING ERRORS

I- Mine Working Sampling

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Samples collection is one of the most important job of a Mining
Geologist.

The basis of all geological evaluation is the sample. Poor

sample collection results in unreliable evaluation of mineral
projects.

Samples are collected from rock faces, drill cores, blast holes and
broken ores

Collection of samples is to be representative and non-biased

Sample collection is a non-trivial task and requires special sampling

equipment and operational procedures.

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Sampling of mine workings is for:

 delineating ore bodies,

 ore reserves estimation
 Grade control
 and metallurgical characteristics of the ore.

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In underground mine, mineralisation can be exposed on:

 the front faces of the underground drives

 along the side walls
 the backs and floors.

All these faces are suitable for sampling and the choice depends
on the orientation of the mine workings relative to the orebody and
accessibility of the faces

Sites that are commonly sampled by mining geologists depending

on mineralisation styles and the mine logistics include:

 Side walls (crosscut, rise and ore drive)

 Back (ore drive)
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4/2/2025 PhD, P. Geo 7
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Sampling rock faces exposed in the underground workings, Zarmitan gold mine,
Uzbekistan: (a) plan view; (b) cross section
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Sampling types

Mine working rock faces sampling types include:

Channel sampling: where rocks are exposed in the outcrops,

trenches or walls of the mine workings, they are usually sampled
by cutting narrow channels on the rock surface. Channels are
made by chisel and hammer or diamond saw. Location of the
samples on the rock faces should be chosen in such a manner
that allows to obtain a most representative samples for the
given face.

Channels are orientated at high angle to strike of the

mineralisation (as close as possible to ninety degrees). However,
it is important that mineralisation is sampled along the straight line
from one contact to another. Therefore, depending on location of
the exposed contacts, the channels can be cut at lower angles
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Sampling types

Rock chip sampling is a systematic collection of the rock chips which

are taken at the regular intervals along the straight line or as a narrow
band. Points where rock chips should be collected can be marked on
the rock faces before sampling. This extra step promotes
representative sampling because it minimises a potential sampling
biases caused by subjective choices of a sampling spots by a
sampler.
The method is fast and inexpensive, but samples are less
representative than channel sampling. It is usually used for sampling
uniformly distributed disseminated mineralisation where this approach
produces representative samples.
Rock chips are collected by geological pick and chisel or can be taken
by hand held mechanical devices such as air-pick, hand held core
drill, hand-held percussion drill or electric drills equipped with a drill
cuttings catcher.
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Sampling types

General principals of the channel

sampling: (a) orientation of the
channels at right angle to
mineralisation;
(b) assuring that channel intersects
upper and lower contacts of
mineralised zone; (c) samples taken
to geological contacts

Sketch explaining rock chip

sampling: (a) sampling along
the straight line; (b)sampling
along the rectangular grid
distributed as a narrow band
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Sampling types

Channel sampling of the exploration trench walls. Uranium deposit in central Jordan:
(a) channel sampling using hammer and chisel; (b) channel sample cut by diamond
saw
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Grab sampling Sampling types
The mine geologists also commonly sample muck piles of broken ore
and includes sampling in the ore bottom, conveyor belts, tram cars and
draw points of the underground stopes. This sampling approach
involves random collection of the rock chips of 3–5 cm in size
throughout the entire surface of the pile.

Grab sampling is commonly used for ore grade control at the

underground operations in particular at the mines which use block cave
or sub-level cave mining technologies.

The task is extremely difficult because piles of the broken ore consist of
fragments of variable size, from large boulders (>1 m in diameter) to
the fine debris (< millimetre). Heavy and small fragments are
segregated at the bottom, and they are not adequately represented in
the samples. This problem is practically unresolvable and usually leads
to poorly repeatable and oftenThierry
biased
Bineli Betsi samples.
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Grab sampling Sampling types

Given the suboptimal quality of the grab sampling of the muck

piles, this approach is used only when no other sampling means
are applicable.

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Sampling types
Sampling Diamond Core

In diamond core sampling, part of the core should be retained in

the core boxes for verification of the logging and sampling results.
Retaining a representative part of core is also needed for formal
audits of the mine reserves validity.

The most common approach is to cut core in half. Sampling

quarter or one third of the core is also used for evaluation of
mineral deposits although it is less common. In some cases it is
necessary to sample the whole core. In that case a good practice
is to cut a narrow segment of core which will be retained in the
core trays and used for auditing. Conversely, instead of cutting
narrow segment the small representative core samples can be
collected at regular intervals. However, this approach is less
practical because it destroys the continuity of the core.
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Sampling types

Sampling Diamond Core-cont.

A cutting line should be drawn by permanent marker and colour

should be different to that of the reference line marked for
orientated core studies

Down hole direction should be shown by barbs or arrows.

It is important that the reference line marked for orientated core

studies always remains on the half of core that is left in the box.

When bedding traces can be observed on the core the cutting line
should be drawn along the apical points of bedding.

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Sampling types
Sampling Diamond Core-cont.

General rules of sampling core are as follows:

 Samples should be taken to geological contacts

 Minimum and maximum sample length should be determined

according to sampling protocol determined for the given
mineralisation

 Maintain length of the samples as close as possible to

average, which is an optimal sample size for a given style of
mineralisation and sampling protocol.

 Broken intervals should be sampled separately of solid core

intervals. if this not compromises minimum allowed sample
Thierry Bineli Betsi
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Sampling types

Core sampling
approaches that
allow retention of
part of core for
further studies

Sketch explaining principle of cutting

core along the longitudinal line of
core drawn through the apical points
of bedding

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Sampling Blastholes Sampling types

The most common use of the open hole percussion drilling for
mining geology applications is sampling blasthole cuttings for
grade control purpose in the open pit mines and collecting rock
cuttings generated from the holes drilled by ‘Jambo’ in the
underground

The blastholes are usually drilled in the open pit benches using
truck mounted open hole percussion drill rigs. The holes are
drilled as regularly distributed patterns fully covering the exploited
ore body and their host rocks in the open pit bench

Grids can be square, rectangular or parallelogram. Spacing

between blastholes is usually less than 10 m and their depth
approximately matches the heights of the mining benches.
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Sampling types
Sampling Blastholes-cont.

A good spatial coverage of the mining area by the blastholes and

their tight spacing make them a very convenient media for grade
control purpose as close spacing between blastholes is
convenient for accurate definition of the ore-waste boundary.

A tight sampling grid also provides sufficiently detailed grade

distribution information to characterise the excavated ore parcels.

Sampling of blasthole cuttings is a low-cost procedure as it does

not require any additional drilling or expensive sampling devices,
which is another reason for its extensive use for grade control
purpose at the open pit mines.

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Sampling types

Blastholes drilled in the West

Angelas iron-ore mine, Western
Australia

Blastholes in the Ernest Henry Cu-

Au mine, Queensland, Australia

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Sampling types

Blasthole cone sampling for grade control purpose: (a) sampling by shovel, Yandi
iron-ore mine, Western Australia; (b) sampling by hand held auger drill, Rossing
uranium mine, Namibia
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Trenches and winzes sampling Sampling types

It requires accurate estimation of the mineral resources based on

detailed mapping and sampling of mineralisation. Trenches and
winzes can also be used to obtain bulk samples from selected sites
for metallurgical test work.

In operating mines trenching is rarely used and applied mainly for

detailed mapping and sampling of the open pit benches for grade
control or for collecting bulk samples when production poorly
reconciles with reserves.

The trenches and winzes can be cut by hand (shovel) or

mechanically. Mapping trenches and winzes is like that used in the
underground mines. Samples are usually cut by diamond saw from
the trench floor and side walls of the winzes.
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Examples of trenching in mining industry: (a) exploration

trench dug by dozer, Bystrynsky Cu-Au project, Siberia,
Russia; (b) trench ripped by a dozer ripper at the bench
of the open pit, Tarkwa gold mine, Ghana;(c) exploration
trench
Thierry Bineli Betsi dug by back-hoe, CJUP uranium deposit, Jordan
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II. Sampling Errors

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The fundamental cause of the sampling errors is

heterogeneity of the sampled materials

The more heterogeneous is the sampled

material the more difficult is to obtain
representative sample and infer characteristics
of the geological object from samples.

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Intuitive look on relationships between sample size, heterogeneity

of the sampled materials and sampling error

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 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING ERRORS
Sampling consists of three main steps:

i. the actual extraction of the sample(s) from the in-situ material;

i. the preparation of the assay portion which involves a mass

reduction from a few kilograms (or tonnes) to a few grams for
chemical analysis;

ii. the analysis of the assay portion.

Error are likely to be induced during each sampling step.

The Global error (GE) therefore includes all errors in sample

extraction and preparation (total sampling error or TE), and
analysis errors .

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 Reduction of 36.2 tonne
(80,000 lb) bulk sample by
successive crushing and splitting.
This involves a concomitant
reduction in grain size from +15 cm
to 0.5 cm

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Types of Sampling Errors
Errors can be generated at any stage
of samples extraction, preparation and
analytical assaying.

The sampling errors are grouped by

their types and factors causing errors

TOTAL ERROR
Err: 1st Group + Err: 2nd Group +
Err:3rd Group
Where:
Err.1st Group – is the sampling errors
related to a sampling protocol;
Err.2nd Group – is the group of errors
related to sampling practise;
Err.3rd Group – analytical and
instrumental errors occurred at the
assaying stage. Thierry Bineli Betsi
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Types of Sampling Errors Sampling Protocol errors

Main error related to sampling protocol is known as Fundamental

Sampling Error (FSE) . It is always present and can not be fully
eliminated as it is related to intrinsic characteristics of the sampled
material, such as mineralogy and texture of mineralisation. The
FSE can be minimised through optimisation of the sampling
protocols.

Errors related to sampling protocol also includes Grouping-

Segregation error representing a complementary part of the FSE
being a consecutive of the distribution heterogeneity of the
material. The Grouping-Segregation error is generated by small
scale distribution heterogeneity and reflects the differences in the
content of a metal of interest between groups of fragments
(increments) collected at the very small intervals
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Sampling Protocol errors
Types of Sampling Errors

The Grouping-Segregation Error number a function of two factors,

grouping factor (fG) and segregation factor (fS), both being a
consequence of the small-scale distribution heterogeneity of the
material. Grouping factor in practise characterises the size of the
increments (i.e. fragments) making up the sample. A segregation
factor characterises the number of increments. Both fG and fS are
dimensionless and can not be dissociated from each other.

Errors related to sampling protocol are illustrated by poor

repeatability of the sampling results caused by disproportionately
small size of the samples in comparing with degree of heterogeneity
of material.

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Sampling Protocol errors
Types of Sampling Errors

Examples of Grouping – Segregation error include:

 separation of the fine particles from larger fragments when they

are discharged from the sampling devices or conveyor belts

 accumulation of the heavier and smaller particles at the bottom of

blast hole cones . This can be gold grains or sulphide minerals
liberated from a gangue.

Segregation can also be caused by different physical or chemical

properties of the sampled materials, including magnetic or
electrostatic properties, moisture content, adhesiveness, etc.

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Examples of segregation of the rock fragments: (a) segregation of the

heavy and lighter fragments at the discharge from conveyor belt
(Modified after Pitard (1993); (b) uneven distribution of the fragments in
the blasthole cones caused by segregation of the smaller and heavier
fragments and their accumulation at the bottom of the cone
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Errors Related to the Sampling Practices

The errors associated with implementation of the protocol (second

group) are related to sampling practices and include delimitation,
extraction, preparation and weighing errors, which occur as a result
of incorrect extraction of the samples from a lot and their suboptimal
preparation procedures and incorrect analytical measurements.

Human errors, such as mixed sample numbers are also included to

this group. Those errors are illustrated by the inaccuracy of the
analytical results of the samples

In other words, the errors included in this group are not directly
related to the sampling protocol, but they are associated with
practical implementation of protocol.

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Errors Related to the Sampling Practices

The common example of these type errors is contamination of the

laboratory samples during their preparation. Contamination of the
samples caused by incorrect preparation procedures can destroy
integrity of the samples and all efforts to obtain the samples with the
lowest possible fundamental error will be wasted.

Delimitation error occurs when all material in the sampled lot does
not have equal probability to be part of the sample. The very
common situation leading to delimitation errors is sampling of the
piles of crushed material, which can be blast hole cone, crushed ore
at the draw points of the underground stopes or the ore stockpiles.
The bottom of the piles is often poorly represented in sample
causing the biased results due to delimitation error.

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Example of
delimitation error
caused by sampling
the blast hole cone by
a scoop having round
shape profile

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Errors Related to the Sampling Practices

Extraction error is the result of a sampling tool which selectively

takes fragments. This error is therefore known as sample recovery
error because it is caused by selective sampling systems . This type
of errors can be frequently observed in geological exploration and
mining geology applications.

One of the common examples of extraction error is a preferential

caving of the soft material, when drilled hard rocks contain clay
pods

Sampling practices errors can be minimised by upgrading practices

of the sample's extraction and preparation, which usually needs an
improvement of the quality control procedures and often require
equipment upgrading
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Examples of extraction
error caused by incorrectly
used riffle splitter (Modified
after Pitard (1993)

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Errors Related to the Sampling Practices

Another example of extraction error is sampling of the blasthole

cones by incorrectly designed auger drills, which rejects large
fragments.

The extraction error can cause significant biases of the analytical

results. It is important to note that having correct equipment does
not guarantee high quality results because inappropriate use of
equipment can also lead to significant extraction error as shown by
the incorrect use of riffle splitter which is quickly fed on one side.
Such approach leads to disproportional distribution of the fragments
and segregation of heavier particles on one side.

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Errors Related to the Sampling Practices

Preparation error is the changes of chemical or physical

characteristics of the material caused by its crushing, grinding,
pulverising, homogenising, screening, filtering, drying, packaging
and transportation. These errors are taking place during the
processing of the samples, and include contamination of the
samples, preferential losses and alteration of sampled material. For
example, in the blastholes some portion of the drill cuttings is falling
back to the hole which can be a source of the sample biases due to
preparation error.

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Errors Related to the Sampling Practices

Weighing error is the error which is introduced by weightmeters and

scales. Having the state of art analytical equipment is not enough to
guarantee good quality result. It is also important to have during the
sample preparation stage, up to date and well calibrated scales.

Human errors such as mixing sample numbers, transcript errors, and

incorrect instrument readings. These errors, except the cases of a
deliberate fraud, are accidental by their nature and can create
extremely erratic values, abnormally high or low in comparison with
the true sample grades.

When such extreme values are present, these accidental-type human

errors can be easily recognised by presence of the outliers on the
scatter-diagrams where sample duplicates are plotted against the
original samples
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Instrumental Errors

The third group of sampling errors includes various analytical

and instrumental errors occurred during the analytical
operations such as assaying, moisture analysis, weighing
the aliquots, density analysis, etc.

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Instrumental Errors
Typical example of these type errors is the instrumental drifts causing
the biased assays. It also include incorrect calibration of the instruments.

The instrumental errors also include those which are caused by use of
the out-of-date equipment, characterised by poor detection limits.

Special case of the instrumental errors is represented by incorrectly

chosen analytical techniques, which is suboptimal for a given type of
mineralisation and/or grade ranges.

For example, fire assay with atomic absorption finish is used for low-
grade gold mineralisation, whereas high grade gold is better assayed by
fire assay with gravimetric finish.

Application of the atomic absorption finish to high grade gold samples

can lead to their incorrectly determined grades because of instrumental
error. Thierry Bineli Betsi
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Case of errors associated with Sampling Blastholes

it is important to note that blastholes are primarily drilled for

breaking the hard rocks by firing explosives loaded to these holes,
and they are not designed for obtaining accurate and
representative samples of the drilled rocks.

Therefore, sampling of the blastholes is not a flawless process

and contains several areas of serious concern

The sources of the errors associated with blasthole sampling

include:

 errors caused by drilling blastholes

 errors related to suboptimal practices of collecting samples
from the blasthole cones.
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Case of errors associated with Sampling Blastholes

The common practice of sampling blastholes consists of collecting

crushed rock fragments from the blasthole cones . Samples can be
collected by shovel, scoop, handheld auger drills, or special devices
allowing to split sample during drilling. Unfortunately, none of the
currently used techniques can produce the fully representative and
accurate blasthole samples.

The former sub-drill is another source of sampling errors. It is

composed by broken rocks left on the top of the bench. This material
is poorly recovered in the blasthole drilling, therefore upper part of the
bench is usually poorly presented in the samples.

The rigs used for drilling blastholes are not designed for sampling and
consequently they are not equipped with proper sample catching
devices.
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Schematic section drawn through the blasthole

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Case of errors associated with Sampling Blastholes

Procedures of blasthole drilling and the rigs design is such that

material can be lost after the particles have been removed from
the hole.

This mainly affects the fugitive fine particles which are escaping
along the drill rods. However, the drilled material can be also
selectively washed away when blastholes are drilled below water
table. Particles can be also lost during retrieving a drill rod or lost
in fractures during drilling.

Preferential loss of material, together with caving in the hole,

contamination of the sample can occur

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Identification of sampling Error
Sampling errors are traditionally
recognised by the means of
precision and accuracy of the data.
Precision, or repeatability, is a
measure of how close are sample
values to each other

Accuracy is a measure of how

close is sample value to the true
grade.

Both precision and accuracy must

be estimated and strictly monitored
during evaluation of the mineral
deposits and their eventual
exploitation. Thierry Bineli Betsi
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Scatter-diagram of the Cu grades determined in the drill core samples and their duplicates. Cu-Au
bearing skarn, Russia. All data, except several outliers, are compactly distributed along the 1:1
line indicating a good repeatability of the sample grades. Several erratic results (outliers) have
been caused by mixing the sample numbers in the lab
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Thank you for your attention!!!!!!!!!

Thierry Bineli Betsi

4/2/2025 PhD, P. Geo 51
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