System Programming

CS609

Virtual University of Pakistan

Leaders in Education Technology
CS609-System Programming VU

Table of Contents

01 - Introduction, Means of I/O ........................................................................................... 3

02 - Interrupt Mechanism................................................................................................... 11
03 - Use of ISRs for C Library Functions .......................................................................... 19
04 - TSR programs and Interrupts ..................................................................................... 26
05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt) ................................................... 33
06 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Disk interrupt, Keyboard hook) ................................. 40
07 - Hardware Interrupts .................................................................................................... 46
08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs ..................................................................... 54
09 - The interval Timer ...................................................................................................... 68
10 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI)................................................................... 76
11 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI) II ............................................................... 83
12 - Parallel Port Programming ......................................................................................... 95
13 - Serial Communication .............................................................................................. 103
14 - Serial Communication (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) ................ 110
15 - COM Ports ................................................................................................................ 117
16 - COM Ports II ............................................................................................................ 125
17 - Real Time Clock (RTC) ........................................................................................... 133
18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II ........................................................................................ 146
19 - Real Time Clock (RTC) III ...................................................................................... 155
20 - Determining system information .............................................................................. 163
21 - Keyboard Interface ................................................................................................... 172
22 - Keyboard Interface, DMA Controller ...................................................................... 180
23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) ................................................................................ 186
24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II ............................................................................ 192
25 - File Systems .............................................................................................................. 199
26 - Hard Disk.................................................................................................................. 207
27 - Hard Disk, Partition Table ........................................................................................ 216
28 - Partition Table II ....................................................................................................... 223
29 - Reading Extended Partition ...................................................................................... 229
30 - File System Data Structures (LSN, BPB)................................................................. 236
31 - File System Data Structures II (Boot block) ............................................................ 244
32 - File System Data Structures III (DPB) ..................................................................... 249
33 - Root Directory, FAT12 File System......................................................................... 256
34 - FAT12 File System II, FAT16 File System ............................................................. 262
35 - FAT12 File System (Selecting a 12-bit entry within FAT12 System) ..................... 267
36 - File Organization ...................................................................................................... 274
37 - FAT32 File System................................................................................................... 283
38 - FAT32 File System II ............................................................................................... 291
39 - New Technology File System (NTFS) ..................................................................... 301
40 - Disassembling the NTFS based file.......................................................................... 306
41 - Disk Utilities ............................................................................................................. 312
42 - Memory Management............................................................................................... 317
43 - Non-Contiguous memory allocation ........................................................................ 324
44 - Address translation in Protected mode ..................................................................... 329
45 - Viruses ...................................................................................................................... 332

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01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

01 - Introduction, Means of I/O

What is Systems Programming?

Computer programming can be categorized into two categories .i.e.

Input
Input Process Output
Output

While designing software the programmer may determine the required inputs for
that program, the wanted outputs and the processing the software would perform
in order to give those wanted outputs. The implementation of the processing part
is associated with application programming. Application programming facilitates
the implementation of the required processing that software is supposed to
perform; everything that is left now is facilitated by system programming.

Systems programming is the study of techniques that facilitate the acquisition of

data from input devices, these techniques also facilitates the output of data which
may be the result of processing performed by an application.

Three Layered Approach

A system programmer may use a three layered approach for systems

programming. As you can see in the figure the user may directly access the
programmable hardware in order to perform I/O operations. The user may use
the trivial BIOS (Basic Input Output System) routines in order to perform I/O in
which case the programmer need not know the internal working of the hardware
and need only the knowledge BIOS routines and their parameters.

DOS

BIOS

H/W
In this case the BIOS programs the hardware for required I/O operation which is
hidden to the user. In the third case the programmer may invoke operating
systems (DOS or whatever) routines in order to perform I/O operations. The
operating system in turn will use BIOS routines or may program the hardware
directly in order to perform the operation.
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Methods of I/O

In the three layered approach if we are following the first approach we need to
program the hardware. The hardware can be programmed to perform I/O in three
ways i.e.
• Programmed I/O
• Interrupt driven I/O
• Direct Memory Access

In case of programmed I/O the CPU continuously checks the I/O device if the I/O
operation can be performed or not. If the I/O operations can be performed the
CPU performs the computations required to complete the I/O operation and then
again starts waiting for the I/O device to be able to perform next I/O operation. In
this way the CPU remains tied up and is not doing anything else besides waiting
for the I/O device to be idle and performing computations only for the slower I/O
device.

In case of interrupt driven the flaws of programmed driven I/O are rectified. The
processor does not check the I/O device for the capability of performing I/O
operation rather the I/O device informs the CPU that it’s idle and it can perform
I/O operation, as a result the execution of CPU is interrupted and an Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR) is invoked which performs the computations required for
I/O operation. After the execution of ISR the CPU continues with whatever it was
doing before the interruption for I/O operation. In this way the CPU does not
remain tied up and can perform computations for other processes while the I/O
devices are busy performing I/O and hence is more optimal.

Usually it takes two bus cycles to transfer data from some I/O port to memory or
vice versa if this is done via some processor register. This transfer time can be
reduced bypassing the CPU as ports and memory device are also interconnected
by system bus. This is done with the support of DMA controller. The DMA (direct
memory access) controller can controller the buses and hence the CPU can be
bypassed data item can be transferred from memory to ports or vice versa in a
single bus cycle.

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I/O controllers

I/O device

I/O controller

CPU
No I/O device is directly connected to the CPU. To provide control signals to the
I/O device a I/O controller is required. I/O controller is located between the CPU
and the I/O device. For example the monitor is not directly collected to the CPU
rather the monitor is connected to a VGA card and this VGA card is in turn
connected to the CPU through busses. The keyboard is not directly connected to
CPU rather its connected to a keyboard controller and the keyboard controller is
connected to the CPU. The function of this I/O controller is to provide
• I/O control signals
• Buffering
• Error Correction and Detection
We shall discuss various such I/O controllers interfaced with CPU and also the
techniques and rules by which they can be programmed to perform the required
I/O operation.

Some of such controllers are

• DMA controller
• Interrupt controller
• Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI)
• Interval Timer
• Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

We shall discuss all of them in detail and how they can be used to perform I/O
operations.

Operating systems
Systems programming is not just the study of programmable hardware devices.
To develop effective system software one needs to the internals of the operating
system as well. Operating systems make use of some data structures or tables
for management of computer resources. We will take up different functions of the
operating systems and discuss how they are performed and how can the data
structures used for these operations be accessed.

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File Management
File management is an important function of the operating systems.
DOS/Windows uses various data structures for this purpose. We will see how it
performs I/O management and how the data structures used for this purpose can
be directly accessed. The various data structures are popularly known as FAT
which can be of 12, 16 and 32 bit wide, Other data structures include BPB(BIOS
parameter block), DPB( drive parameter block) and the FCBs(file control block)
which collectively forms the directory structure. To understand the file structure
the basic requirement is the understanding of the disk architecture, the disk
formatting process and how this process divides the disk into sectors and
clusters.

Memory management
Memory management is another important aspect of operating systems.
Standard PC operate in two mode in terms of memory which are
• Real Mode
• Protected Mode

In real mode the processor can access only first one MB of memory to control the
memory within this range the DOS operating system makes use of some data
structures called
• FCB (File control block )
• PSP (Program segment prefix)

We shall discuss how these data structures can be directly accessed, what is the
significance of data in these data structures. This information can be used to
traverse through the memory occupied by the processes and also calculate the
total amount of free memory available.
Certain operating systems operate in protected mode. In protected mode all of
the memory interfaced with the processor can be accessed. Operating systems in
this mode make use of various data structures for memory management which
are
• Local Descriptor Table
• Global Descriptor Table
• Interrupt Descriptor Table

We will discuss the significance these data structures and the information stored
in them. Also we will see how the logical addresses can be translated into
physical addresses using the information these tables

Viruses and Vaccines

Once an understanding of the file system and the memory Management is

developed it is possible to understand the working of viruses. Virus is a simple
program which can embed itself within the computer resources and propagate
itself. Mostly viruses when activated would perform something hazardous.

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We will see where do they embed themselves and how can they be detected.
Moreover we will discuss techniques of how they can be removed and mostly
importantly prevented to perform any infections.
There are various types of viruses but we will discuss those which embed
themselves within the program or executable code which are
Executable file viruses
Partition Table or boot sector viruses

Device Drivers
Just connecting a device to the PC will not make it work unless its device drivers
are not installed. This is so important because a device driver contains the
routines which perform I/O operations on the device. Unless these routines are
provided no I/O operation on the I/O device can be performed by any application.
We will discuss the integrated environment for the development of device drivers
for DOS and Windows.

We shall begin our discussion from means of I/O. On a well designed device it is
possible to perform I/O operations from three different methods
• Programmed I/O
• Interrupt driven I/O
• DMA driven I/O

Output Input

D0
D0

D7
D7
Busy
DR
Strobe

CPU I/O
CPU
Controller

In case of programmed I/O the CPU is in a constant loop checking for an I/O
opportunity and when its available it performs the computations operations
required for the I/O operations. As the I/O devices are generally slower than the
CPU, CPU has to wait for I/O operation to complete so that next data item can be
sent to the device. The CPU sends data on the data lines. The device need to be
signaled that the data has been sent this is done with the help of STROBE signal.
An electrical pulse is sent to the device by turning this signal to 0 and then 1. The
device on getting the strobe signal receives the data and starts its output. While
the device is performing the output it’s busy and cannot accept any further data
on the other and CPU is a lot faster device and can process lot more bytes during
the output of previously sent data so it should be synchronized with the slower
I/O device. This is usually done by another feed back signal of BUSY which is
kept active as long as the device is busy. So the CPU is only waiting for the

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device to get idle by checking the BUSY signal as long as the device is busy and
when the device gets idle the CPU will compute the next data item and send it to
the device for I/O operation.
Similar is the case of input, the CPU has to check the DR (data Ready) signal to
see if data is available for input and when its not CPU is busy waiting for it.

Interrupt Driven I/O

Interrupt Driven input / output

The main disadvantage of
Output
programmed I/O as can be
Input
noticed is that the CPU is
D0
busy waiting for an I/O
D0 opportunity and as a result
remain tied up for that I/O
D7 D7 operation. This disadvantage
Strobe can be overcome by means
Busy INT IBF of interrupt driven I/O. In
INT ACK Programmed I/O CPU itself
CPU
I/O
CPU I/O checks for an I/O opportunity
Controller but in case of interrupt
Controller
driven I/O the I/O controller
interrupts the execution of CPU when ever and I/O operation is required for the
computation of the required I/O operation. This way the CPU can perform other
computation and interrupted to perform and interrupt service routine only when
an I/O operation is required, which is quite an optimal technique.

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DMA driven I/O

DMA Driven I/O

In case data is needed to
transferred from main
I/O CPU Main Memory memory to I/O port this can
be done using CPU which
Register will consume 2 bus cycles
for a single word, one bus
cycle from memory to CPU
and other from CPU to I/O
DMA port in case of output and
the vice versa in case of
input. In case no computation on data is required CPU can be bypassed and
another device DMA (direct memory access) controller can be used. Its possible
to transfer a data word directly from memory to CPU and vice versa in a single
bus cycle using the DMA, this technique is definitely faster.

We shall start our discussion with the study of interrupt and the techniques used
to program them. We will discuss other methods of I/O as required.

What are interrupts?

1
2

ISR Performing An I/O

Literally to interrupt means to break the continuity of some on going task. When
we talk of computer interrupt we mean exactly the same in terms of the
processor. When an interrupt occurs the continuity of the processor is broken and
the execution branches to an interrupt service routine. This interrupt service
routine is a set of instruction carried out by the CPU to perform or initiate an I/O
operation generally. When the routine is over the execution of the CPU returns to
the point of interruption and continues with the on going process.

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Interrupts can be of two types

• Hardware interrupts
• Software interrupts
Only difference between them is the method by which they are invoked. Software
interrupts are invoked by means of some software instruction or statement and
hardware interrupt is invoked by means of some hardware controller generally.

Interrupt Mechanism
Interrupts are quite similar to procedures or function because it is also another
form temporary execution transfer, but there some differences as well. Note that
when procedures are invoked by there names which represents their addresses
is specified whereas in case of interrupts their number is specified. This number
can be any 8 bit value which certainly is not its address. So the first question is
what is the significance of this number? Another thing should also be noticed that
procedures are part of the program but the interrupts invoked in the program are
no where declared in the program. So the next question is where do these
interrupts reside in memory and if they reside in memory then what would be the
address of the interrupt?

Firstly lets see where do interrupts reside. Interrupts certainly reside somewhere
in memory, the interrupts supported by the operating system resides in kernel
which you already know is the core part of the operating system. In case of DOS
the kernel is io.sys which loads in memory at boot time and in case of windows
the kernel is kernel32.dll or kernel.dll. these files contain most of the I/O routines
and are loaded as required. The interrupts supported by the ROM BIOS are
loaded in ROM part of the main memory which usually starts at the address
F000:0000H. Moreover it is possible that some device drivers have been installed
these device drivers may provide some I/O routines so when the system boots
these I/O routines get memory resident at interrupt service routines. So these are
the three possibilities.

Secondly a program at compile time does not know the exact address where the
interrupt service routine will be residing in memory so the loader cannot assign
addresses for interrupt invocations. When a device driver loads in memory it
places the address of the services provided by itself in the interrupt vector table.
Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) in short is a 1024 bytes sized table which can hold
256 far addresses as each far address occupies 4 bytes. So its possible to store
the addresses of 256 interrupts hence there are a maximum of 256 interrupt in a
standard PC. The interrupt number is used as an index into the table to get the
address of the interrupt service routine.

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02 - Interrupt Mechanism
Interrupt Mechanism
Interrupt follow a follow a certain mechanism for their invocation just like near or far
procedures. To understand this mechanism we need to understand its differences with
procedure calls.

Difference between interrupt and procedure calls

Procedures or functions of sub-routines in various different languages are called by
different methods as can be seen in the examples.
• Call MyProc
• A= Addition(4,5);
• Printf(“hello world”);

The general concept for procedure call in most of the programming languages is that on
invocation of the procedure the parameter list and the return address (which is the value if
IP register in case of near or the value of CS and IP registers in case of far procedure) is
pushed Moreover in various programming languages whenever a procedure is called its
address need to be specified by some notation i.e. in C language the name of the
procedure is specified to call a procedure which effectively can be used as its address.

However in case of interrupts the a number is used to specify the interrupt number in the
call
• Int 21h
• Int 10h
• Int3
Fig 1 (Call to interrupt service routine and procedures/functions)

Main
Call proc1()
Call proc1()
Int 21h

Proc1()

Int 10h
Proc2()

Moreover when an interrupt is invoked three registers are pushed as the return address i.e.
the values of IP, CS and Flags in the described order which are restored on return. Also

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no parameters are pushed onto the stack on invocation parameters can only be passed
through registers.

The interrupt vector table

The interrupt number specified in the interrupt call is used as an index into the interrupt
vector table. Interrupt vector table is a global table situated at the address 0000:0000H.
The size of interrupt vector table is 1024 bytes or 1 KB. Each entry in the IVT is sized 4
bytes hence 256 interrupt vectors are possible numbered (0-FFH). Each entry in the table
contains a far address of an interrupt handlers hence there is a maximum of 256 handlers
however each handlers can have a number of services within itself. So the number
operations that can be performed by calling an interrupt service routine (ISR) is indefinite
depending upon the nature of the operating system. Each vector contains a far address of
an interrupt handler. The address of the vector and not the address of interrupt handler can
be easily calculated if the interrupt number is known. The segment address of the whole
IVT is 0000H the offset address for a particular interrupt handler can be determined by
multiplying its number with 4 eg. The offset address of the vector of
INT 21H will be 21H * 4 = 84H and the segment for all vectors is 0 hence its far address
is 0000:0084H,( this is the far address of the interrupt vector and not the interrupt service
routine or interrupt handler). The vector in turn contains the address of the interrupt
service routine which is an arbitrary value depending upon the location of the ISR
residing in memory.

Fig 2 (Interrupt Vector Table)

Interrupt Vector Table

INT0 0000:0000
INT1 0000:0004

INTFF 0000:03FFH
Moreover it is important to understand the meaning of the four bytes within the interrupt
vector. Each entry within the IVT contains a far address the first two bytes (lower word)
of which is the offset and the next two bytes (higher word) is the segment address.

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INT 0 LO(0) 0000:0001

LO(1)
HI(0)
HI(1) 0000:0003
INT 1 0000:0004

0000:0007

Fig 3 (Far address within Interrupt vector)

Location of ISRs (Interrupt service routines)

Generally there are three kind of ISR within a system depending upon the entity which
implements it
• BIOS (Basic I/O services) ISRs
• DOS ISRs
• ISRs provided by third party device drivers
When the system has booted up and the applications can be run all these kind of ISRs
maybe provided by the system. Those provided by the ROM-BIOS would be typically
resident at any location after the address F000:0000H because this the address within
memory from where the ROM-BIOS starts, the ISRs provided by DOS would be resident
in the DOS kernel (mainly IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS loaded in memory) and the ISR
provided by third party device drivers will be resident in the memory occupied by the
device drivers.

IO.SYS
Device Driver
Command. COM

USER PROGRAM

Rom Bios F000:0000

Fig 4 (ISRs in memory)

This fact can be practically analyzed by the DOS command mem/d which gives the status
of the memory and also points out which memory area occupied by which process as
shown in the text below. The information given by this command indicates the address
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02 - Interrupt Mechanism

where IO.SYS and other device drivers have been loaded but the location of ROM BIOS
is not shown by this command.
C:\>mem /d
Address Name Size Type
------- -------- ------ ------
000000 000400 Interrupt Vector
000400 000100 ROM Communication Area
000500 000200 DOS Communication Area

000700 IO 000370 System Data

CON System Device Driver
AUX System Device Driver
PRN System Device Driver
CLOCK$ System Device Driver
COM1 System Device Driver
LPT1 System Device Driver
LPT2 System Device Driver
LPT3 System Device Driver
COM2 System Device Driver
COM3 System Device Driver
COM4 System Device Driver

000A70 MSDOS 001610 System Data

002080 IO 002030 System Data

KBD 000CE0 System Program
HIMEM 0004E0 DEVICE=
XMSXXXX0 Installed Device Driver
000490 FILES=
000090 FCBS=
000120 LASTDRIVE=
0007D0 STACKS=
0040C0 COMMAND 000A20 Program
004AF0 MSDOS 000070 -- Free --
004B70 COMMAND 0006D0 Environment
005250 DOSX 0087A0 Program
00DA00 MEM 000610 Environment
00E020 MEM 0174E0 Program
025510 MSDOS 07AAD0 -- Free --
09FFF0 SYSTEM 02F000 System Program

0CF000 IO 003100 System Data

MOUSE 0030F0 System Program
0D2110 MSDOS 000600 -- Free --
0D2720 MSCDEXNT 0001D0 Program
0D2900 REDIR 000A70 Program
0D3380 DOSX 000080 Data
0D3410 MSDOS 00CBE0 -- Free --

655360 bytes total conventional memory

655360 bytes available to MS-DOS
597952 largest executable program size

1048576 bytes total contiguous extended memory

0 bytes available contiguous extended memory
941056 bytes available XMS memory
MS-DOS resident in High Memory Area

Interrupt Invocation
Although hardware and software interrupts are invoked differently i.e hardware interrupts
are invoked by means of some hardware whereas software interrupts are invoked by
means of software instruction or statement but no matter how an interrupt has been
invoked processor follows a certain set steps after invocation of interrupts in exactly same
way in both the cases. These steps are listed as below

• Push Flags, CS, IP Registers, Clear Interrupt Flag

• Use (INT#)*4 as Offset and Zero as Segment
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02 - Interrupt Mechanism

• This is the address of interrupt Vector and not the ISR

• Use lower two bytes of interrupt Vector as offset and move into IP
• Use the higher two bytes of Vector as Segment Address and move it into
CS=0:[offset+2]
• Branch to ISR and Perform I/O Operation
• Return to Point of Interruption by Popping the 6 bytes i.e. Flags CS, IP.

This can be analyzed practically by the use of debug program, used to debug assembly
language code, by assembling and debugging INT instructions
C:\>debug
-d 0:84
0000:0080 7C 10 A7 00-4F 03 55 05 8A 03 55 05 |...O.U...U.
0000:0090 17 03 55 05 86 10 A7 00-90 10 A7 00 9A 10 A7 00 ..U.............
0000:00A0 B8 10 A7 00 54 02 70 00-F2 04 74 CC B8 10 A7 00 ....T.p...t.....
0000:00B0 B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00-40 01 21 04 50 09 AB D4 ........@.!.P...
0000:00C0 EA AE 10 A7 00 E8 00 F0-B8 10 A7 00 C4 23 02 C9 .............#..
0000:00D0 B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00-B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00 ................7
0000:00E0 B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00-B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00 ................
0000:00F0 B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00-B8 10 A7 00 B8 10 A7 00 ................
0000:0100 8A 04 10 02 ....

-a
0AF1:0100 int 21
0AF1:0102
-r
AX=0000 BX=0000 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFEE BP=0000 SI=0000 DI=0000
DS=0AF1 ES=0AF1 SS=0AF1 CS=0AF1 IP=0100 NV UP EI PL NZ NA PO NC
0AF1:0100 CD21 INT 21
-t
AX=0000 BX=0000 CX=0000 DX=0000 SP=FFE8 BP=0000 SI=0000 DI=0000
DS=0AF1 ES=0AF1 SS=0AF1 CS=00A7 IP=107C NV UP DI PL NZ NA PO NC
00A7:107C 90 NOP
-d ss:ffe8
0AF1:FFE0 02 01 F1 0A 02 F2 00 00
0AF1:FFF0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00-00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

The dump at the address 0000:0084 H shows the value of the vector of the interrupt #
21H i.e. 21H * 4 = 84H. This address holds the value 107CH in lower word and 00A7H
in the higher word which indicates that the segment address of interrupt # 21 is 00A7H
and the offset address of this ISR is 107CH.

Moreover the instruction INT 21H can be assembled and executed in the debug program,
on doing exactly so the instruction is traced through and the result is monitored. It can be
seen that on execution of this instruction the value of IP is changed to 107CH and the
value of CS is changed to 00A7H which cause the execution to branch to the Interrupt #
21H in memory and the previous values of flags, CS and IP registers are temporarily
saved onto the stack as the value of SP is reduced by 6 and the dump at the location
SS:SP will show these saved values as well.

Parameter passing into Software interrupts

In case of procedures or function in various programming languages parameters are
passed through stack. Interrupts are also kind of function provided by the operating
system but they do not accept parameters by stack rather they need to passed parameters
through registers.

Software interrupts invocation

Now let’s see how various interrupts can be invoked by means of software statements.
First there should be way to pass parameters into a software interrupt before invoking the
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interrupt; there are several methods for doing this. One of the methods is the use of
pseudo variables. A variable can be defined a space within the memory whose value can
be changed during the execution of a program but a pseudo variable acts very much like a
variable as its value can be changed anywhere in the program but is not a true variable as
it is not stored in memory. C programming language provides the use of pseudo variables
to access various registers within the processor.
The are various registers like AX, BX, CX and DX within the processor they can be
directly accessed in a program by using their respective pseudo variable by just attaching
a “_” (underscore) before the register’s name eg. _AX = 5; A = _BX .
After passing the appropriate parameters the interrupt can be directly invoked by calling
the geninterrupt () function. The interrupt number needs to be passed as parameter
into the geninterrupt() function.

Interrupt # 21H, Service # 09 description

Now lets learn by means of an example how this can be accomplished. Before invoking
the interrupt the programmer needs to know how the interrupt behaves and what
parameters it requires. Lets take the example of interrupt # 21H and service # 09 written
as 21H/09H in short. It is used to print a string ending by a ‘$’ character and other
parameters describing the string are as below
Inputs
AH = 0x09
DS = Segment Address of string
DX = Offset Address of string
Output
The ‘$’ terminated string at the address DS:DX is displayed
One thing is note worthy that the service # is placed in AH which is common with almost
all the interrupts and its service. Also this service is not returning any siginificant data, if
some service needs to return some data it too is received in registers depending upon the
particular interrupt.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
#include<conio.h>

char st[80] ={"Hello World$"};

void main()
{
clrscr(); //to clear the screen contents
_DX = (unsigned int) st;
_AH = 0x09;
geninterrupt(0x21);
getch(); //waits for the user to press any key
}

this is a simple example in which the parameters of int 21H/09H are loaded and then int
21H is invoked. DX and AH registers are accessed through pseudo variables and then
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geninterrupt()is called to invoke the ISR. Also note that _DS is not loaded. This is
the case as the string to be loaded is of global scope and the C language compiler
automatically loads the segment address of the global data into the DS register.

Another Method for invoking software interrupts

This method makes use of a Union. This union is formed by two structure which
correspond to general purpose registers AX, BX, CX and DX. And also the half register
AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, DL. These structures are combined such that through this
structure the field ax can be accessed to load a value and also its half components al and
ah can be accessed individually. The declaration of this structure goes as below. If this
union is to be used a programmer need not declare the following declaration rather
declaration already available through its header file “dos.h”

struct full
{
unsigned int ax;
unsigned int bx;
unsigned int cx;
unsigned int dx;
};
struct half
{
unsigned char al;
unsigned char ah;
unsigned char bl;
unsigned char bh;
unsigned char cl;
unsigned char ch;
unsigned char dl;
unsigned char dh;
};
typedef union tagREGS
{
struct full x;
struct half h;
}REGS;

This union can be used to signify any of the full or half general purpose register shows if
the field ax in x struct is to be accessed then accessing the fields al and ah in h will also
have the same effect as show in the example below.
Example:

#include<DOS.H>
union REGS regs;
void main (void )
{
regs.h.al = 0x55;
regs.h.ah = 0x99;
printf (“%x”,regs.x.ax);
}
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output:
9955

The int86() function

The significance of this REGS union can only be understood after understanding the
int86() function. The int86() has three parameters. The first parameter is the interrupt
number to be invoked, the second parameter is the reference to a REGS type union which
contains the value of parameters that should be passed as inputs, and third parameter is a
reference to a REGS union which will contain the value of registers returned by this
function. All the required parameters for an ISR are placed in REGS type of union and its
reference is passed to an int86() function. This function will put the value in this union
into the respective register and then invoke the interrupt. As the ISR returns it might leave
some meaningful value in the register (ISR will return values), these values can be
retrieved from the REGS union whose reference was passed into the function as the third
parameter.

Example using interrupt # 21H service # 42H

To make it more meaningful we can again elaborate it by means of an example. Here we
make use of ISR 21H/42H which is used to move the file pointer. Its detail is as follows

Int # 21 Service # 42H

Inputs
AL = Move Technique
BX = File Handle
CX-DX = No of Bytes File to be moved
AH = Service # = 42H
Output
DX-AX = No of Bytes File pointer actually moved.

BOF
BOF cp
cp EOF
EOF

------------------- --------------------

This service is used to move the file pointer to a certain position relative to a certain
point. The value in AL specify the point relative to which the pointer is moved. If the
value of AL = 0 then file pointer is moved relative to the BOF (begin of File) if AL=1
then its moved relative to current position and if AL = 2 then its moved relative to the
EOF (end of file).
CX-DX specify the number of bytes to move a double word is needed to specify this
value as the size of file in DOS can be up to 2 GB.
On return of the service DX-AX will contain the number of bytes the file pointer is
actually moved eg. If the file pointer is moved relative to the EOF zero bytes the DX-AX
on return will contain the size of file if the file pointer was at BOF before calling the
service.

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03 - Use of ISRs for C Library Functions

The above described service can be used to get the size of a file in the described manner.
The following C language program tries to accomplish just that. This program has been
saved as .C file and not as .CPP file and then compiled.

Example 21H/42H:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
#include<io.h>
#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>

unsigned int handle;

void main()
{
union REGS regs;
unsigned long int size;
handle = open("c:\\abc.txt",O_RDONLY);
regs.x.bx = handle;
regs.h.ah = 0x42;
regs.h.al = 0x02; //correction
regs.x.cx = 0;
regs.x.dx = 0;
int86(0x21,&regs,&regs);
*((int*)(&size)) = regs.x.ax;
*(((int*)(&size))+1) =regs.x.dx;
printf ("Size is %d“ ,size);
}

This program opens a file and saves its handle in the handle variable. This handle is
passed to the ISR 21H/42H along with the move technique whose value is 2 signifing
movement relative to the EOF and the number of bytes to move are specified to be zero
indicating that the pointer should move to the EOF. As the file was just opened the
previous location of the file pointer will be BOF. On return of this service DX-AX will
contain the size of the file. The low word of this size in ax is placed in the low word of
size variable and the high word in dx is placed in the high word of size variable.

Another Example:
Lets now illustrate how ISR can be invoked by means of another example of BIOS
service. Here we are choosing the ISR 10h/01h. This interrupt is used to perform I/O on
the monitor. Moreover this service is used to change the size of cursor in text mode. The
description of this service is given as under.

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Int # 10H Service # 01H

Entry
AH = 01
CH = Beginning Scan Line
CL = Ending Scan Line
On Exit
Unchanged

The size of the cursor depends upon the number of net scan lines used to display the
cursor if the beginning scan line is greater than the ending scan line the cursor will
disappear. The following tries to accomplish just that

void main()
{
char st[80];
union REGS regs;
regs.h.ah = 0x01;
regs.h.ch = 0x01;
regs.h.cl = 0x00;
int86(0x10,&regs,&regs); //corrected
gets(st);
}

The program is quite self explanatory as it puts the starting scan line to be 1 and the
ending scan line to be 0. Henceforth when the service execute the cursor will disappear.

Use of ISRs for C Library functions

There are various library function that a programmer would typically use in a program to
perform input output operations. These library functions perform trivial I/O operations
like character input (putch()) and character output (getch(), getc() etc). All
these function call various ISRs to perform this I/O. In BIOS and DOS documentation
number of services can be found that lie in correspondence with some C library function
in terms of its functionality.

Writing S/W ISRs

Lets now see how can a programmer write an ISR routine and what needs to be done in
order make the service work properly. To exhibit this we will make use of an interrupt
which is not used by DOS or BIOS so that our experiment does not put any interference
to the normal functions of DOS and BIOS. One such interrupt is interrupt # 65H. The
vector of int 65H is typically filled with zeros another indication that it is not being used.

Getting interrupt vector

As we have discussed earlier IVT is a table containing 4 byte entries each of which is a
far address of an interrupt service routine. All the vectors are arranged serially such that
the interrupt number can be used as an index into the IVT.
Getting interrupt vector refers to the operation which used to reading the far address
stored within the vector. The vector is double word, the lower word of it being the offset
address and the higher word being the segment address. Moreover the address read from a
vector can be used as a function pointer. The C library function used to do the exactly
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same is getvect(int#) which requires the interrupt number a parameter and returns
the value of its vector.

Fig 1 (Vector being read from IVT )

INT # Offset
Offset
Segment
far
Segment

Intproc

Function pointers
Another thing required to be understood are the function pointers. C language is a very
flexible language just like there are pointers for integers, characters and other data types
there are pointers for functions as well as illustrated by the following example

void myfunc()
{

void (*funcptr) ( )

funcptr = myfunc;
(*funcptr) ( );
myfunc();

There are three fragments of code in this example. The first fragment shows the
declaration of a function myfunc()
The second fragment show declaration of a pointer to function named funcptr which is
a pointer to a function that returns void.
In the third fragment funcptr is assigned the address of myfunc as the name of the
function can be used as its address just like in the cases of arrays in C. Then the function
pointed by funcptr by the statement (*funcptr)(); is called and then the original
myfunc() is called. The user will observe in both the cases same function myproc()
will be invoked.

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03 - Use of ISRs for C Library Functions

Interrupt pointers and functions

Interrupt functions are special function that as compared to simple functions for reasons
discussed earlier. It can be declared using the keyword interrupt as shown in the
following examples.
void interrupt newint ( )
{
...
...
}

Similarly a pointer to such interrupt type function can also be declared as following
void interrupt (*intptr) ( );

where intptr is the interrupt pointer and it can be assigned an address using the
getvect() function

intptr = getvect(0x08);

Now interrupt number 8 can be invoked using the interrupt vector as following

(*intptr) ( );

Setting Interrupt Vector

Setting interrupt vector is just the reverse process of getting interrupt vector. To set the
interrupt vector means is to change the double word sized interrupt vector within the IVT.
This task can be accomplished using the function setvect(int #, newint) which
requires the number of interrupt whose vector is to be changed and the new value of the
vector.
INT # Offset
Offset
Segment
Segment far

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03 - Use of ISRs for C Library Functions

In the following example a certain interrupt type function has been declared. The address
of this function can be placed on to the vector of any interrupt using setvect()
function as following. The following code places the address of newint function at the
vector of int 8

void interrupt newint ( )

{
…
…
}

setvect(0x08, newint);

C program making use of Int 65H

Here is a listing of a program that makes use of int 65H to exhibit how software interrupts
needs to be programmed.

void interrupt (*oldint65)( );

char st[80] = {“Hello World$”};
void interrupt newint65(void);
void main()
{
oldint65 = getvect(0x65);
setvect(0x65, newint65);
geninterrupt (0x65);
geninterrupt (0x65);
geninterrupt (0x65);
setvect(0x65, oldint65);
}
void interrupt newint65( )
{
_AH = 0x09;
_DX=(unsigned int)st;
geninterrupt (0x21);
}
The above listing saves the address of original int 65H in the pointer oldint65. It then
places the address of its own function newint65 at the vector of interrupt number 65H.
From this point onwards whenever int 65H is invokes the function newint65 will be
invoked. Int 65 is invoked thrice which will force the newint65 function to be invoked
thrice accordingly. After this the original value of the vector stored in oldint65 is restored.
The newint65 function only displays the string st. As the interrupt 65 is invoked
thrice this string will be printed thrice.

The Keep function

One deficiency in the above listing is that it is not good enough for other application i.e.
after the termination of this program the newint65 function is de-allocated from the
memory and the interrupt vector needs to be restored otherwise it will act as a dangling

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03 - Use of ISRs for C Library Functions

pointer (pointing to a place where there is garbage or where there is no meaningful

function). To make the effect of this program permanent the newint65 function need to
be memory resident. This can be achieved by the function keep() which is quite similar
to exit() function. The exit() function returns the execution to the parent shell
program and de-allocates the memory allocated to the program whereas the keep()
function also returns the execution to the parent program but the memory allocated to the
process may still remain allocated.

keep (return code, no. of paras);

the keep() function requires the return code which is usually zero for normal termination
and the number of paragraphs required to be allocated. Each paragraph is 16 bytes in size.

TSR Programs
Following is a listing of a TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) program which programs
the interrupt number 65H but in this case the new interrupt 65H function remains in
memory even after the termination of the program and hence the vector of int 65h does
not become a dangling pointer.

#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>

char st[80] ={"Hello World$"};

void interrupt (*oldint65)( );
void interrupt newint65( );
void main()
{
oldint65 = getvect(0x65);
setvect(0x65, newint65);
keep(0, 1000);
}
void interrupt newint65( )
{
_AH = 0x09;
_DX=(unsigned int)st;
geninterrupt (0x21);
}

The main()function gets and sets the vector of int 65H such that the address of
newint65 is placed at its vector. In this case the program is made memory resident
using the keep function and 1000 paragraphs of memory is reserved for the program (the
amount of paragraphs is just a calculated guess work based upon the size of application).
Now if any application as in the following case invokes int 65H the string st which is also
now memory resident will be displayed.

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03 - Use of ISRs for C Library Functions

#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>

void main()
{
geninterrupt (0x65);
geninterrupt (0x65);
}

This program invokes the interrupt 65H twice which has been made resident.

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04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

Another Example:

#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
char st[80] ={"Hello World$"};
char st1[80] ={"Hello Students!$"};
void interrupt (*oldint65)( );
void interrupt newint65( );
void main()
{
oldint65 = getvect(0x65);
setvect(0x65, newint65);
keep(0, 1000);
}
void interrupt newint65( )
{
if (( _AH ) == 0) //corrected
{
_AH = 0x09;
_DX = (unsigned int) st;
geninterrupt (0x21);
}
else
{
if (( _AH ) == 1) //corrected
{
_AH = 0x09;
_DX = (unsigned int) st1;
geninterrupt (0x21);
}
}
}

Various interrupts provide a number of services. The service number is usually placed in
the AH register before invoking the interrupt. The ISR should in turn check the value in
AH register and then perform the function accordingly. The above example exemplifies
just that. In this example int 65 is assigned two services 0 and 1. Service 0 prints the
string st and service 1 prints the string st1. These services can be invoked in the
following manner.

#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
void main()
{
_AH = 1;
geninterrupt (0x65);

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04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

_AH = 0;
geninterrupt (0x65);
}

Interrupt stealing or interrupt hooks

Previously we have discussed how a new interrupt can be written and implemented.
Interrupt stealing is a technique by which already implemented services can be altered by
the programmer.

This technique makes use of the fact that the vector is stored in the IVT and it can be read
and written. The interrupt which is to be hooked its (original routine ) vector is first read
from the IVT and then stored in a interrupt pointer type variable, after this the vector is
changed to point to one of the interrupt function (new routine) within the program. If the
interrupt is invoked now it will force the new routine to be executed provided that its
memory resident. Now two things can be done, the original routine might be performing
an important task so it also needs to invoked, it can either be invoked in the start of the
new routine or at the end of the new routine using its pointer as shown in the following
execution charts below

Fig 1 (Normal Execution of an ISR)

Execution Interrupted

ISR Perform I/O

Normal Execution of Interrupt

Fig 2 (The original ISR being called at he end of new routine)

New Routine

Original Routine

Interrupt Interception

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04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

Fig 3 (The original ISR invoked at the start of new ISR)

Original Routine

New Routine

Other form of Interrupt Interception

Care must be taken while invoking the original interrupt. Generally in case hardware
interrupts are intercepted invoking the original interrupt at the start of new routine might
cause some problems whereas in case of software interrupts the original interrupt can be
invoked anywhere.

Sample Program for interrupt Interception

void interrupt newint();

void interrupt (*old)();
void main()
{
old=getvect(0x08);
setvect(0x08,newint);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newint ()
{
…
…
(*old)();
}

The above program gets the address stored at the vector of interrupt 8 and stores it in the
pointer oldint. The address of the interrupt function newint is then placed at the vector of
int 8 and the program is made memory resident. From this point onwards whenever
interrupt 8 occurs the interrupt function newint is invoked. This function after performing
its operation calls the original interrupt 8 whose address has been stored in oldint pointer.

Timer Interrupt
In the coming few examples we will intercept interrupt 8. This is the timer interrupt. The
timer interrupt has following properties.
¾ Its an Hardware Interrupts
¾ It is Invoked by Means of Hardware
¾ It approximately occurs 18.2 times every second by means of hardware.

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BIOS Data Area

BIOS contains trivial I/O routines which have been programmed into a ROM type device
and is interfaced with the processor as a part of main memory. However the BIOS
routines would require a few variables, these variables are stored in the BIOS data arera at
the location 0040:0000H in the main memory.
One such byte stored in the BIOS data area is the keyboard status byte at the location
40:17H. This contains the status of various keys like alt, shift, caps lock etc. This byte can
be described by the diagram below

Fig 4 (Keyboard status byte)

40:17H 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Insert key
Right Shift key
Caps Lock Key Left Shift Key
Num Lock key Ctrl Key

Scroll lock key Alt Key

Keyboard Status Word

Another Example

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*old)();
void interrupt new();
char far *scr=(char far* ) 0x00400017;
void main()
{
old=getvect(0x08);
setvect(0x08,new);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt new (){
*scr=64;
(*old)();
}

This fairly simple example intercepts the timer interrupt such that whenever the timer
interrupt occurs the function new() is invoked. Remember this is .C program and not a
.CPP program. Save the code file with .C extension after writing this code. On occurrence
of interrupt 8 the function new sets the caps lock bit in key board status by placing 64 at
this position through its far pointer. So even if the user turns of the caps lock on the next
occurrence of int 8 ( almost immediately) the caps lock will be turned on again (turing on
the caps lock on like this will not effect its LED in the keyboard only letters will be typed
in caps).

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04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

Memory Mapped I/O and Isolated I/O

A device may be interfaced with the processor to perform memory mapped or isolated
I/O. Main memory and I/O ports both are physically a kind of memory device. In case of
Isolated I/O, I/O ports are used to hold data temporary while sending/receiving the data
to/from the I/O device. If the similar function is performed using a dedicated part of main
memory then the I/O operation is memory mapped.

Fig 5 (Isolated I/O)

Isolated I/O
IN

M I/O
P

OUT

Fig 6 (Memory mapped I/O)

Memory Mapped I/O
MOV

M I/O
P

MOV

Memory Mapped I/O on Monitor

One of the devices in standard PCs that perform memory mapped I/O is the display
device (Monitor). The output on the monitor is controller by a controller called video
controller within the PC. One of the reason for adopting memory mapped I/O for the
monitor is that a large amount of data is needed to be conveyed to the video controller in
order to describe the text or that graphics that is to be displayed. Such large amount of
data being output through isolated I/O does not form into a feasible idea as the number of
port in PCs is limited to 65536.

The memory area starting from the address b800:0000H. Two bytes (a word) are reserved
for a single character to be displayed in this area. The low byte contains the ASCII code
of the character to be displayed and the high byte contains the attribute of the character to
be displayed. The address b800:0000h corresponds to the character displayed at the top

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04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

left corner of the screen, the next word b800:0002 corresponds to the next character on
the same row of the text screen and so on as described in the diagram below.

Fig 7 (Memory mapped I/O on monitor)

Memory Mapped I/O ON Monitor

B8OO:0002
B8OO:0003
B8OO:0000
B8OO:0001

Low Byte = ASCII CODE

High Byte =Attribute Byte
The attribute byte (higher byte) describes the forecolor and the backcolor in which the
character will be displayed. The DOS screen carries black as the backcolor and white as
the fore color by default. The lower 4 bits (lower nibble) represents the forecolor and the
higher 4 bits (higher nibble) represents the back color as described by the diagram below

Fig 8 (Attribute Byte)

Memory Mapped I/O ON Monitor
fore color
Blink X X X X X X X X

Back Color Color

Bold
Low Byte = Ascii Code 000 Black
High Byte = Attribute Byte 100 Red
010 Green
001 Blue
111 White

To understand all describe above lets take a look at this example.

unsigned int far *scr=0xb8000000;

void main()
{
(*scr)=0x0756;
(*(scr+1))=0x7055;
}

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04 - TSR programs and Interrupts

This example will generate the output VU

The far pointer scr is assigned the value 0xb800H in the high word which is the segment
address and value 0x0000H in the low word which is the offset address. The word at this
address is loaded with the value 0x0756H and the next word is loaded by the value
0x7055H, 0x07 is the attribute byte meaning black back color and white fore color and
the byte 0x70h means white back color and black fore color. ).0x56 and 0x55 are the
ASCII value of “V” and “U” respectively.

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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

This same task can be performed by the following program as well. In this case the video
text memory is accessed byte by byte.

unsigned char far *scr=(unsigned char far*)0xb8000000;

void main()
{
*scr=0x56;
*(scr+1)=0x07;
*(scr+2)=0x55;
*(scr+3)=0x70;
}

The next example fills whole of the screen with spaces. This will clear the contents of the
screen.

unsigned char far *scr=(unsigned char far*)0xb8000000;

//corrected
void main()
{
int i; //instruction added
for (i=0;i<2000;i++) //corrected
{
*scr=0x20; //corrected
*(scr+1)=0x07; //corrected
scr=scr+2;
}
}
Usually the in text mode there are 80 columns and 25 rows making a total of 2000
characters that can be shown simultaneously on the screen. This program runs a loop
2000 times placing 0x20 ASCII code of space character in whole of the text memory in
this text mode. Also the attribute is set to white forecolor and black backcolor.

Another Example
In the following example memory mapped I/O is used in combination with interrupt
interception to perform an interesting task.

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*old)();
void interrupt newfunc();
char far *scr=(char far* ) 0xb8000000;
void main()
{
old=getvect(0x08);
setvect(0x08,newfunc);
keep(0,1000);
}

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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

void interrupt newfunc ()

{
*scr=0x41; //corrected
*(scr+1)=0x07; //corrected
(*old)();

In the above example the timer interrupt is intercepted such that whenever the timer
interrupt is invoked (by means of hardware) the memory resident newfunc() is invoked.
This function simply displays the ASCII character 0x41 or ‘A’ in the top left corner of the
text screen.

Here is another example.

#include <stdio.h>
void interrupt (*old)();
void interrupt newfunc();
char far *scr=(char far* ) 0xb8000000;
int j;
void main( )
{
old=getvect(0x08);
setvect(0x08,newfunc); //corrected
keep(0,1000); //corrected
}

void interrupt newfunc ( )

{
for ( j=0;j<4000;j+=2){ //corrected
if(*(scr+j)==‘1’){
*(scr+j)=‘9’; }
}
(*old)();
}

This program scans through all the bytes of text display memory when int 8 occurs. It
once resident will replace all the ‘1’ on the screen by ‘9’. If even somehow a ‘1’ is
displayed on the screen it will be converted to ‘9’ on occurrence of interrupt 8 which
occurs 18.2 times every second.

The keyboard Interrupt

Keyboard is a hardware device and it makes use of interrupt number 9 for its input
operations. Whenever a key is pressed interrupt # 9 occurs. The operating system
processes this interrupt in order to process the key pressed. This interrupt usually reads
the scan code from the keyboard port and converts it into the appropriate ASCII code and
places the ASCII code in the keyboard buffer in BIOS data area as described I nthe
diagram below

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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

Keyboard Any Process

Controller
INT 9
Interrupt
60H Reads Scan
INT Code converts to
ASCII & place it
in Keyboard
Buffer & returns

Kbd .

Lets now experiment on the keyboard interrupt to understand its behavior

Example

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*old)( );
void interrupt newfunc( );

void main( )
{
old = getvect(0x09);
setvect(0x09,newfunc);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newfunc ( )
{
(*old)( );
(*old)( );
(*old)( );
}

This program simply intercepts the keyboard interrupt and places the address of newint
in the IVT. The newint simply invokes the original interrupt 9 thrice. Therefore the
same character input will be placed in the keyboard buffer thrice i.e three characters will
be received for each character input.

Example

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*old)( );
void interrupt newfunc( );
char far *scr = (char far* ) 0x00400017;

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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

void main( )
{
old = getvect(0x09);
setvect(0x09,newfunc);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newfunc ( )
{
*scr = 64;
(*old)( );
}

The above program is quite familiar it will just set the caps lock status whenever a key is
pressed. In this case the keyboard interrupt is intercepted.

Example

void interrupt (*old)( );

void interrupt newfunc( );
char far *scr = (char far* ) 0xB8000000;
int j;
void main( )
{
old = getvect(0x09);
setvect(0x09,newfunc);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newfunc ( )
{ for( j = 0;j < 4000; j += 2)
{
if (*(scr +j) == ‘1’)
*(scr + j) = ‘9’;
}
(*old)( ); }

This too is a familiar example. Whenever a key is pressed from the keyboard the newfunc
functions runs through whole of the test display memory and replaces the ASCII ‘1’
displayed by ASCII ‘9’.

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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

Timer & Keyboard Interrupt Program

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*oldTimer)( ); //corrected
void interrupt (*oldKey)( ); //corrected
void interrupt newTimer ( );
void interrupt newKey ( );
char far *scr = (char far* ) 0xB8000000;
int i, t = 0, m = 0;
char charscr [4000];
void main( )
{
oldTimer = getvect(8);
oldKey = getvect (9);
setvect (8,newTimer);
setvect (9,newKey);
getch();
getch();
getch();
getch();
}

void interrupt newTimer ( )

{
t++;
if ((t >= 182) && (m == 0))
{
for (i =0; i < 4000; i ++)
charscr [i] = *(scr + i);
for (i =0; i <=4000; i +=2)
{
*(scr + i) = 0x20;
*(scr + i + 1) = 0x07;
}
t = 0; m = 1;
}
(*oldTimer) ( );
}
void interrupt newKey ( )
{
int w;
if (m == 1)
{
for (w =0; w < 4000; w ++)
*(scr + w) = charscr [w];
m = 0;
}
(*oldKey) ( );
}

This program works like a screen saver. The newTimer function increments t whenever
it is invoked so the value of t reaches 182 after ten second. At this moment the function
saves the value in display text memory in a character array and fills the screen with
spaces and sets a flag m. The newKey function is invoked when a key press occurs.
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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

The flag is checked if the it’s set then the screen is restored from the values saved in that
character array.

Reentrant Procedures & Interrupt

If on return of a function the values within the registers are unchanged as compared to
the values which were stored in registers on entry into the procedures then the procedure
is called reentrant procedure. Usually interrupt procedures are reentrant procedures
especially those interrupt procedure compiled using C language compiler are reentrant.
This can be understood by the following example

AX =1234H
Proc1 ( ) AX =FF55H

AX = ?

In the above example the function Proc1() is invoked. On invocation the register AX
contained the value 1234H, the code within the function Proc1() changes the value in AX
to FF55H. On return AX will contain the value 1234H if the function have been
implemented as a reentrant procedure i.e a reentrant procedure would restore the values in
registers their previous value (saved in the stacked) before returning.
C language reentrant procedures save the registers in stack following the order AX, BX,
CX, DX, ES, DS, SI, DI, BP on invocation and restores in reverse order before return.

This fact about reentrant procedures can be analysed through following example.

#include <stdio.h>
void interrupt *old();
void interrupt newint()
void main ()
{
int a;
old = getvect(0x65);
setvect(0x65,newint);
_AX=0xf00f;
geninterrupt(0x65);
a = _AX
printf(“%x”,a);
}

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05 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Keyboard interrupt)

void interrupt newint()

{
_AX=0x1234;
}

Firstly its important to compile this above and all the rest of the examples as .C files
and not as .CPP file. It these codes are compiled using .CPP extension then there is no
surety that this program could be compiled.
Again int 65H is used for this experiment. The int 65H vector is made to point at the
function newint(). Before calling the interrupt 65H value 0xF00F is placed in the AX
register. After invocation of int 65H the value of AX register is changed to 0x1234. But
after return if the value of AX is checked it will not be 0x1234 rather it will be 0xF00F
indicating that the values in registers are saved on invocation and restore before return
and also that the interrupt type procedures are reentrant.

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06 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Disk interrupt, Keyboard hook)

06 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Disk interrupt,

Keyboard hook)
The typical sequence in which registers will be pushed and poped into the stack on
invocation and on return can be best described by the following diagrams

Push
AX,BX,CX,DX,ES,DS,SI,DI,BP

Push flags, CS, IP

POP
BP,DI,SI,DS,ES,DX,CX,BX,AX

Pop IP,CS,flags

---- Push AX, Push BX,

Push CX, Push DX,
----
Push ES, Push DS,
----
Push SI, Push DI, Push BP
----
----------
----
Int ----------
---- ----------
---- ----------
Pop BP, Pop DI,
----
Pop SI , Pop DS,
----
Pop ES, Pop DX,
----
Pop CX, Pop BX, Pop AX,
IRET

The registers Flags, CS and IP are pushed on execution of INT instruction and executions
branches to the interrupt procedure. The interrupt procedure pushes register AX, BX, CX,
DX, ES, DS, SI, DI, BP in this order. The interrupt procedure then executes, before
returning it pops all the registers in the reverse order as BP, DI, SI, DS, ES, DX, CX, BX
and AX. IP, CS and flags are poped on execution of the IRET instruction.
Next diagram shows the status of the stack after invocation of the interrupt procedure.

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06 - TSR programs and Interrupts (Disk interrupt, Keyboard hook)

BP
DI
SI
DS
ES
DX
CX
BX
AX
IP
CS
Flags

The arguments in simple procedure or functions are saved in the stack for the scope of the
function/procedure. When an argument is accessed in fact stack memory is accessed.
Now we will take a look how stack memory can be accessed for instance in case of
interrupt procedures to modify the value of register in stack.

Accessing Stack Example

void interrupt newint ( unsigned int BP,unsigned int DI,
unsigned int SI,unsigned int DS, unsigned int
ES,unsigned int DX, unsigned int CX,unsigned
int BX, unsigned int AX,unsigned int IP,
unsigned int CS,unsigned int flags)
//corrected
{
unsigned int a = AX;
unsigned int b = BX;
unsigned int d = ES;
}

Although interrupt do not take parameters through stack but an interrupt procedure can
still have parameters. This parameter list can be used to access the stack. The leftmost
parameter accesses the item on top of the stack and the rest of the parameters accesses
deeper into the stack according to its order toward left. In the above example value of AX
in stack is moved in a, the value of BX is moved into b and the value of ES is moved into
d.

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Example:

void interrupt newint ( unsigned int

BP,unsigned int DI, unsigned int SI,unsigned
int DS, unsigned int ES,unsigned int DX,
unsigned int CX,unsigned int BX, unsigned int
AX,unsigned int IP, unsigned int CS,unsigned
int flags) //corrected
{
AX = 0xF00F;
}
void main ( )
{
setvect(0x65,newint);
_AX = 0x1234;
geninterrupt (0x65);
a = _AX;
printf (“%x”, a);
}

In this example the value on invocation in AX is 0x1234, the interrupt procedure does not
change the current value of the register through pseudo variables rather it changes the
corresponding of AX in stack which will be restored in AX before return.

Disk Interrupt
The following example makes use of disk interrupt 13H and its service 3H. The details of
this service are as under.
On Entry
AH = Service # = 03
AL = No of Blocks to write
BX = Offset Address of Data
CH = Track # , CL = Sector #
DH = Head #
DL = Drive #(Starts from 0x80 for fixed disk & 0 for removable disks)
ES = Segment Address of data buffer.
On Exit
AH = return Code
Carry flag = 0 ( No Error AH = 0)
Carry flag = 1 ( Error AH = Error Code)

Boot block is a special block on disk which contains information about the operating
system to be loaded. If the data on boot block is somehow destroyed the disk would be
rendered inaccessible. The address of partition block on hard disk is head # =1, track# = 0
and sector # = 1. Now let’s write an application that will protect the boot block to be
written by any other application.

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#pragma inline
#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
void interrupt (*oldtsr) ( );
void interrupt newtsr (unsigned int BP, …, flags);
//must provide all the arguments
void main ( )
{
oldtsr = getvect (0x13);
setvect(0x13, newtsr); //corrected
keep (0, 1000);
}
void interrupt newtsr(unsigned int BP, unsigned int DI,
unsigned int SI, unsigned int DS, unsigned int ES, unsigned
int DX, unsigned int CX, unsigned int BX, unsigned int AX,
unsigned int IP, unsigned int CS,
unsigned int flags) //corrected
{
if ( _AH == 0x03)
if(( _DH == 1 && _CH == 0 && _CL == 1)&& _DL >= 0x80)
{
asm clc;
asm pushf;
asm pop flags;
return;
}
_ ES = ES; _DX = DX;
_CX = CX; _BX = BX;
_AX = AX;
*oldtsr;
asm pushf;
asm pop flags;
AX = _AX; BX = _BX;
CX = _CX; DX = _DX;
ES = _ES;
}

The above program intercepts interrupt 13H. The new interrupt procedure first check AH
for service number and other parameters for the address of boot block. If the boot block is
to be written it simply returns and clears the carry flag before returning to fool the calling
program that the operation was successful. And if the boot block is not to be written then
it places the original parameters back into the registers and calls the original interrupt.
The values returned by the original routine are then restored to the corresponding register
values in the stack so that they maybe updated into the registers on return.

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The keyboard Hook

The service 15H/4FH is called the keyboard hook service. This service does not perform
any useful output, it is there to be intercepted by applications which need to alter the
keyboard layout. It called by interrupt 9H after it has acquired the scan code of input
character from the keyboard port while the scan code is in AL register. When this service
returns interrupt 9H translates the scan code into ASCII code and places it in buffer. This
service normally does nothing and returns as it is but a programmer can intercept it in
order to change the scan code in AL and hence altering the input or keyboard layout.
Move Scan Code
from 60H port to
AL Int 15H
Service 4FH
Key Pressed

Convert to ASCII
& place it in keyboard buffer
The following application show how this can be done.

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
#include <stdio.h>
void interrupt (*oldint15) ( );
void interrupt newint15(unsigned int BP, …, flags);
void main ( )
{
oldint15 = getvect (0x15);
setvect (0x15, newint15);
keep (0, 1000);
}
void interrupt newint15(unsigned int BP, unsigned int DI,
unsigned int SI, unsigned int DS, unsigned int ES, unsigned
int DX, unsigned int CX, unsigned int BX, unsigned int AX,
unsigned int IP, unsigned int CS,
unsigned int flags)
{
if (*(((char*)&AX) + 1) == 0x4F )
{
if (*((char*)&AX) == 0x2C)
*(((char*)&AX)) = 0x1E;
else if (*((char*)&AX) == 0x1E)
*((char*)&AX) = 0x2C; //corrected
}
else
(*oldint15)();
}
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The application intercepts interrupt 15H. The newint15 function checks for the service #
4F in the high byte of AX, if this value is 4F the definitely the value in AL with be the
scan code. Here a simple substitution have been performed 0x1E is the scan code of ‘A’
and 0x2C is the scan code of ‘Z’. If the scan code is AL is that of ‘A’ it is substituted with
the scan code of ‘Z’ and vice versa. If some other service of 15H is invoked the original
interrupt function is invoked.

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07 - Hardware Interrupts

07 - Hardware Interrupts

The microprocessor package has many signals for data, control and addresses. Some of
these signals may be input signals and some might be output. Hardware interrupts make
use of two of such input signals namely NMI (Non maskable Interrupt) & INTR(Interrupt
Request).

Reset

Hold
NMI Microprocessor

INTR
NMI is a higher priority signal than INTR, HOLD has even higher priority and RESET
has the highest priority. If any of the NMI or INTR pins are activated the microprocessor
is interrupted on the basis of priority, if no higher priority signals are present. This is how
microprocessor can be interrupted without the use of any software instruction hence the
name hardware interrupts.

Hardware Interrupt and Arbitration

Most of the devices use the INTR line. NMI signal is used by devices which perform
operations of the utmost need like the division by zero interrupt which is generated by
ALU circuitry which performs division. Definitely this operation is not possible and the
circuitry generates an interrupt if it receives a 0 as divisor from the control unit.
INTR is used by other devices like COM ports LPT ports, keyboard, timer etc. Since only
one signal is available for microprocessor interruption, this signal is arbitrated among
various devices. This arbitration can be performed by a special hardware called the
Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC).

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Interrupt Controller
A single interrupt controller can arbitrate among 8 different devices.

D0 IRQ0

PIC
D7

INT IRQ7

As it can be seen from the diagram above the PIC device has 8 inputs IRQ0-IRQ7. IRQ0
has the highest priority and IRQ7 has the lowest. Each IRQ input is attached to an I/O
device whenever the device requires an I/O operation it sends a signal to the PIC. The
PIC on the basis of its priority and presence of other requests decides which request to
serve. Whenever a request is to be served by PIC it interrupt the processor with the INT
output connected to the INTR input of the processor and send the interrupt # to be
generated the data lines connected to the lower 8 datelines of the data bus to inform the
processor about the interrupt number. In case no higher priority signal is available to the
processor and the processor is successfully interrupted the microprocessor sends back an
INTA (interrupt Acknowledge) signal to inform the PIC that the processor has been
interrupted.

The following diagram also shows the typical connectivity of the IRQ lines with various
devices

Interval Timer
0 IRQ1
KBD Controller
1
DO
2
MICRO
COM2 3 D7 PROCESSOR
PIC
COM1 4
INT INTR
5
Other
6 INTA
Controllers
Printer Controller 7 IRQ7

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In standard PCs there maybe more than 8 devices so generally two PIC are used for INTR
line arbitration. These 2 PICs are cascaded such that they collectively are able to arbitrate
among 16 devices in all as shown in the following diagram.
MASTER IRQO
DO

PIC IRQ7
D7 cas1
cas2
INTA cas3

DO IRQ8

D7 PIC IRQ15
cas1
INTA cas2
cas3
SLAVE

The PICs are cascaded such that a total of 16 IRQ levels can be provided number IRQ0-
IRQ15. The IRQ level 2 is used to cascade both of the PIC devices. The Data lines are
multiplexed such that the interrupt number is issued by the concerned PIC. The IRQ 2
input of the Master PIC is connected to the INT output of the Slave PIC. If the slave PIC
is interrupted by a device its request ins propagated to the master PIC and the master PIC
ultimately interrupts the processor on INTR line according to the priorities.
In a standard PC the PICs are programmed such that the master PIC generated the
interrupt number 8-15 for IRQ0 –IRQ7 respectively and the slave PIC generates interrupt
number 70-77H for IRQ8-IRQ15

Hardware Interrupts are Non-Preemptive

As described earlier IRQ 0 has the highest priority and IRQ 15 has the lowest priority. If a
number of requests are available instantaneously the request with higher priority will be
sent for service first by the PIC. Now what will happen if a lower priority interrupt is
being service and a higher priority interrupt request occurs, will the lower priority
interrupt be preempted? The answer is that the interrupt being serviced will not be
preempted no matter what. The reason for this non-preemptive can be understood by the
example illustrated as below. Let’s first consider that the hardware interrupts are
preemptive for argument sake. If a character ‘A’ is input a H/W interrupt will occur to
process it, while this interrupt is being processed another character is input say ‘B’ in case
the interrupts have been preemptive the previous instance will be preempted and another
instance for the H/W interrupt call will be generated, and similarly consider another
character is input ‘C’ and the same happened for this input as well. In this case the
character first to be fully processed and received will be ‘C’ and then ‘B’ will be
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processed and then ‘A’. So the sequence of input will change to CBA while the correct
sequence would be ABC.

C PRESSED

A PRESSED

B PRESSED

Input received C B A Logically Incorrect

Logically Correct ABC

The input will be received in correct sequence only if the H/W interrupts are non-
preemptive as illustrated in the diagram below.

A PRESSED

B PRESSED

C PRESSED

Input received A B C Logically Correct

Hardware interrupts requires something more to be programmed into them as compared

with software interrupts. The major difference is because of the reason given above that
the H/W interrupts are non-preemptive. To make them non-preemptive the PIC should
know when the previously issued interrupt returns. The PIC cannot issue the next pending
interrupt unless it is notified that the previous interrupt has returned.

Who Notifies EOI (End of interrupt)

The PIC has to be notified about the return of the previous interrupt by the ISR routine.
From programmer point of view this is the major difference between H/W and software
interrupt. A software interrupt will not require any such notification. As the diagram
below illustrates that every interrupt returns with an IRET instruction. This instruction is
executed by the microprocessor and has no linkage with the PIC. So there has to be a
different method to notify the PIC about the End of interrupt.

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07 - Hardware Interrupts

Pending Hardware interrupts.

While a hardware interrupt is being processed a number of various other interrupt maybe
pending. For the subtle working of the system it is necessary for the In-service hardware
interrupt to return early and notify the PIC on return. If this operation takes long and the
pending interrupt requests occur repeated there is a chance of loosing data.

Programming the PIC

To understand how the PIC is notified about the end of interrupt lets take a look into the
internal registers of PIC and their significance. A PIC has a number of initialization
control words (ICW) and operation control words (OCW), following is characteristic of
ICW and OCWs
• ICW programmed at time of boot up
• ICW are used to program the operation mode like cascade mode or not also it is
used to program the function of PIC i.e if it is to invoke interrupts 08~ 0FH or
70-77H on IRQ request.
• OCW are used at run-time.
• OCW is used signal PIC EOI
• OCW are also used to read/write the value of ISR(In-service register),
IMR(interrupt mask register), IRR(interrupt request register).

To understand the ISR, IMR and IRR lets take a look at the following diagram illustrating
an example.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
ISR 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
IMR 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
IRR 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

The values shown in the various registers illustrate that the currently in-service interrupt
is that generated through IRQ4 of the PIC (int 0CH in case of mater PIC), also the
interrupt through IRQ1 has been masked (int 9h (keyboard interrupt) in case of master
PIC) which means that even though a request for this interrupt is received by the PIC but
this request is ignored by the PIC until this bit is cleared. And the requests through IRQ7,
IRQ6, IRQ2 and IRQ0 are pending and waiting for the previously issued interrupt to
return.

Port Addresses
Few of the operation control words can be altered after boot time. The addresses for these
OCW are listed as below

• Master PIC has two ports

20H=OCW for EOI
21H=OCW for IMR

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07 - Hardware Interrupts

• Slave PIC has two ports as well

A0H=OCW for EOI code
A1H=OCW for IMR

Let’s now discuss an example that accesses these ports to control the PIC

#include <stdio.h>
#include <bios.h>
void main()
{

outport(0x21,0x02);

This example simply accesses the bit # 1 of IMR in the master PIC. It sets the bit #1 in
IMR which masks the keyboard interrupt. As a result no input could be received from the
keyboard after running this program.

Let’s now look at another example

#include <dos.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <bios.h>
void interrupt(*oldints)();
void interrupt newint8();
int t=0; //corrected
void main()
{
oldints=getvect(0x08);

setvect(0x08,newint8);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newint8()
{
t++:
if (t==182)
{
outport(0x21,2);
}
else{
if (t==364)
{
outport(0x21,0);
t=0;
}
}
(*oldints)();
}

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07 - Hardware Interrupts

The example above is also an interesting example. This program intercepts the timer
interrupt. The timer interrupt makes use of a variable to keep track of how much time has
passed; t is incremented each time int 8 occurs. It the reaches the 182 after 10 second, at
this point the keyboard interrupt is masked and remains masked for subsequent 10 second
at which point the value of t will be 364, also t is cleared to 0 for another such round.

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt(*old)();
void interrupt newint9();
char far *scr=(char far *) 0x00400017;

void main()
{
old=getvect(0x09);
setvect(0x09,newint9);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newint9()
{
if (inportb(0x60)==83
&&(((*scr)&12)==12)) //corrected
{
outportb(0X20,0x20);
return;
}
(*old)();
}

The above program disables the CTRL+ALT+DEL combination in the DOS environment
(if windows OS is also running this combination will not be disabled for its environment).
The keyboard interrupt has been intercepted, whenever the keyboard interrupt occurs the
newint9 function receives the scan key code from the keyboard port 0x60, 83 is the scan
key code of DEL key. Also the program checks if the ALT and CTRL button has been
pressed as well from the status of the 40:17H keyboard status byte. If it confirms that the
combination pressed is CTRL+ALT+DEL then it does not invoke the real int 9 ( *oldint()
which will make the computer reboot in DOS environment had the computer been booted
through DOS) and simply returns. But notice that before returning it notifies the PIC that
the interrupt has ended. The EOI code sent to the OCW at the address 0x20 is also 0x20.
This is being done because int 9 is a hardware interrupt, had this been a software interrupt
this would have not been required.

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#include <dos.h>

void interrupt(*old)();

void interrupt newint9();

void main()
{

old=getvect(0x09);
setvect(0x09,newint9);
keep(0,1000);

}
void interrupt newint9()
{

if (inportb(0x60)==0x1F) //corrected

outportb(0X20,0x20);
return;
}
(*old)();

The above C language program suppresses the ‘s’ input from the keyboard. The keyboard
interrupt has been intercepted. When a key is pressed newint9 is invoked. This service
checks the value through the import statement of the keyboard port numbered 0x60. If he
scan code ( and not the ASCII code) is 0x1F then it indicates that the ‘s’ key was pressed.
This program in this case simply returns the newint9 hence suppressing this input by not
calling the real int 9. Before return it also notifies the PIC about the end of interrupt.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

The keyboard buffer

Keyboard Buffer
• Keyboard Buffer is located in BIOS Data Area.
• Starts at 40: IEH
• Ends at 40 : 3DH
• Has 32 byes of memory 2 bytes for each
character.
• Head pointer is located at address 40 : 1A to
40:IBH
• Tail pointer located at address 40 : IC to 40:IDH

The keyboard buffer is a memory area reserved in the BIOS data area. This area stores the
ASCII or special key codes pressed from the keyboard. It works as a circular buffer and
two bytes are reserved for each character, moreover 2 bytes are used to store a single
character. The first character stores the ASCII code and the second byte stores 0 in case
an ASCII key is pressed. In case a extended key like F1- F12 or arrow key is pressed the
first byte stores a 0 indicating a extended key and the second byte stores its extended key
code.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

Circular buffer

40:1AH

40:1CH

Head Tail
40:1EH

40:3DH

The circular keyboard buffer starts at the address 40:1EH and contains 32 bytes. The
address 40:1AH stores the head of this circular buffer while the address 40:1CH stores the
tail of this buffer. If the buffer is empty the head and tail points at the same location as
shown in the diagram above.

Storing characters in the keyboard buffer

Tail
0x1E
‘A’
0’
‘B’ 0x20
0 0x21
0 0x22
83 0x23
Head = 0x24

The above slide shows how characters are stored in the buffer. If ‘A; is to be stored then
the first byte in the buffer will store its ASCII code and the second will store 0, and if
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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

extended key like DEL is to be stored the first byte will store 0 and the second byte will
store its scan code i.e. 83. The diagram also shows that head points to the next byte where
the next input character can be stored. Also notice that head contain the offset from the
address 40:00H and not from address 40:1EH. i.e. it contain 0x24 which is the address of
the next byte to be stored relative to the start of BIOS data area and not the keyboard
buffer.

Position of tail

0xIE

Tail=0x20
‘B’
0
0
83 Head = 24

As discussed earlier the keyboard buffer is a circular buffer therefore the tail need to be
placed appropriately. In the given example the input ‘A’ stored in the buffer is consumed.
On consumption of this character the tail index is updated so that it points to the next
character in the buffer. In brief the tail would point to the next byte to be consumed in the
buffer while head points to the place where next character can be stored.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

• So KBD buffer acts as a circular buffer.

• The tail value should be examined to get
to the start of the buffer.

Example

#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*old)();
void interrupt new1()!
unsigned char far *scr = (unsigned char far
*) 0x0040001C
void main()
{
old=getvect(0x09);
setvect(0x09,new1);
keep(0,100);
}

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

void interrupt new1 ()

{
if(inportb(0x60)==83)
{
*((unsigned char far*)0x00400000+*scr)=25;
if((*scr)==60)
*scr=30;
else
*scr+=2;
outportb(0x20,0x20);
return;
}}

The program listed in the slides above intercepts interrupt 9. Whenever the interrupt 9
occurs it reads the keyboard port 0x60. If the port contains 83 then it means DEL was
pressed, if so it places the code 25 in the buffer and then updates the head in circular
manner. The code 25 placed instead of 83 represents the combinations CTRL+Y. The
program when resident will cause the program to receive CTRL+Y combination
whenever DEL is pressed by the user. i.e in Borland C environment CTRL+Y
combination is used to delete a line, if this program is resident then in Borland C
environment a line will be deleted whenever DEL is pressed by the user. But the thing
worth noticing is that the interrupt function returns and does not call the real interrupt 9
after placing 25 in the buffer, rather it returns directly. But before returning as it has
intercepted a hardware interrupt it needs to notify the PIC, this is done by
outport(0x20,0x20); statement. 0x20 is the address of the OCW that receives the EOI
code which incidentally is also 0x20.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

EOI Code for Slave IRQ

For Master

outportb(0x20,0x20);

For Slave

outportb(0x20,0x20);
outportb(0xA0,0x20);

As discussed earlier the slave PIC is cascaded with the master PIC. If the hardware
interrupt to be processed is issued by the master PIC then the ISR needs to send the EOI
code to the master PIC but if the interrupt request is issued by the slave PIC then the ISR
needs to inform both master and slave PICs as both of them are cascaded as shown in the
slide.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

Reading OCW

OCW2& OCW3

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
X X X

00 If EOI is to be sent

001 FOR Non Specific EOI

01 If other Registers are to be accessed

The same port i.e 0x20 is used to access the OCWs. 00 is placed in bits number 4 and 3 to
indicate an EOI is being received and 01 is placed to indicate that a internal register is to
be accessed.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0

O1 To read IRR or ISR

10 = IRR
11= In-Service Register

The value in bits number 1 and 0 indicate which Register is to accessed. 10 is for IRR and
11 is for ISR.

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Accessing the ISR and IRR.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

No EOI relevant
Don’t Care

Other Register to be Accessed

A value is placed in the port 0x20 as shown in the above slide to indicate that a register is
to be accessed.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

IRR Accessed

01 PIC Notified about reading operation

Then again a value in that same port is placed to indicate which register is to be accessed,
as in the above slide IRR is to be accessed.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

ISR Accessed

01 PIC Notified about reading operation

And in this slide a value is formed which can be programmed in the port 0x20 to access
the ISR.

A sample program

#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
void main (void)
{ char a;
outport(0x20,8);
outport(0x20,0x0A);
a=inport(0x20);
printf (“value of IRR is %x”; ,a);
outport(0x20,0x08);
outport(0x20,0x0B);
a=inport(0x20);
printf (“value of ISR is %x”; ,a);
}

The above program makes use of the technique described to access the ISR and IRR.
Firstly 0x08 is placed to specify that a register is to be accessed then 0x0A is placed to
indicate that IRR is to accessed. Now this port 0x20 can be read which will contain the
value in IRR. Similarly it is done again by placing the 0x0B in port 0x20 to access the
ISR.

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

More about TSR Programs

• A TSR need to be loaded once in memory

• Multiple loading will leave redundant
copies in memory

• So we need to have some check which

will load the program only once

One of the solution to the problem can be

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

Using a Global Variable as a

flag

as shown in the slide below

int flag;

flag =1;
keep(0,1000);

if (flag==1)
Make TSR
else
exit Program

This will not work as this global variable is only global for this instance of the program.
Other instances in memory will have their own memory space. So the

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08 - Hardware Interrupts and TSR programs

Answers is to use a memory area as

flag that is global to all programs.
i.e. IVT

int 65H is empty, we can use

its vector as a flag.
Address of vector
seg = 0
offset = 65H * 4

Example:
#include<stdio.h> setvect(0x08, newint);
#include<BIOS.H> (*int65vec) = 0xF00F;
#include<DOS.H> keep (0,1000);
unsigned int far * int65vec = }else
(unsigned far *) {
MK_FP(0,0x65*4) puts (“Program Already
void interrupt (*oldint) ( ); Resident”);
void interrupt newfunc ( ); }}
void main() void interrupt newfunc ()
{ { :::::::
if((*int65vec) != 0xF00F) :::::::
//corrected (*oldint) ( );
{ }
oldint =getvect (0x08);

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The above template shows how the vector of int 0x65 can be used as a flag. This template
shows that a far pointer is maintained which is assigned the address of the int 0x65
vector. Before calling the keep() function i.e making the program resident a value of
0xf00f is placed at this vector( this vector can be tempered as it is not being used by the
OS or device drivers). Now if another instance of the program attempts to run the if
statement at the start of the program will check the presence of 0x0f00f at the int vector
of 0x65, if found the program will simply exit otherwise it will make itself resident. Or in
other word we can say that 0xf00f at the int 0x65 vector in this case indicate that the
program is already resident.

¾But what if another program is

resident or using this vector.

Another Method
¾Service # 0xFF usually does not
exist for ISR’s.
¾Key is to create another service #
0xFF for the ISR interrupt besides
other processing.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
void interrupt (*oldint) ( );
void interrupt newfunc ( unsigned int BP,..…,flags);
void main()
{
_DI = 0;
_AH = 0xFF;
geninterrupt (0x13);
if (_DI = = 0xF00F) {
puts (“Program Already Resident”);
exit (0);
}

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The implements the service 0xff of interrupt 0x13 such that whenever this service is
called it returns 0xf00f in DI and if this value does not return then it means that this
program is not resident.

Example:
Else
{
oldint = getvect (0x13);
setvect (0x13, newint);
keep (0, 1000);
}} else
void interrupt newint ( ) { :::::::
{ :::::::
if (_AH == 0xFF) :::::::
{ }
DI = 0xF00F; (*oldint) ( );
return; }
}

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09 - The interval Timer

09 - The interval Timer

The interval timer

Interval Timer
- Synchronous Devices require a
timing signal.

Clock Clk
Clk Microprocessor
generated

PCLK =1.19318 MHz

Ch0 to IRQ0
Clk Interval CH1 TO DRAM controller
PCLK (for peripheral Timer Ch2 to PC Speaker
Synchronous Devices)

The interval timer is used to divide an input frequency. The input frequency used by the
interval timer is the PCLK signal generated by the clock generator. The interval timer has
three different each with an individual output and memory for storing the divisor value.

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09 - The interval Timer

Dividing Clock signal

Counter Registers:
• Counter registers can be used to divide frequency.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
count

/16 /8 /4 /2

A counter register can be used to divide the clock signal. As shown in the slide above, 0
of the clock register is used to divide the clock frequency by 2 subsequently bit 1 is used
to divide it by 4 and so on.

The Division mechanism

0000 0000 0000 1000

0000 0001 0000 1001
0000 0010 0000 1010
0000 0011 0000 1011
0000 0100 0000 1100
0000 0101 0000 1101
0000 0110 0000 1110
0000 0111 0000 1111

The above slide shows a sequence of output that a 8bit clock register will generate in
sequence whenever it receives the clock signal. Observe bit #1, its value changes between
0 and 1 between two clock cycles so it can be used to divide the basic frequency by 2.
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Similarly observe bit #2 its value transits between 0 and 1 within 4 clock cycles hence it
divides the frequency by 4 and so on.

Timing diagram

Timing Diagram

Bit 0 (/2)

Bit 1 (/4)

Bit 2 (/8)

Bit 3 (/16)
:::: :
:::: :
:::: :

Here is the timing diagram for above example. Bit #1 performs one cycle in between 2
clock cycles. Similarly bit #2 performs one cycle in between 4 clock cycles and so on.

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Command registers within the programmable interval timer

Interval Timer Programming:

Command Registers
• 8-bit Command port
• Need to be programmed before
loading the divisor value for a
channel.
• 3 channels, each requires a 16-
bit divisor value to generate the
output frequency.

Command register and the channels need to be programmed for the interval timer to
generate a wanted frequency.
Command Register

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

Binary = 0
Ch: 00=0
BCD = 1
01=1
10=2 Mode 0 ~ 5
=000 ~ 101
01=Low Byte
10=High Byte
11=Low Byte followed
by High Byte

Command register is an 8 bit register which should be programmed as described in the

slide above before loading the divisor value. It signifies the channel to be programmed,
size of divisor value, the mode in which the channel is to be operated and also whether
the counter is to be used a binary or BCD counter.

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Mode Description

Divisor = 4
Mode = 0 -----4----- -----4-----
Divisor = 4
Mode = 1 -----3----- -----3-----

Divisor = 4
Mode = 2 ---2--- ---2---

Divisor = 4
Mode = 3
-----4----- -----4-----

The interval timer can operate in six modes. Each mode has a different square wave
pattern according to need of the application. Some modes might be suitable to control a
motor and some might be suitable to control the speaker.
Binary counter

Binary Count: count

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

BCD COUNT=89 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
99= 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The interval timer channels can be used as a binary as well as a BCD counter. In case its
used in binary mode its counter registers will count in binary sequence and if its used as a
BCD counter its registers will count in BCD sequence as described above.

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Ports and Channels

Ports & Channels:

• 3-Channels 16-bit wide divisor value
i.e 0~65535
8-bit port for each channel therefore the
divisor word is loaded serially byte by byte.
Port Addresses
43H = Command Port
40H = 8-bit port for Channel 0
41H = 8-bit port for Channel 1
42H = 8-bit port for Channel 2

The interval timer has 3 channels each channel is 16 bit wide. The port 43H is an 8 bit
port used as the command register. Ports 40h, 41H and 42H are associated with the
channels o, 1 and 2 respectively. Channels are 16 bit wide whereas the ports are 8 bit
wide. A 16 bit value can be loaded serially through the ports into the register.

Steps for programming the interval timer

Programming Concepts for Interval

Timer:
• Load the Command byte into
command register required to
program the specific channel.
• The divisor word is then
Serially loaded byte by byte.

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09 - The interval Timer

The port 61H

61H Port

Connect
to interval
timer = 1
Rest of the bits are used by othe r
devices and should not be changed.
Turn ON Speaker = 1
Turn OFF Speaker=0

the port 61h is used to control the speaker only the least significant 2 bits are important.
Bit 0 is used to connect the interval timer to the speaker and the bit #1 is used to turn the
speaker on off. Rest of the bits are used by other devices.

Example

Example:
//Program loads divisor value of 0x21FF
//Turns ON the speaker and connects it to Interval
Timer
#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
void main()
{
outportb (0x43,0xB4);
outportb (0x42,0xFF);
outportb (0x42,0x21);
outportb (0x61,inportb(0x61) | 3);
getch();
outportb (0x61,inportb(0x61) & 0xFC);
}

The above programs the interval timer and then turns it on. A value of 0xb4 is loaded into
the command register 0x43. This value signifies that the channel 2 is to programmed,

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both the bytes of divisor value are to loaded, the interval timer is to be programmed in
mode 2 and is to be used as a binary counter.
Then the divisor value say 0x21ffH, is loaded serially. First 0xFF low byte and then the
high byte 0x21 is loaded. Both the least significant bits of 0x61 port are set to turn on the
speaker and connect it to the interval timer.
On a key press the speaker is again disconnected and turned off.

Producing a Delay in a Program

Timer Count:
40:6CH
Incremented every 1/18.2 seconds. Whenever INT8

unsigned long int far *time = (unsigned long int far*) 0x0040006C
void main()
{
unsigned long int tx;
tx = (*time);
tx = tx +18;
puts(“Before”);
while((*time) <= tx);
puts(“After”);
}

Delay can be produced using double word variable in the BIOS Data area placed at the
location 0040:006C. This value contains a timer count and is incremented every 1/18th of
a second. In this program the this double word is read, placed in a program variable and
incremented by 18. The value of 40:6cH is compared with this variable in a loop. This
loop iterates until the value of 40:6cH is not greater. In this way this loop will keep on
iterating for a second approximately.

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10 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI)

Sample Program

unsigned long int * time = (unsigned long int *) 0x0040006C

void main()
{ unsigned long int tx;
unsigned int divisor = 0x21FF;
while (divisor >= 0x50) {
outportb(0x43,0xB4);
outportb(0x42,*((char*)(&divisor)));
outportb(0x42,*(((char*)(&divisor))+1));
outportb(0x61,inportb(0x61) | 3);
tx = *time;
tx = tx + 4;
while (*time <= tx);
divisor =divisor -30;
}
}

The inner while loop in the program is used to induce delay. The outer loop simply
reloads the divisor value each time it iterates after reducing this value by 30. In this way
the output frequency of the interval timer changes after every quarter of a second
approximately. The speaker will turn on with a low frequency pitch and this frequency
will increase gradually producing a spectrum of various sound pitches.

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10 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI)

Sample Program

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
void interrupt (*oldint15) ( );
void interrupt newint15 (unsigned int BP, unsigned int DI,
unsigned int SI, unsigned int DS, unsigned int ES,
unsigned int DX, unsigned int CX, unsigned int BX,
unsigned int AX, unsigned int IP, unsigned int CS,
unsigned int flags);
void main ( )
{
oldint15 = getvect (0x15);
setvect (0x15, newint15);
keep (0, 1000);
}

void interrupt newint15( unsigned int BP, unsigned int DI,

unsigned int SI, unsigned int DS, unsigned int ES,
unsigned int DX, unsigned int CX, unsigned int BX,
unsigned int AX, unsigned int CS, unsigned int IP,
unsigned int flags)
{
if (_AH = = 0x4F)
{
if (_AL == 0x1F)
{
outport (0x43, 0xB4);
outport (0x42, 0xFF);
outport (0x42, 0x21);
outport (0x61, inport(0x61) ^ 3);
}
}
else
(*oldint15) ( );
}

The above program is a TSR program that can be used to turn the speaker on/off. The
above program intercepts the int 15h. Whenever this interrupt occurs it looks for service #
0x4f (keyboard hook). If ‘S’(0x1f scan code) has been pressed it toggles the speaker.

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Sample Program

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
unsigned int divisors[4]={0x21ff,0x1d45,0x1b 8a,,0x1e4c};
unsigned long int far *time =(unsigned long int far *)0x0040006C;
void main ()
{ unsigned long int tx;
int i=0;
while (!kbhit ())
{
while (i<4)
{ outport(0x43,0xB4);
outport(0x42,*((char *)(&d ivisor[i])));
outport(0x42,*(((char *)(&div isor[i]))+1));
outport(0x61, inport(0x61)|3);
tx=*time;
tx=t x+4;
while (t x >= (*time));
i++;
}
i=0;
}
outport(0x61,inport(0x61)&0xFC);
}

This program generates a tune with 4 different pitches. This program is quite similar to
the one discussed earlier. The only major difference is that in that program the pitch was
gradually altered from low to high in this the pitches change periodically until a key is
pressed to terminate the outer loop. Four various pitches are maintained and their divisor
values are placed in the divisors[] array. All these divisor values are loaded one by one
after a delay of approximately quarter of a second and this continues until a key is
pressed.

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Sample Program

#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
struct tagTones
{ unsigned int divisor;
unsigned int delay;
};
struct tagTones Tones[4]={
{0x21ff,3},{0x1d45,2},{0x1b8a,3},{0x1e4c,4}};
int i,ticks,flag=0 ;
void interrupt (*oldint15)();
void interrupt (*oldint8)();
void interrupt newint15();
void interrupt newint8();

unsigned char far *scr = (unsigned char far *)(0x00400017);

void main ()
{
oldint15=getvect(0x15);
setvect(0x15,newint15);
oldint8=getvect(0x08);
setvect(0x08,newint8);
keep(0,1000);
}

This is an interrupt driven version of the previous program. This program makes use of
the timer interrupt rather than a loop to vary the divisor value. Moreover interrupt 15 is
used to turn the speaker on /off.

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void interrupt newint15()

{
if (_AH==0x4f)
{
if ((_AL==0x1f)&&(((*scr)& 12)==12))
{
ticks=0;
i=0;
outport(0x43,0xb4);
outport(0x42,*((c har *)(& Tones[i].divisor)));
outport (0x42,*(((char *)(& Tones[i].divisor))+1));
outport(0x61,inport(0x61)|3);
flag=1;
}
else if ((_AL==0x1E)&& (((*scr)&12)==12))
{
outport(0x61,inport(0x61)&0xfc);
flag=0;
}
return;
}
(*oldint15)();
}

The speaker turns on whenever ‘S’ (scan code 0x1f) is pressed and turns off whenever
‘A’ (scan code 0x1E) is pressed.

void interrupt newint8()

{
if (flag==1)
{
ticks++;
if (ticks == Tones[i].delay)
{
if (i==3)
i=0;
else
i++;
outport (0x43, 0xB4);
outport(0x42,*((char *)(&Tones[i].divisor)));
outport(0x42,*(((char *)(&Tones[i].divisor))+1));
outport(0x61,inport(0x61)|3);
ticks = 0;
}
}
(*oldint8)();
}

The timer interrupt shift the divisor value stored in the tones structure whenever the
required numbered of ticks( timer counts) have passed as required by the value stored in
the delay field of the tone structure.
More such divisor values and their delays can be initialized in the tones structure to
generate an alluring tune.

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10 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI)

Peripheral Programmable interface (PPI)

Parallel Ports (PPI)

Parallel Communication
Output

D0
D1
D2
CPU Parallel Out Put Device
D7
Busy
Strobe

PPI is used to perform parallel communication. Devices like printer are generally based
on parallel communication. The principle of parallel communication is explained in the
slide above. It’s called parallel because a number of bits are transferred from one point ot
another parallel on various lines simultaneously.

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10 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI)

Parallel Communication
Input

D0
D1
D2
CPU Parallel Input Device
D7
DR

CPU I/O
Controller

Advantages of Parallel communication

Parallel Communication

¾Faster
¾Only Economically Feasible For
Small Distances

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11 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI) II

Programmable Peripheral Interface

(PPI)

• Device Used as Parallel port Interface (I/O

controller) is PPI

Programmable Peripheral Interface

(PPI)

Parallel
CPU PPI I/O Device
Printer

The PPI acts as an interface between the CPU and a parallel I/O device. A I/O device
cannot be directly connected to the buses so they generally require a controller to be
placed between the CPU and I/O device. One such controller is the PPI. Here we will see
how we can program the PPI to control the device connected to the PPI which generally is
the printer.

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Accessing the Parallel Port

Through BIOS Functions

Int 17H

Accessing the Parallel Port

Through BIOS Functions
Services
INT 17H 00 Display Characters
01 Initialize Printer
02 Request Printer
DX Port Interface Number
register 0=LPT1,1=LPT2,2=LPT3

Int 17H is used to control the printer via the BIOS. The BIOS functions that perform the
printer I/O are listed in the slide above with its other parameter i.e DX which contains the
LPT number. A standard PC can have 4 PPI named LPT1, LPT2, LPT3 and LPT4.

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Status Byte

Accessing the Parallel Port Through BIOS

Functions

All the function Return in AH the Current Printer Status

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Time out
Printer Busy
Receive Mode Selected

Out of Paper

Printer OffLine Transfer Error

The above listed function returns a status byte in the AH register whose meaning is
described in the slide above. Various bits of the byte describe the status of the printer.

Time out Byte

Accessing the Parallel Port Through BIOS

Functions

Time Out Byte

0040:0078 LPT1
0040:0079 LPT2
0040:007A LPT3

The BIOS service once invoked will try to perform the requested operation on the printer
repeated for a certain time period. In case if the operation is rendered unsuccessful due to
any reason BIOS will not quit trying and will try again and again until the number of tries
specified in the timeout bytes shown above runs out.

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Accessing the Pa ra lle l Port Through BIOS Functions

• Specify the number of Attempts BIOS perform

before giving a time out Error
• This byte Varies Depending upon the speed
of the PC
• Busy =0 Printer is Busy
• Busy =1 Printer is not Busy

Importance of Status Byte

Importance of the Status Byte

If((pstate&0x29)!=0)or
((pstate&0x80)==0) or
((pstate&0x10)==0)
{printerok=FALSE;}
else
{printerok=TRUE;}

The status of the printer can be used in the above described manner to check if the printer
can perform printing or not. In case there is a transfer error, the printer is out of paper or
there is a timeout the printer could not be accessed. Or if the printer is busy or if the
printer is offline the printer cannot be accessed. The pseudo is just performing these
checks.

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Importance of the Status Byte

17H/00H Write 17H/01H Initialize Printer
a character on entry on entry
AH=00 AH=01
AL=ASCII code DX=Interface#
DX=Interface# On exit
On exit AH=Status Byte
AH=Status Byte

17H/02H Get Printer Status

on entry
AH=02, DX=Interface# On exit AH=Status Byte

Printing Programs

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11 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI) II

Sample Program

Printing Program
union REGS regs; FILE *fptr;
void main(void)
{
fptr=fopen(“c:\\temp\\abc.txt”,”rb”);
regs.h.ah=1;
regs.x.dx=0;
int86(0x17,&regs,&regs);
while(!feof(fptr))
{regs.h.ah=2;
regs.x.dx=0;
int86(0x17,&regs,&regs);
if ((regs.h.ah & 0x80)==0x80)
{ regs.h.ah=0;
regs.h.al=getc(fptr);
int86(0x17,&regs,&regs);
}}}

The above program performs programmed I/O on the printer using BIOS services. The
program firstly initializes the printer int 17H/01. The while loop will end when the end of
file is reached, in the loop it checks the printer status (int 17h/02) and write the next byte
in the file if the printer is found idle by checking the most significant bit of the status
byte.

Sample Program

#include <dos.h> Printing Program 1

void interrupt (*old)( );
void interrupt newint ( );
main( )
{
old = getvect(0x17);
setvect(0x17,newint);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt new ()
{ if (_AH==0)
{
if ((_AL=='A') || (_AL=='Z')) //corrected
return;
(*old)();
}
}

The above program intercepts int 17H. Whenever a certain program issues int 17H to
print a character the above TSR program will intercept the service and do nothing if A or

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11 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI) II

Z is to be printed rest of the characters will be printed normally. Only the As and the Zs in
the printing document will be omitted.

Sample Program

#include <dos.h> Printing Program 2

void interrupt (*old)( );
void interrupt ne wfunc ( );
main( )
{
old=getvect(0x17);
setvect(0x17,newfunc);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt ne wfunc( )
{
if (_AH==0)
{
if ( _AL != ‘ ‘ )
(*old)();
}
}

In this sample program again int 17H is intercepted. The new interrupt function will
ignore all the spaces in the print document.

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11 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI) II

Sample Program

#include <dos.h> Printing Program 3

void interrupt (*old)( );
void interrupt newfunc ( );
main()
{
old=getvect(0x17);
setvect(0x17,newfunc);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newfunc ( )
{ if ( _AH == 0 ) {
(*old)();
_AH=0;
(*old)();
_AH=0;
(*old)();
}
(*old)();
}

In this program interrupt 17h is again intercepted. Whenever a character is to printed the
new function call the old function thrice. As a result a single character in the print
document will be repeated 4 times.

Direct Parallel Port

Programming

Now we will see how the register within the PPI can be accessed directly to control the
printer.

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11 - Peripheral Programmable Interface (PPI) II

Direct Parallel Port

Programming
• BIOS support up to
three parallel ports
• Address of these LPT
ports is Stored in
BIOS Data Area
40:08 word LPT1
40:0A word LPT2
40:0C word LPT3
40:0E word LPT4

Above slide list the addresses within the BIOS data area where the base address (starting
port number) of LPT devices is stored.

Dump of BIOS data area

Direct Parallel Port Programming

Dump File Text

The dump of BIOS data area address specified in the previous slide for a certain computer
shows that the base port address of LPT1 is 0x03bc, for lpt2 it is 0x0378, for Lpt3 it is
0x0278. These values need not be the same for all the computer and can vary from
computer to computer.

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Swapping LPTs

Direct Parallel Port Programming

unsigned int far * lpt =

(unsigned int far *) 0x00400008 ;
unsigned int temp;
temp=*(lpt);
*lpt=*(lpt + 1);
*(lpt + 1)=temp;

The LPTs can be swapped i.e LPT1 can be made LPT2 and vice versa for LPT2. This can
be accomplished simply by swapping their addresses in the BIOS data area as shown in
the slide above.

Direct Parallel Port Programming

Port Registers
• 40:08 store the base address for lpt1
• The parallel port interface has 3 ports
internally
• If the Base address is 0X378 then the
three Ports will be 0x378,0x379 0x37A

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LPT Ports

Direct Parallel Port Programming

Port Registers
Base +0=Data Port

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Base +1=Printer Status

Busy=0 ACK=0 PE=1 SL=1 ERR=0

0 0 0

Out of Paper Printer Online

Printer is ready for Next Character

Printer is Busy

The first port (Base +0) is the data port. Data to be sent/received is placed in this port. In
case of printer the (Base + 1) is the printer status port as described in the slide. Each bit
represents the various status of the printer quite similar to the status byte in case of BIOS
service.

Printer Control Register

Direct Parallel Port Programming

Port Registers
Printer Control Register =Base + 2

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 0 IRQ SI IN ALF ST

IRQ ENABLE initialize Auto

Execute Interrupt Line STROB
When ACK=0; Field
SELECT InLine
Turn Computer on line

(Base +2) is the printer control register it is used to pass on some control information to
the printer as described in the slide.

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Direct Parallel Port Programming

Direct Parallel Port Programming

file *fptr;
unsigned far *base=(unsigned int far *)0x00400008
void main (void)
{
fptr=fopen(“c:\\abc.txt”,”rb”);
while( ! feof (fptr) )
{ if( ! ( inport (*base + 1 ) & 0x80)
{ outport(*base,getc(fptr));
outport ((*base+2,inport((*base+2) | 0x01);
outport((*base+2,inpo rt((*base+2) & 0xFE);
}
}}

The above program directly accesses the registers of the PPI to print a file. The while
loop terminates when the file ends. The if statement only schecks if the printer is busy of
not. If the printer is idle the program writes the next byte in file on to the data port and
then turns the strobe bit to 1 and then 0 to indicate that a byte has been sent to the printer.
The loop then again starts checking the busy status of the printer and the process
continue.

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12 - Parallel Port Programming

Printer Interface and IRQ7

Printer
Interface

Printer ACK
Interface
INT
PIC IRQ7

Printer

The printer interface uses the IRQ 7 as shown in the slide above. Therefore if interrupt
driven I/O is to be performed int 0x0f need to be programmed as an hardware interrupt.

Interrupt Driven Printer I/O

char buf [1024]; int i = 0;
void interrupt (*oldint)( );
void interrupt newint ();
void main (void)
{
outport(( *lpt), inport( *lpt) | 4);
outport(( *lpt), inport( *lpt) | 0x10);
oldint =getvect (0x0F);
setvect (0x0F, newint);
outport(0x21, inport( 0x21) & 0x7F);//corrected
keep(0,1000);
}

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12 - Parallel Port Programming

void interrupt newint ( )

{
outport( *lpt, Buf[ i]);
outport(( *lpt)+2, inport(( *lpt)+2) &0xFE);
outport(( *lpt)+2, inport(( *lpt)+2) | 1);
i++;
if( i== 1024)
{
outport(0x21, inport(0x21)|0x80);//corrected
setvect(0x0F,oldint);
freemem(_psp);
}
}

Above is a listing of a program that uses int 0x0f to perform interrupt driven I/O. To
enable the interrupt 0x0f three things are required to be done. The interrupt should be
enabled in the printer control register; secondly it should also be unmasked in the IMR in
PIC. The program can then intercept or set the vector of interrupt 0x0f by placing the
address of its function newint();
The newint() will now be called whenever the printer can perform output. This newint()
function writes the next byte in buffer to the data registers and then send a pulse on the
strobe signal to tell the printer that data has been sent to it. When whole of the buffer has
been sent the int 0x0f vector is restored, interrupt is masked and the memory for the
program is de-allocated.
The above listing might not work. Not all of the printer interfaces are designed as
described above. Some modifications in the printer interface will not allow the interrupt
driven I/O to work in this manner. If this does not work the following strategy can be
adopted to send printing to the printer in background.

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Printing in the background

#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void interrupt (*oldint)();
void interrupt newint();
unsigned int far * lpt = (unsigned int far *)0x00400008;
char st[80]= "this is a test print string !!!!!!!!!!!";
int i ;
void main ()
{
oldint = getvect(0x08);
setvect(0x08,newint);
keep(0,1000);
}

void interrupt newint()

{
if ((( inport((*lpt) +1)) & 0x80) == 0x80)
{
outport (*lpt,st[i++]);
outport ((*lpt)+2, inport((*lpt)+2) & 0xfe);
outport ((*lpt)+2, inport((*lpt)+2) | 1);
}
if (i==32)
{
setvect (0x08,oldint);
freemem(_psp);
}
(*oldint) ();
}

This program uses the timer interrupt to send printing to the printer in the back ground.
Whenever the timer interrupt occurs the interrupt function checks if the printer is idle or
not. If it’s the printer is idle it takes a byte from the buffer and sends it to the data port of
the printer interface and then sends a pulse through the strobe signal. When the buffer is
full the program restores the int 8 vector and the relinquishes the memory occupied by the
program.

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Printer Cable Connectivity

Printer Cable Connectivity

1 STROB
2 D0
3 D1
4 D2
5 D3
6 D4
7 D5
8 D6
9 D7
10 ACK
11 BUSY
12 PE
13 SLCT
14 AUTO FEED
15 ERROR
16 INIT
17 SLCT IN
18-25 GND

Not all the bits of the internal registers of the PPI are available in standard PCs. In
standard PCs the PPI is connected to a DB25 connector. And some of the bits of its
internal registers are available as pin outs as describes in the slide above.

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Computer to Computer communication

Computer to Computer
Connectivity

It might be desirable to connect one computer to another via PPIs to transfer data. One
might desire to connect them such that one port of PPI at one end is connected to another
port of the other PPI at the other end. But interconnecting the whole 8 bits of PPI cannot
be made possible as all the bits of the internal ports are not available as pinouts. So the
answer is to connect a nibble (4-bits) at one end to the nibble at the other. In this way two
way communication can be performed. The nibbles are connected as shown in the slide
above.

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PPI Interconnection

P0 2 15 Q3
P1 3 13 Q4
P2 4 12 Q5
P3 5 10 Q6
P4 6 11 Q7

Q3 15 2 P0
Q4 13 3 P1
Q5 12 4 P2
Q6 10 5 P3
Q7 11 6 P4

The pins that are interconnected are shown in the slide above. Another thing worth
noticing is that the 4th bit of the data port is connected to the BUSY and vice versa. The
BUSY is inverted before it can be read from the status port. So the 4th bit in data port at
PC1 will be inverted before it can be read at the 7th bit of status register at PC2.

Flow Control
An algorithm should be devised to control the flow of data so the receiver and sender may
know when the data is to be received and when it is to be sent. The following slides
illustrate one such algorithm.

D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Sender
0 B3 B2 B1 B0
Sender sends
LOW Nibble
and D4 = 0
received as
BUSY = 1
Receiver
1 B3 B2 B1 B0
BUSY ACK PE SLC ER
E7 E6 E5 E4 E3

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First the low nibble of the byte is sent from the sender in bit D0 to D3 of the data port. D4
bit is cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent. The receiver will know the arrival of
the low nibble when its checks BUSY bit which should be set (by the interface) on
arrival.

BUSY ACK PE SLC ER

Sender
1 B3 B2 B1 B0
Receiver send
back LOW
Nibble and D4=0
received as
BUSY = 1 by
Sender
Receiver
0 B3 B2 B1 B0
D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

The receiver then sends back the nibble turning its D4 bit to 0 as an acknowledgement of
the receipt of the low nibble. This will turn the BUSY bit to 1 at the sender side.

D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Sender
1 B7 B6 B5 B4
Sender sends Hi
Nibble and turns
D4 = 1 received
as BUSY = 0 by
Receiver

Receiver
0 B7 B6 B5 B4
BUSY ACK PE SLC ER

The sender then send the high nibble and turns its D4 bit to 1 indicating the transmission
of high nibble. On the receiver side the BUSY bit will turn to 0 indicating the receipt of
high nibble.

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The receiver then sends back the high nibble to the sender as an acknowledgment.

BUSY ACK PE SLC ER

Sender
Receiver send
0 B7 B6 B5 B4
back Hi Nibble
and turns
D4 = 1 received
as BUSY = 0 by
Sender
Receiver
1 B7 B6 B5 B4

D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

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13 - Serial Communication

Program implementing the described protocol

int i= 0; char Buf[1024];

while (1)
{ ch = Buf [i];
if ((inport((*lpt) + 1)& 0x80) == 0)
{ ch = Buf [i];
ch = ch & 0xEF;
while((inport((*lpt) + 1) &0x80) == 0);
}
else
{ ch = Buf [i];
ch = ch >> 4;
ch = ch | 0x10;
outport (*lpt, ch);
i++;
while((inport((*lpt) + 1) &0x80) == 80);
}
}

This is the sender program. This program if find the BUSY bit clear sends the low nibble
but turns the D4 bit to 0 before sending. Similarly it right shifts the byte 4 times sets the
D4 bit and then sends the high nibble and waits for acknowledgment until the BUSY is
cleared.

int i;
while (1)
{ if ((inport(*lpt + 1)& 0x80) == 0x80)
{ x = inport ((*lpt) + 1);
x = x >> 3;
x = x & 0x0F;
outport((*lpt), x);
while((inport(*lpt + 1) &0x80) == 0x80);
}
else
{ y = inport ((*lpt) + 1);
y = y << 1;
temp = y;
y = y & 0xF0; //instruction added
y = y | x;

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temp = temp >> 3;

temp = temp | 0x10;
i++;
outport (*lpt, temp);
Buf [i] = y;
while((inport((*lpt) + 1) &0x80) == 0);
}
}

This is receiver program. If the BUSY bit is clear it receives the low nibble and stores it
in x. Similarly if the BUSY bit is 0 it receives the high nibble and concatenates the both
nibble to form a byte.

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Serial Communication

Serial Communication

• Advantages
• Disadvantages
Types Of Serial Communication

• Synchronous
• Asynchronous

In case of serial communication the bits travel one after the other in serial pattern. The
advantage of this technique is that in this case the cost is reduced as only 1 or 2 lines
maybe required to transfer data.
The major disadvantage of Serial communication is that the speed of data transfer maybe
reduced as data is transferred in serial pattern.
There are two kinds of serial communications.
Synchronous Communication

Synchronous Communication
• Timing signal is used to identify start and end
of a bit.
LSB MSB
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

0110 1011

In case of synchronous communication as shown in the slide a timing signal is required to

identify the start and end of a bit.
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Synchronous Communication
• Sampling may be edge triggered.
• Special line may be required for
timing signal (requires another line).
• Or the timing signal may be encoded
within the original signal (requires
double the bandwidth).

Asynchronous Communication

Asynchronous Communication
• Does not use make use of timing
signal.
• Each byte (word) needs to
encapsulated in start and end bit.

In case of asynchronous communication no timing signal is required but each byte needs
to be encapsulated to know the end and start of a byte.

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13 - Serial Communication

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)

Serial Communication using a UART

Parity Start bit
bit of next
byte
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
0
5 – 8 bit

Start bit 1, 1.5, 2

Stop bit

• 1.5 Stop bit

The UART is a device used for asynchronous communications. UART is capable o

encapsulating a byte that might be 5, 6, 7 or 8 bits wide in start and stop bits. Moreover it
can attach an extra parity bit with the data for error detection. The width of stop bits may
also vary.

Sampling Rate
Bit rate = 9600
A bit is sampled after = 1/9600
-- But start and end bits of a particular
Byte cannot be recognized.
-- So 1.5 stop bit (high) is used to
encapsulate a byte. A low start bit at
the start of Byte is used to identify the
start of a Byte.

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Sampling Rate
-- Bit rate and other settings should be
the same at both ends i.e.
- Data bits per Byte. (5 – 8 )
- Parity check
- Parity Even/Odd
- No. of stop bits.

Sampling Rate
1/1300 sec

Data bits Stop bit

Start bit
Odd parity
A = 41H = 0100 0001 B
Parity = Odd
Data = 8
Stop bit =1
Data rate = 300 bits/sec

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RS – 232C Standard
• Standard for physical dimensions of the
connectors.
RS – 232C Cable

PC (DCE)

Modem
(DTE) Connected via
serial port

RS232C is a standard for physical dimension of the connector interconnecting a

DTE(Data terminal equipment) and DCE (Data communication equipment).

RS – 232C Connectors and Signals

DB25 (25 pin connector)

13
25
12
24
11
23
10
22 RI
9
21
CD 8
20 DTR
GND 7 19
DSR 6 18
CTS 5
17
RTS 4
16
RD 3
15
TX D 2
14
1
25 pin connector on PC

The pin outs of the DB25 connector used with RS232C is shown in the slide above.

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14 - Serial Communication (Universal Asynchronous

Receiver Transmitter)

RS – 232C Standard
• Standard for physical dimensions of the
connectors.
RS – 232C Cable

PC (DCE)

Modem
(DTE) Connected via
serial port

RS – 232C Connectors and Signals

DB25 (25 pin connector)

13
25
12
24
11
23
10
22 RI
9
21
CD 8
20 DTR
GND 7 19
DSR 6 18
CTS 5
17
RTS 4
16
RD 3
15
TX D 2
14
1
25 pin connector on PC

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Flow Control using RS232C

RI

CD

DTE DTR DCE

DSR
PC RTS MODEM

CTS

RxD TxD

DTR (SHOULD REMAIN HIGH THROUGH OUT THE SESSION )

CTS (CAN BE US ED FOR FLOW CONTROL )

Data is received through the RxD line. Data is send through the TxD line. DTR (data
terminal ready) indicates that the data terminal is live and kicking. DSR(data set ready)
indicates that the data set is live. Whenever the sender can send data it sends the signal
RTS( Request to send) if as a result the receiver is free and can receive data it send the
sender an acknowledge through CTS( clear to send) indicating that its clear to send now.

DB 9 Connector for UART

DB9 Connector
1
CD
6
2 DSR
Rx D 7
3 RTS
TxD 8
4 CTS
DT R 9
5 RI
GND

The above slide shows the pinouts of the DB 9 connector.

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UART internals

UART Internals R xD
Receiver Buffer Register Receiver Shift Register

Interrupt Enable Register

Interrupt
Line Status Register to
Parity LOGIC
Interrupt ID Register

Divisor Latch Register

Line Control Register 2.DTR

1.RT
Modem Control Register
1.CTS 2.DSR
Modem 3.CD
Status Register 4.RI

Transmit Shift T xD
Transmitter Holding Register
Register

This slide shows the various internal registers within a UART device. The programmer
only needs to program these registers efficiently in order to perform asynchronous
communication.
Register summary

Base +
Transmitter Holding Register THR 0
Receiver Dat a RBR 0
Band Rate Divisor (Low Byte) DLL 0
Band Rate Divisor (High Byte) DLM 1
Interrupt Enable IER 1
FIFO Control Register FCR 2
Interrupt ID IIR 2
Line Cont rol LCR 3
Mode Control MCR 4
Line Status LSR 5
Modem Status MSR 6
Scratch Pad SP 7

The above table lists the registers within the UART ans also shows their abbreviation.
Also it shows there offsets with respect to the base register.

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Served Ports in Standard PC

BIOS supports 4 UARTS as COM Ports
COM1, COM2, COM3, COM4

Ports Memory Port Base

Address
COM1 0040:0000 03F8H
COM2 0040:0002 2F8H
COM3 0040:0004 3E8H
COM4 0040:0006 2E8H

BIOS Data Area

Text Dump

-d 40:0

0040:0000 F8 03 F8 02 E8 03 E8 02-BC 03 78 03 78 02 C0 9F ..........x.x...

0040:0010 23 C8 20 80 02 85 00 20-00 00 34 00 34 00 71 10 #. .... ..4.4.q.
0040:0020 0D 1C 71 10 0D 1C 64 20-20 39 34 05 30 0B 3A 27 ..q...d 94.0.:'
0040:0030 30 0B 0D 1C 00 00 00 00-00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0...............
0040:0040 D8 00 C3 00 00 00 00 00-00 03 50 00 00 10 00 00 ..........P.....
0040:0050 00 0A 00 00 00 00 00 00-00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................
0040:0060 0F 0C 00 D4 03 29 30 00-00 00 00 00 02 C9 0B 00 .....)0.........
0040:0070 00 00 00 00 00 00 08 00-14 14 14 14 01 01 01 01 ................
-q

The above dump of the BIOS data area for a certain computer shows that the address of
COM1 is 03F8 , the address of COM2 is 02F8 and the address of COM3 is 03E8. These
addresses may not be same for all the computers and may vary computer to computer.

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Setting the Baud rate

Setting the Baud Rate

1.8432 MHZ=frequency generating by UARTS
internally
Baud rate =1.8432 MHZ / (16*Divisor)

Divisor value loaded in DLL ( Base +0 )

and DLM ( Base +1 )

Divisor = 1, Baud Rate = 115200

Divisor = 0CH, Baud Rate = 9600
Divisor = 180H, Baud Rate = 300

The baud rate is set in accordance with the divisor value loaded within the UART internal
registers base +0 and base +1.
Line Control Register

Line Control Register

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Word Length
0 Load THR 00 = 5 BITS
1Load Divisor Value 01 = 6 BITS
10 = 7 BITS
11 = 8 BITS
Stop Communication =1
Length of Stop BITS
Resume Communication =0 0 = one BIT
Constant Parity 1 =1.5 for 5 bit Word
0 =NO constant Parity
1 =Constant Parity Parity Check and
0 if bit 4 =1 generation on
1 if bit 4 =0 Parity
0 = odd
1 = Even.

The line control register contains important information about the behaviour of the line
through which the data will be transferred. In it various bits signify the word size, length
of stop bits, parity check, parity type and also the a control bit to load the divisor value.
The bit 7 if set indicates that the base +0 and base + 1 will act as the divisor register
otherwise if cleared will indicate that base + 0 is the data register.

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Line Status Register

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Data Ready =1

Over Run Error = 1

TSR is Empty=1
TSR Contain a Byte=0

THR entry =1 Parity Error =1

THR contains a BYTE =0

Transfer Error (Framing Error)

Stop Communication Signal from Other end =1

Line status register illustrates the status of the line. It indicates if the data can be sent or
received. If bit 5 and 6 both are set then 2 consecutive bytes can be sent for output. Also
this register indicates any error that might occur during communication.

Interrupt Enable Register

Interrupt Enable Register

3 2 1 0

Trigger Interrupt
On Data Ready =1
Trigger Interrupt
As soon as THR is empty =1

Trigger Interrupt
On change in Modem Status =1 Trigger Interrupt
On line status change =1

If interrupt driven output is to be performed then this register is used to enable interrupt
for the UART. It can also used to select the events for which to generate interrupt as
described in the slide.

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Interrupt ID Register

Interrupt ID Register
2 1 0

Trigger Triggered

Modem/Line
00 =Change in Modem Status
01 = THR is Empty
10 = Data is Ready
11 =Error in Data

Once an interrupt occurs it may be required to identify the case of the interrupt. This
register is used to identify the cause of the interrupt.

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15 - COM Ports

Modem Control Register

Modem Controller Register

4 3 1 0
DTR

1 =Self Test
0 =Normal RTS

0 = Polling Ope rator

1 = Interrupts Enabled

In case software oriented flow control technique is used the bits 0 and 1 need to be set in
that case. Bit #3 need to be set to enable interrupts. Moreover if a single computer is
available to a developer the UART contains a self test mode which can be used by the
programmer to self test the software. In self test mode the output of the UART is routed
to its input. So you receive what you send.

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Modem Status Register

Modem Status Register

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Change
CD in CTS

RI Change in DSR

DSR Change in RI

CTS Change in CD

This register indicates the status of the modem status line or any change in the status of
these lines.

FIFO Queue

UART (16550) FIFO QUEUE

7 6 2 1 0

FIFO buffer on=1

Number of Characters Received
To Trigger an Interrupt
Clear Receiver
00 =After Every Character Buffer =1
01 =After 4 Character
10 =After 8 Character
11 =After 14 Character Clear send Buffer =1

This feature is available in the newer version of the UART numbered 16500. A queue or
a buffer of the input or output bytes is maintained within the UART in order to facilitate
more efficient I/O. The size of the queue can be controlled through this register as shown
by the slide.

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Interrupt ID Register

Interrupt ID Register (Revisited)

7 6 3 2 1 0

Interrupt
1= Interrupt Triggered
Because Buffer is not full Triggered =1
But other side has
stop sending data. Reasons of Interrupt
(Time OUT) 00=Change in Modem Line Status
01=THR is Empty
10=Data is ready
11=Error in Data Transmit
Any one of these BEING
Set Indicates FIFO is ON.

BIOS Support for COM Ports

INT # 14H

DX = Port # 0 for COM1

1 for COM2 etc.

Service #0 = Set communication parameters

Service #01 = Output characters
Service #02 = Read in characters
Service #03 = Get port status

The following slide shows how int 14H service 0 can be used to set the line parameter of
the UART or COM port. This illustrates the various bits of AL that should be set
according before calling this service.

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Service # 0
AL =

Baud Rate Parity Check

Data Length
000 = 110 bauds 00 = None
01 = Odd 00 = 5bits
001 = 150 bauds
10 = Parity 01 = 6bits
010 = 300 bauds
Disable 10 = 7bits
011 = 600 bauds 11 = Even 11 = 8bits
100 = 1200 bauds # of stop bits
101 = 2400 bauds 0 = 1 stop bit
110 = 4800 bauds 1 = 1.5 or 2 stop bit
111 = 9600 bauds

The Service on return places the line status in AH register as shown in the slide below.

AH = Line Status

Time Out Data Ready

TSR Empty Over run error
THR Parity error
Break Detected Framing error

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And places the modem status in the AL register as shown in slide below.

AL = Modem Status

CD Change in CTS
RI Change in DSR
Ready (DSR) Change in RI
Ready to Receive Change in CD

Other service of 14h include service #1 which is used to send a byte and service #2 which
is used to receive a byte as shown in the slide below.

Service # 01
ON ENTRY
AL = ASCII character to send
ON RETURN
AH = Error Code
If 7th bit in AH = 1 = Unsuccessful
0 = Successful

Service # 02
ON RETURN
AL = ASCII character received
AH = Error Code

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15 - COM Ports

Communication through Modem

Modem
PC Tel Line
Modem

UART Digital Data Analog

PC
Modem

Analog Digital Data UART

Modem is generally used to send/receive data to/from an analog telephone. Had the
telephone line been purely digital there would have been no need of a modem in this
form. If data is to be transferred from one computer to another through some media which
can carry digital data then the modem can be eliminated and the UART on both
computers can be interconnected. Such arrangement is called a NULL modem.

NULL
Modem

PC PC

UART Cable UART

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NULL Modem Configuration

CD 1 CD 1
RxD 2 RxD 2
TxD 3 TxD 3
DTR 4 DTR 4
GND 5 GND 5
DSR 6 DSR 6
RTS 7 RTS 7
CTS 8 CTS 8
RI 9 RI 9

The above slide shows the configuration used to interconnect two UARTs In this way a
full duplex communication can be performed and moreover flow control can also be
performed using DSR, DTS, RTS and CTS signals.
Sample Program

Example:
#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
char ch1, ch2;

void initialize (int pno)

{
_AH=0;
_AL=0x57;
_DX=pno;
geninterrupt(0x14);
}

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char receivechar (int pno)

{
char ch;
_DX = pno;
_AH = 2;
geninterrupt (0x14);
ch = _AL;
return ch;
}

void sendchar (char ch, int pno)

{
_DX = pno;
_AH = 1;
_AL = ch;
geninterrupt (0x14);
}
unsigned int getcomstatus (int pno)
{
unsigned int temp;
_DX = pno;
_AH = 03;
geninterrupt (0x14);
*((char*)(&temp)) = _AL;
*(((char*)(&temp)) + 1) = _AH;
return temp;
}

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16 - COM Ports II
Sample Program using BIOS routines

Example:
#include<BIOS.H>
#include<DOS.H>
char ch1, ch2;

void initialize (int pno)

{
_AH=0;
_AL=0x57;
_DX=pno;
geninterrupt(0x14);
}

char receivechar (int pno)

{
char ch;
_DX = pno;
_AH = 2;
geninterrupt (0x14);
ch = _AL;
return ch;
}

The initialize () function initializes the COM port whose number is passed as parameter
using BIOS services. The recievechar() function uses the COM port number to receive a
byte from the COM port using BIOS services.

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16 - COM Ports II

void sendchar (char ch, int pno)

{
_DX = pno;
_AH = 1;
_AL = ch;
geninterrupt (0x14);
}
unsigned int getcomstatus (int pno)
{
unsigned int temp;
_DX = pno;
_AH = 03;
geninterrupt (0x14);
*((char*)(&temp)) = _AL;
*(((char*)(&temp)) + 1) = _AH;
return temp;
}

The sendchar() function sends a character to the COM port using BIOS service whose
number is passed as parameter. And the getcomstatus() function retrieves the status of the
COM port whose number has been specified and returns the modem and line status in an
unsigned int.

void main()
{
while(1) {
i = getcomstatus (0);
if (((*(((char*)(&i)) + 1)&0x20) == 0x20) && (kbhit()))
{
ch1 = getche();
sendchar (ch1, 0);
}
if ((*(((char*)(&i)) +1) & 0x01) == 0x01) {
ch2 = receivechar (0);
putch (ch2);
}
if ((ch1 == 27) || (ch2 ==27))
break;
}
}

Let’s suppose two UARTs are interconnected using a NULL modem

In the main () function there is a while loop which retrieves the status of the COM port.
Once the status has been retrieved it checks if a byte can be transmitted, if a key has been
pressed and its is clear to send a byte the code within the if statement sends the input byte
to the COM port using sendchar() function.

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The second if statement checks if a byte can be read from the COM port. If the Data
ready bit is set then it receives a byte from the data port and displays it on the screen.
Moreover there is another check to end the program. The program looks for an escape
character ASCII = 27 either in input or in output. If this is the case then it simply breaks
the loop.

Sample Program

This program does more or less the same as the previous program but the only difference
is that in this case the I/O is done directly using the ports and also that the Self Test
facility is used to check the software.

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
void initialize (unsigned int far *com)
{
outportb ( (*com)+3, inport ((*com)+3) | 0x80);
outportb ( (*com),0x80);
outportb( (*com) +1, 0x01);
outportb ( (*com)+3, 0x1b);
}
void SelfTestOn(unsigned int far * com)
{
outportb((*com)+4,inport((*com)+4)|0x10);
}

The initialize() loads the divisor value of 0x0180 high byte in base +1 and low byte in
base +0. It also programs the line control register for all the required line parameters.
The SelfTestOn() function simply enables the self test facility within the modem control
register.

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void SelfTestOff(unsigned int far * com)

{
outportb( (*com)+4, inport((*com)+4) & 0xEf);
}
void writechar( char ch, unsigned int far * com)
{
while ( !((inportb((*com)+5) & 0x20) == 0x20));
outport(*com,ch);
}
char readchar( unsigned int far *com)
{
while (!((inportb((*com)+5) & 0x01)==0x01));
return inportb(*com);
}

The SelfTestOff() function turns this facility off. The writechar() function writes the a
byte passed to this function on the data port. The readchar() function reads a byte from
the data port.

unsigned int far *com=(unsigned int far*) 0x00400000;

void main ()
{
char ch = 0; int i = 1;int j= 1;
char ch2='A';
initialize( com);
SelfTestOn(com);
clrscr();
while (ch!=27)
{
if (i==80)
{
j++;
i=0;
}

The main function after initializing and turning the self test mode on enters a loop which
will terminate on input of the escape character. This loop also controls the position of the
cursor such the cursor goes to the next line right after a full line has been typed.

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16 - COM Ports II

if (j==13)
j=0;

gotoxy(i,j);
ch=getche();
writechar(ch,com);
ch2=readchar(com);
gotoxy(i,j+14);
putch(ch2);
i++;
}
SelfTestOff (com);
}

All the input from the keyboard is directed to the output of the UART and all the input
from the UART is also directed to the lower part of the screen. As the UART is in self
test mode the output becomes the input. And hence the user can see output send to the
UART in the lower part of the screen as shown in the slide below

hello how r u ? whats new about systems programming?

hello how r u ? whats new about systems programming?

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Sample Program using interrupt driven I/O

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
void initialize (unsigned int far *com)
{
outportb ( (*com)+3, inport ((*com)+3) | 0x80);
outportb ( (*com),0x80);
outportb( (*com) +1, 0x01);
outportb ( (*com)+3, 0x1b);
}
void SelfTestOn(unsigned int far * com)
{
outportb((*com)+4,inport((*com)+4)|0x18);
}

void SelfTestOff(unsigned int far * com)

{
outportb( (*com)+4, inport((*com)+4) & 0xE7);
}
void writechar( char ch, unsigned int far * com)
{
//while ( !((inportb((*com)+5) & 0x20) == 0x20));
outport(*com,ch);
}
char readchar( unsigned int far *com)
{
//while (!((inportb((*com)+5) & 0x01)==0x01));
return inportb(*com);
}

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unsigned int far *com=(unsigned int far*) 0x00400000;

unsigned char far *scr=(unsigned char far*) 0xB8000000;
int i =0,j=0;char ch;int k;
void interrupt (*oldint)();
void interrupt newint();
void main ()
{
initialize(com);
SelfTestOn(com);
oldint = getvect(0x0c);
setvect(0x0c,newint);
outport((*com)+1,1);
outport(0x21,inport(0x21)&0xEF);
keep(0,1000);
}

This si program is also quite similar to the previous one. The only difference is that in this
the I/O is performed in an interrupt driven patter using the Int 0x0C as the COM1 uses
IRQ4. Also to use it in this way IRQ4 must be unmasked from the IMR register in PIC.
Also before returning from the ISR the PIC must be signaled an EOI code.

void interrupt newint()

{
ch= readchar(com);
if (i==80)
{
j++;
i=0;
}
if (j==13)
j=0;
k = i*2+(j+14)*80*2;
*(scr+k)=ch;
i++;
outport(0x20,0x20);
}

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16 - COM Ports II

•C:\>DEBUG
-o 3f8 41
-o 3f8 42
-o 3f8 56
-o 3f8 55
-q

C:\>

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
void interrupt (*oldint)();
void interrupt newint();
unsigned char far *scr= (unsigned char far
*)0xB8000000;
void initialize (unsigned int far *com)
{
outportb ( (*com)+3, inport ((*com)+3) | 0x80);
outportb ( (*com),0x80);
outportb( (*com) +1, 0x01);
outportb ( (*com)+3, 0x1b);
}

void main (void)

{
oldint = getvect(0x0C);
setvect (0x0C,newint);
initialize (*com);
outport ((*com)+4, inport ((*com)+4) | 0x08);
outport (0x21,inport (0x21)&0xEF);
outport ((*com) + 1, 1);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newint ()
{
*scr = inport(*com);
outport (0x20,0x20);
}

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Sample Program

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
char ch1,ch2;

void initialize (unsigned int com)

{
outportb ( com+3, inport (com+3) | 0x80);
outportb ( com,0x80);
outportb( com +1, 0x01);
outportb ( com+3, 0x1b);
}

void main ( )
{
initialize(0x3f8);
while (1)
{
if ( ((inport(0x3fd)&0x20)==0x20) && (kbhit()))
{ ch1=getche();
outport(0x3f8,ch1);
}
if (( (inport(0x3fd)&0x01)==1))
{ ch2= inport(0x3f8);
putch(ch2);
}
if (( ch1==27) || (ch2==27))
break;
}
}

This program is same functionally as one of the previous programs which used BIOS
services to get the input data and send the output data. The only difference is that in this
case it does the same directly accessing the ports.

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NULL Modem (Revisited)

CD 1 CD 1
RxD 2 RxD 2
TxD 3 TxD 3
DTR 4 DTR 4
GND 5 GND 5
DSR 6 DSR 6
RTS 7 RTS 7
CTS 8 CTS 8
RI 9 RI 9

Only two or three of the lines are being used to send receive data rest of the lines are
being used for flow control. The cost of these lines can be reduced by reducing the lines
used to flow control and incorporating software oriented flow control rather than
hardware oriented flow control as show in the slide below.

NULL Modem (Revisited)

CD 1 CD 1
RxD 2 RxD 2
TxD 3 TxD 3
DTR 4 DTR 4
GND 5 GND 5
DSR 6 DSR 6
RTS 7 RTS 7
CTS 8 CTS 8
RI 9 RI 9

The DTR, DSR, RTS and CTS lines have been eliminated to reduce cost but in this flow
control will be performed in a software oriented manner.

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Software Oriented Flow

Control

Makes use of Two Control characters.

– XON (^S)
– XOFF (^T)

XON whenever received indicates the start of communication and XOFF whenever
received indicates a temporary pause in the communication.
Following is a pseudo code which can be used to implement the software oriented flow
control.

while (1)
{
receivedchar = readchar (com);
if (receivedchar == XON)
{ ReadStatus = TRUE;
continue;
}
if (receivedchar == XOFF)
{ ReadStatus = FALSE;
continue;
}
if (ReadStatus == TRUE)
Buf [i++] = receivedchar;
}

the received character is firstly analysed for XON or XOFF character. If XON is received
the status is set to TRUE and if XOFF is received the status is set to FALSE. The
characters will only be received if the status is TRUE otherwise they will be discarded.

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Real Time Clock

Time Updation Through INT8

Real Time Clock Device
• Battery powered device
• Updates time even if PC is shutdown
• RTC has 64 byte battery powered RAM
• INT 1AH used to get/set time.

Real time clock is a device incorporated into the PC to update time even if the computer
is off. It has the characteristics shown in the slide above which enables it to update time
even if the computer is off.

The BIOS interrupt 0x1Ah can be used to configure this clock as shown in the slide
below it has various service for getting/setting time/date and alarm.

Clock Counter 1AH/00

(hours*60*60 + min*60 + sec) * 18.2065
ON ENTRY
AH = 00
ON EXIT
AL = Midnight flag
CX = Clock count (Hi word)
DX = Clock count (Low word)
1573040 Times Increment
1573040/18.2065 = 86399.9121 sec
Whereas 86400 sec represent 24 hrs.

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

AL = 1 if Midnight passed
AL = 0 if Midnight not passed
Set Clock Counter 1AH/01

ON ENTRY
AH = 01
CX = Clock count (Hi word)
DX = Clock count (Low word)

Read Time 1AH/02

ON ENTRY
AH = 02
ON EXIT
CH = Hours (BCD)
CL = Minutes (BCD)
DH = Seconds (BCD)

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Set Time 1AH/03

ON ENTRY
AH = 03
CH = Hours (BCD)
CL = Minutes (BCD)
DH = Seconds (BCD)
DL = Day Light saving = 1
Standard Time = 0

Read Date 1AH/04

ON ENTRY
AH = 04
ON EXIT
CH = Century (BCD)
CL = Year (BCD)
DH = Month (BCD)
DL = Day (BCD)

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Set Date 1AH/05

ON ENTRY
AH = 05
CH = Century (BCD)
CL = Year (BCD)
DH = Month (BCD)
DL = Day (BCD)

Set Alarm 1AH/06

ON ENTRY
AH = 06
CH = Hours (BCD)
CL = Minutes (BCD)
DH = Seconds (BCD)

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Disable Alarm 1AH/07

ON ENTRY
AH = 07

Read Alarm 1AH/09

ON ENTRY
AH = 09
ON EXIT
CH = Hours (BCD)
CL = Minutes (BCD)
DH = Seconds (BCD)
DL = Alarm Status (00 = Not Enable
01 = Enable)

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

RTC internals

Real Time Clock

70H Clock and 64 Bytes

Logic Battery
circuitry Powered
Low power
71H
Control CMOS
::::::::::::
Circuitry RAM
::::::::::::
INT
::::::::::::

7FH

The RTC internally has an array of registers which can be used to access the 64 byte
battery powered CMOS RAM.

Internal Ports
70 – 7FH (16 ports)
Only 70 & 71H are important from
programming point of view

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The following slide shows the function of some of the bytes in the battery powered RAM
used to store the units of time and date.

64 Byte Battery Powered RAM

00H = Current Second
01H = Alarm Second
02H = Current Minute
03H = Alarm Minute
04H = Current Hour
05H = Alarm Hour
06H = Day Of the Week
07H = Number Of Day

64 Byte Battery Powered RAM

08H = Month
09H = Year
0AH = Clock Status Register A
0BH = Clock Status Register B
0CH = Clock Status Register C
0DH = Clock Status Register D
32H = Century

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Day of the week

Week Day
01H = Sunday
02H = Monday
03H = Tuesday
04H = Wednesday
05H = Thursday
06H = Friday
07H = Saturday

The value in the days of the week byte indicates the day according to slide shown above.

Generally BCD values are used to represent the units of time and date.

Year
No of Century and Year are in BCD.

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Accessing the Battery Powered RAM

Accessing the Battery Powered RAM

Battery Powered RAM is accessed in

two steps
• Specify the Byte no. in 70H port.
• Read/write port 71H to get/set the
value of specified byte.

Following slide shown a fragment of code that can be used to read or write onto any byte
within the 64 byte battery powered RAM.

Accessing the Battery Powered RAM

outport (0x70, 0); outport (0x70, 4);

sec = inport (0x71); outport (0x71,hrs);

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17 - Real Time Clock (RTC)

Clock Status Registers

Status Register A
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Interrupt
frequency
Time
frequency

0 = Time is not updated

1 = Time is updated

The lower 4 bits of this register stores a code indicating the frequency with which the
RTC hardware interrupt can interrupt the processor. The next field is used to specify the
time frequency i.e. the frequency with the time is sampled and hence updated. The most
significant bit indicates that after time sampling if the time has been updated in to the 64
byte RAM or not.

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

Clock Status Registers

Status Register B
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0 = Daylight
Update time saving time

Call pe riodic 24/12 – hour counter

interrupt 0 = 12 hour format
1 = 24 hour format
Call Alarm interrupt
Call interrupt on
Time & date format
time update
0 = BCD
Block generator 1 = Binary

The status register B is the main control register. It is used to specify the date time
formats and is also used to enable interrupt on various events like alarm time and time up-
dation. Another feature of RTC is periodic interrupt which occur with a frequency
specified in the A register.

Status Register C
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1 = Time update complete

1 = Alarm time reached

1 = Periodic interrupt call

Status register is used to identify the reason of interrupt generation as described in the
slide above.

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

Status Register D
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0 = Battery Dead

Only the most significant byte in status register D is important which on being 0 indicates
that the battery is dead.

Sample Program.

void main ()
{
unsigned int hours, months, seconds;
_AH =2;
geninterrupt(0x1a);
hours = _CH;
minutes = _CL;
seconds = _DH;
hours = hours <<4;
*((unsigned char *)(& hours)) =
(*((unsigned char *) (& hours))) >>4;
hours = hours + 0x3030;

seconds = seconds <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(& seconds)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(& seconds))) >>4;
seconds = seconds + 0x3030;

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

minutes = minutes <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(& minutes)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(& minutes))) >>4;
minutes = minutes + 0x3030;
clrscr();
printf("%c%c-%c%c-%c%c%c%c",
*(((unsigned char*)(&hours))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&hours)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&minutes))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&minutes)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&seconds))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&seconds)),
getch();
}

The above program uses the service int 1Ah/02H to read the time from the real time
clock. It reads the time and converts the packed BCD values into unpacked BCD values.
These values are then converted into ASCII and displayed using the printf() statement.

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

Read time from RTC (Sample Program)

This sample program directly accesses the 64 byte RAM to access the units of time.
Before reading the time it makes sure by checking the value of Status register A and
checking its most significant bit for time update completion. If the updation is complete
time can be read from the respective registers in the 64 byte RAM.

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
void main ()
{
int hrs,mins,secs;
char temp;
do {
outportb(0x70,0x0a);
temp=inportb(0x71);
}while ((temp & 0x80) == 0);
outportb(0x70,0);
secs=inport(0x71);
outportb(0x70,2);
mins=inport(0x71);
outportb(0x70,4);
hrs=inport(0x71);

hrs = hrs <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&hrs)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&hrs))) >>4;
hrs = hrs + 0x3030;

mins = mins <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&mins)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&mins))) >>4;
mins = mins + 0x3030;

secs = secs <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&secs)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&secs))) >>4;
secs = secs + 0x3030;
clrscr();

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

printf("%c%c:%c%c:%c%c",
*(((unsigned char*)(&hrs))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&hrs)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&mins))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&mins)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&secs))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&secs)));
getch();
}

The time units are similarly read and converted to ASCII and displayed.

Write the Time on RTC

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
unsigned char ASCIItoBCD(char hi, char lo)
{
hi = hi - 0x30;
lo = lo - 0x30;
hi = hi << 4;
hi = hi | lo;
return hi;
}

unsigned long int far *tm =

(unsigned long int far *)0x0040006c;

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

void main ()
{
unsigned char hrs,mins,secs;
char ch1, ch2;
puts("\nEnter the hours to update: ");
ch1=getche();
ch2=getch();
hrs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the minutes to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getch();
mins = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the seconds to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getch();
secs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

*tm = 0;
_CH = hrs;
_CL=mins;
_DH= secs;
_DL=0;
_AH =3;
geninterrupt(0x1a);
puts("Time Updated");
}

The above listing of the program inputs the time from the user which is in ASCII format.
It converts the ASCII in packed BCD and uses BIOS services to update the time. In DOS
or windows this time change may not remain effective after the completion of the
program as the DOS or windows device drivers will revert the time to original even if it
has been changed using this method.

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

Sample Program

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
unsigned char ASCIItoBCD (unsigned
char hi, unsigned char lo)
{
hi = hi - 0x30;
lo = lo - 0x30;
hi = hi << 4;
hi = hi | lo;
return hi;
}
void main ()
{
unsigned int hrs,mins,secs;
char ch1, ch2;
int temp;

puts("\nEnter the hours to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
hrs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the minutes to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
mins = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the seconds to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
secs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

outportb(0x70,0x0b);
temp = inport(0x71);

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

temp = temp | 0x80;

outportb(0x70,0x0b);
outportb(0x71,temp);

outport (0x70,0);
outport (0x71,secs);
outport (0x70,2);
outport (0x71,mins);
outport (0x70,4);
outport (0x71,hrs);

outportb(0x70,0x0b);
temp = inport(0x71);
temp = temp & 0x7f;
outportb(0x70,0x0b);
outportb(0x71,temp);

delay (30000);
do {
outportb(0x70,0x0a);
temp=inportb(0x71);
}while ((temp & 0x80) == 0);
outportb(0x70,0);
secs=inport(0x71);

outportb(0x70,2);
mins=inport(0x71);

outportb(0x70,4);
hrs=inport(0x71);
hrs = hrs <<4;
*((unsigned char *)(&hrs)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&hrs))) >>4;
hrs = hrs + 0x3030;

To elaborate more on the problem posed by the OS device drivers here is another
program. This program first updates the time accessing the 64 byte RAM directly and
taking the new time as input from the user. After updating the program produces a delay
of 30 seconds and then reads time to display it. A difference of 30 seconds will be noticed
in the time entered and the time displayed. This shows that during the execution of the
program the time was successfully changed and was being updated accordingly.

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18 - Real Time Clock (RTC) II

mins = mins <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&mins)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&mins))) >>4;
mins = mins + 0x3030;
secs = secs <<4;
*((unsigned char *)(&secs)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&secs))) >>4;
secs = secs + 0x3030;
printf("\nUpdated time is = %c%c:%c%c:%c%c",
*(((unsigned char*)(&hrs))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&hrs)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&mins))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&mins)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&secs))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&secs)));
getch();
}

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19 - Real Time Clock (RTC) III

19 - Real Time Clock (RTC) III

Reading the Date

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
void main ()
{
unsigned int cen,yrs,mons,days;
_AH =4;
geninterrupt(0x1a);
cen=_CH;
yrs=_CL;
mons=_DH;
days=_DL;
cen = cen <<4;
*((unsigned char *)(&cen)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&cen))) >>4;
cen = cen + 0x3030;

mons = mons <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&mons)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&mons))) >>4;
mons = mons + 0x3030;

yrs = yrs <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&yrs)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&yrs))) >>4;
yrs = yrs + 0x3030;

days = days <<4;

*((unsigned char *)(&days)) =
(*((unsigned char *)(&days))) >>4;
days = days + 0x3030;

clrscr();

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printf("%c%c-%c%c-%c%c%c%c",
*(((unsigned char*)(&days))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&days)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&mons))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&mons)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&cen))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&cen)),
*(((unsigned char*)(&yrs))+1),
*((unsigned char*)(&yrs)));
getch();
}

Setting the Date

unsigned char ASCIItoBCD(char hi, char lo)

{
hi = hi - 0x30;
lo = lo - 0x30;
hi = hi << 4;
hi = hi | lo;
return hi;
}
void main ()
{
unsigned char yrs,mons,days,cen;
char ch1, ch2;
puts("\nEnter the century to update: ");
ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
cen = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the yrs to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
yrs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);
puts("\nEnter the month to update: ");
ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
mons = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);
puts("\nEnter the days to update: ");
ch1=getche();
ch2=getche();
days = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);
_CH = cen;_CL=yrs;_DH= mons;
_DL=days; _AH =5;
geninterrupt(0x1a);
puts("Date Updated");
}

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The above sample program takes ASCII input from the user for the new date. After taking
all the date units as input the program sets the new date using the BIOS service 1Ah/05H.

Setting the Alarm

void interrupt (*oldint)();

void interrupt newint();
unsigned int far * scr = (unsigned int far *)0xb8000000;
void main ()
{ oldint = getvect(0x4a);
setvect(0x4a, newint);
_AH=6;
_CH =0x23;
_CL=0x50;
_DH=0;
geninterrupt(0x1a);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newint()
{ *scr=0x7041;
sound(0x21ff);
}

The alarm can be set using BIOS function 1Ah/06h. Once the alarm is set BIOS will
generate the interrupt 4Ah when the alarm time is reached. The above program intercepts
the interrupt 4Ah such that newint() function is invoked at the time of alarm. The newint()
function will just display a character ‘A’ on the upper left corner of the screen. But this
program may not work in the presence of DOS or Windows drivers.

Another way to set Alarm

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
void interrupt newint70();
void interrupt (*oldint70)();
unsigned int far *scr =
(unsigned int far *)0xb8000000;
unsigned char ASCIItoBCD(char hi, char lo)
{
hi = hi - 0x30;
lo = lo - 0x30;
hi = hi << 4;
hi = hi | lo;
return hi;
}

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void main (void)

{
int temp;
unsigned char hrs,mins,secs;
char ch1, ch2;

puts("\nEnter the hours to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getch();
hrs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the minutes to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getch();
mins = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

puts("\nEnter the seconds to update: ");

ch1=getche();
ch2=getch();
secs = ASCIItoBCD(ch1, ch2);

outportb(0x70,1);
outportb(0x71,secs);
outportb(0x70,3);

outportb(0x71,mins);
outportb(0x70,5);

outportb(0x71,hrs);
outportb(0x70,0x0b);

temp = inport(0x71);
temp = temp | 0x70;
outportb(0x70,0x0b);
outportb(0x71,temp);

oldint70 = getvect(0x70);
setvect(0x70, newint70);
keep(0,1000);
}
void interrupt newint70()
{
outportb(0x70,0x0c);
if (( inport(0x71) & 0x20) == 0x20)
sound(0x21ff);
*scr=0x7041;
(*oldint70)();
}

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This program takes the time of alarm as ASCII input which is firstly converted into BCD.
This BCD time is placed in the 64 byte RAM at the bytes which hold the alarm time.
Once the alarm time is loaded the register is accessed to enable the interrupts such that
other bits are not disturbed. Whenever the RTC generates an interrupt, the reason of the
interrupt needs to be established. This can be done by checking the value of status register
C, if the 5th bit of register C is set it indicates that the interrupt was generated because the
alarm time has been reached. The reason of interrupt generation is established in the
function newint70(). If the interrupt was generated because of alarm then speaker is
turned on by the sound() function and a character ‘A’ is displayed on the upper left corner
of the screen.

Other Configuration Bytes of Battery Powered RAM

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Determining Systems Information

Determining Systems Information

INT 11H
INT 12H
INT 11H
used to get hardware environment info.
On Entry
call 11H
On Exit
AX = System Info.

Interrupt 11H is used to determine the systems information. On return this service returns
the systems info in AX register. The detail of the information in AX register is shown in
the slide above.

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Determining Systems Information

INT 12H
used for memory interfaced.
INT 15H/88H

Returns = No. of KB above 1MB mark.

Int 12H is used to determine the amount of conventional memory interfaced with the
processor in kilobytes. The amount of memory above conventional memory (extended
memory) can be determined using the service 15H/88H.

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20 - Determining system information

Types of Processor

Determining the Processor Type

Flags register test to identify 8086

15 12

Unused in 8086

Pushing or Poping the flags register will set

these 4-bits in 8086.

Determining the Processor Type

mov AX, 0
push AX
popf
pushf
pop AX
Test the bits 15 – 12 of AX if all set, the
processor is 8086 else higher
processor.

The above slides show the test that can be used to determine if the underlying processor is
8086 or not. If its not 8086 some test for it to be 80286 should be performed.

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Checking for 80286

Determining the Processor Type

Flags test for 80286
mov AX, 7000H
push AX
popf
pushf
pop AX
If the bits 14 – 12 are cleared the
processor is 286 only.

If the bits 14-12 are cleared on pushing the flags register then the processor is 80286. This
can be checked as shown in the slide above.

Alignment Test ( If Not 286)

18

Eflags

Alignment Check

Alignment Check:
mov dword ptr [12], EDX

In 32-bit processors it is more optimal in terms of speed if double word are placed at
addresses which ate multiples of 4. If data items are placed at odd addresses the access to
such data items is slower by the virtue of the memory interface of such PCs. So it more
optimal to assign such variables addresses which are multiple of 4. The 386 and 486 are
both 32 bit processors but 486 has alignment check which 386 does not have. This
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property can be used to distinguish between 386 and 486. If the previous tests have failed
then there is a possibility that the processor is not 8086 or 286. To eliminate the
possibility of it being a 386 we perform the alignment test. As shown in the slide above
the 18th bit of the EFLAGS register is the alignment bit, it sets if a double word is moved
onto a odd address or an address which does not lie on a 4 byte boundary.

Alignment Test
pushfd
pop eax
mov ecx, eax
mov dword ptr [13], EDX
pushfd
pop eax

In the above slide a double word is moved into a odd address. If the processor is 386 then
the 18th bit of the EFLAGS register will not be set, it will be set if the processor is higher
than 386.

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Distinguishing between 486 and Pentium processors

CPUID Test
• 486 will pass the alignment test.
• To distinguish 486 with Pentium
CPUID Test is used.

A Pentium and 486 both will pass the alignment test. But a 486 does not support the
CPUID instruction. We will next incorporate the CPUID instruction support test to find if
the processor is 486 or a Pentium as Pentium does support CPUID instruction.

CPUID Test
21

Eflags

• If a program can set and also clear bit 21 of Eflags,

then processor supports CPUID instructions.
• Set bit 21 of Eflags and read value of Eflags and
store it.
• Clear bit 21 of Eflags, read the value of Eflags.
• Compare both the value if bit 21 has changed the
CPUID instruction is available.

If the CPUID instruction is available the processor is a Pentium processor otherwise it’s a
486.

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More about CPUID Instruction

CPUID Instruction
Before After the execution of Instruction
EAX = 0 EAX = 1
EBX – EDX – ECX
EBX = “Genu”
EDX = “ineI”
ECX = “ntel”

EAX = 1 EAX (bit 3 – 0) = Stepping ID

EAX (bit 7 – 4) = Model
EAX (bit 11 – 8) = Family
EAX (bit 13 – 12) = Type
EAX (bit 14 – 31) = Reserved

The CPUID instruction, if available, returns the vendor name and information about the
model as shown in the slide above. Beside rest of the test the CPUID instruction can also
be used by the software to identify the vendor name.

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Testing for Coprocessor

Coprocessor control word

Coprocessor Control Word

7

1 1

Interrupt enable flag

11 after initialization
signifies extended
precision operation

The coprocessor control word contains some control information about the coprocessor.
The bit number 7 of coprocessor control word is the Interrupt Enable Flag and bit number
8 & 9 should contain 11 on initialization.

Coprocessor Status Word

Coprocessor Status Word

14 10 9 8

C3 C3 C1 C0

C3 C2 C0
0 0 0 st > operand
0 0 1 st < operand
1 0 0 st = operand

The coprocessor status register stores the status of the coprocessor. Very much like the
flags register in the microprocessor the Coprocessor status word can be used to determine
the result of a comparison as shown in the slide.
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Following test can be performed to test the presence of coprocessor.

To Check Coprocessor is
• Initialize Present
• Read Hi – Byte of Control register.
• If value in Hi – Byte is 3, then
coprocessor is available, otherwise
its absent.

Once its established that the coprocessor is present then the model of the coprocessor
should be determined. In case an invalid numerical operation is requested the 8087
coprocessor generates an interrupt while the higher coprocessors does not use interrupts
in fact they make use of exceptions. This feature can be used to distinguish between 8087
and higher processor as shown in the slide above. The higher processor will not respond
to an attempt made to set the IEM flag while 8087 will respond.

Check for 8087 Coprocessor

• IEM can be set in 8087.
• IEM cannot be set in 80287, 80387
as they use exception to inform the
software about any invalid
instruction.
• If an attempt to set this bit using
FDISI fails then it implies, its not a
8087 coprocessor .

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Distinguishing between 80287 and 80387

Distinguish between 80287 & 80387

• 80387 only allows to reverse the
sign of infinity.
• Perform a division by zero.
• If the sign of result can be
reversed then the coprocessor is
80387.

If the sign of infinity can be reversed than the coprocessor is 80387 otherwise its 80387

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Reading the Computer configuration

void PrintConfig( void )

{
union REGS Register;
BYTE AT;
clrscr();
AT = (peekb(0xF000, 0xFFFE) == 0xFC);
printf("Your PC Configuration \n");
printf("----------------------------------------------\n");
printf("PC type : ");
switch( peekb(0xF000, 0xFFFE) )
{
case 0xFF : printf("PC\n");
break;
case 0xFE : printf("XT\n");
break;
default : printf("AT or higher\n");
break;
}

printf("Conventional RAM : ");

int86(0x12, &Register, &Register);
printf(" %d K\n",Register.x.ax);
if ( AT )
{
Register.h.ah = 0x88;
int86(0x15, &Register, &Register);
printf("Additional RAM :
%d K over 1 megabyte\n", Register.x.ax);
}
int86(0x11, &Register, &Register);
printf("Default video mode : ");
printf("Disk drives : %d\n", (Register.x.ax >> 6 & 3) + 1);
printf("Serial interfaces : %d\n", Register.x.ax >> 9 & 0x03);
printf("Parallel interfaces : %d\n\n", Register.x.ax >> 14);
}

void main()
{
PrintConfig();
}

In this program the general configurations of the computer are read using interrupt 11H,
12H and 15H. First its determined if the Processor is and AT (advanced technology all
processors above 8086) type computer or not. This can be done easily by checking its
signature byte placed at the location F000:FFFEH which will contain neither 0xFF nor
0xFE if its an AT computer. The program shows the size of conventional RAM using the
interrupt 12H, then if the computer is an AT computer then the program checks the
extended memory size using int 15H/88H and reports its size. And ultimately the program
calls int 11H to show the number and kind of I/O interfaces available.

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21 - Keyboard Interface

Processor Identification

_getproc proc near

pushf ;Secure flag register contents

push di

;== Determine whether model came before or after 80286 ====

xor ax,ax ;Set AX to 0

push ax ;and push onto stack
popf ;Pop flag register off of stack
pushf ;Push back onto stack
pop ax ;and pop off of AX
and ax,0f000h ;Do not clear the upper four bits
cmp ax,0f000h ;Are bits 12 - 15 all equal to 1?
je not_286_386 ;YES --> Not 80386 or 80286

In the above slide the test for 8086 or not is performed by clearing all the bits of flags
register then reading its value by pushing flags and then poping it in AX, the bits 15-12 of
ax are checked if they have been set then it’s a 8086.

;-- Test for determining whether 80486, 80386 or 80286 ------

mov dl,p_80286 ;In any case, it's one of the

mov ax,07000h ;three processors
push ax ;Push 07000h onto stack
popf ;Pop flag register off
pushf ;and push back onto the stack
pop ax ;Pop into AX register
and ax,07000h ;Mask everything except bits 12-14
je pende ;Are bits 12 - 14 all equal to 0?
;YES --> It's an 80286
inc dl ;No --> it's either an 80386 or an
;80486. First set to 386

;-- The following test to differentiate between 80386 and ---

;-- 80486 is based on an extension of the EFlag register on
;-- the 80486 in bit position 18.
;-- The 80386 doesn't have this flag, which is why you
;-- cannot use software to change its contents.

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The above slide further performs the test for 80286 if the previous test fails. It sets the bit
14-12 of flags and then again reads back the value of flags through stack. If the bits 14-12
have been cleared then it’s a 80486.

cli ;No interrupts now

mov ebx,offset array
mov [ebx],eax
pushfd
pop eax
mov first,eax;

mov [ebx+1],eax
pushfd
pop eax
shr first,18
shr eax,18
and first,1
and eax,1
cmp first,eax
inc dl
sti
jne pende

The above code performs the alignment test as discussed before by test the 18th bit after
addressing a double word at an odd address.

pushfd
pop eax
mov temp, eax
mov eax,1
shl eax,21
push eax
popfd
pushfd
pop eax
shr eax,21
shr temp,21
cmp temp, eax
inc dl
je pende

jmp pende ;Test is ended

the above code performs a test to see if CPUID instruction is available or not for which
the bit number 21 of flags is set and then read back.
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pende label near ;End testing

pop di ;Pop DI off of stack

popf ;Pop flag register off of stack
xor dh,dh ;Set high byte of proc. code to 0
mov ax,dx ;Proc. code = return value of funct.

ret ;Return to caller

_getproc endp ;End of procedure

A CPUID Program

#include "stdafx.h"
#include <stdio.h>
#include <dos.h>
unsigned long int id[3];
unsigned char ch='\0';
unsigned int steppingid ;
unsigned int model,family,type1 ;
unsigned int cpcw;
int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
_asm xor eax,eax
_asm cpuid
_asm mov id[0], ebx ;
_asm mov id[4], edx ;
_asm mov id[8], ecx;
printf(" %s\n ", (char *) (id));
_asm mov eax,1
_asm cpuid
_asm mov ecx,eax
_asm AND eax,0xf;
_asm mov steppingid,eax;
_asm mov eax, ecx

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_asm shr eax,4

_asm and eax, 0xf;
_asm mov model,eax
_asm mov eax,ecx
_asm shr eax,8
_asm and eax, 0xf
_asm mov family,eax;
_asm mov eax,ecx
_asm shr eax,12
_asm and eax, 0x3;
_asm mov type1, eax;
printf("\nstepping is %d\n model is %d\nFamily is %d\nType is
%d\n",steppingid,model,family,type1);
}

The above program places 0 in eax register before issuing the CPUID instruction. The
string returned by the instruction is then stored and printed moreover other information
about family, model etc is also printed.

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Detecting a Co Processor

_asm finit
_asm mov byte ptr cpcw+1, 0;
_asm fstcw cpcw
if ( *(((char *) (&cpcw))+1)==3)
puts("Coprocessor found");
else
puts ("Coprocessor not found");

After initialization the control word is read if the higher byte contains the value 3.

_getco proc near

mov dx,co_none ;First assume there is no CP

mov byte ptr cs:wait1,NOP_ CODE ;WAIT-instruction on 8087

mov byte ptr cs:wait2,NOP_ CODE ;Replace by NOP
wait1: finit ;Initialize Cop
mov byte ptr cpz+1,0 ;Move high byte control word to 0
wait2: fstcw cpz ;Store control word
cmp byte ptr cpz+1,3 ;High byte control word = 3?
jne gcende ;No ---> No coprocessor
;-- Coprocessor exists. Test for 8087 -----------------------
inc dx
and cpz,0 FF7 Fh ;Mask interrupt enable mask flag
fldcw cpz ;Load in the control word
fdisi ;Set IEM flag
fstcw cpz ;Store control word
test cpz,80h ;IEM flag set?
jne gcende ;YES ---> 8087, end test

In the code above the IEM bit is set and then the value of control word is read to analyse
change in the control word. If the most significant bit is set then it’s a 8087 co processor
otherwise other tests must be performed.

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;-- Test for 80287/80387 ------------------------------------

inc dx
finit ;Initialize cop
fld1 ;Number 1 to cop stack
fldz ;Number 0 to cop stack
fdiv ;Divide 1 by 0, erg to ST
fld st ;Move ST onto stack
fchs ;Reverse sign in ST
fcompp ;Compare and pop ST and ST(1)
fstsw cpz ;Store result from status word
mov ah,byte ptr cpz+1 ;in memory and move AX register
sahf ;to flag register
je gcende ;Zero-Flag = 1 : 80287

inc dx ;Not 80287, must be 80387 or inte-

;grated coprocessor on 80486

gcende: mov ax,dx ;Move function result to AX

ret ;Return to caller
_getco endp

An operation (like division by zero is performed) which results in infinity. Then the sign
of the result is reversed, if it can be reversed then its 80387 co processor otherwise its
certainly 80287.

KeyBoard Interface
60H

Proce ssor

64H
INTR

IRQ1 PIC

Synchronous Data
Keyboard

The keyboard interface as discussed earlier uses the IRQ1 and the port 60H as data port, it
also uses another port number 64H as a status port. The keyboard can perform
synchronous serial I/O.

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Port 64H Status Register

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1 = Output
1 = Parity Buffer full
Error
1 = Time Out Error 1 = Input Buffer
during input full
1 = Time Out Error
during output 1 = Keyboard Active

The above slide shows the detailed meaning of bits in port 64H.

Typematic Rate
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Typematic Rate
Delay 11111 = 2 char/s
00 ¼ Second 11110 = 2.1 char/s
01 ½ Second 11101 = 2.3 char/s
11010 = 3 char/s
10 ¼ Second ::::::::::::::::
11 1 Second ::::::::::::::::
00100 = 20 char/s
00011 = 21.8 char/s
00010 = 24 char/s
00001 = 26.7 char/s
00000 = 30 char/s

The typematic rate of the keyboard can be controlled by a control word as depicted in the
slide above. The delay and typematic rates need to be specified in this control word. The
delay indicates the delay between first and second character input whenever a key is
pressed. The timing of rest of the successive character inputs for the same key is
determined by the typematic rate.

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Recieving bytes From

Keyboard
Input from 60H
Keyboard

64H

Input buffer full

The input character scan code is received at port 60H. A certain bit in the port 64H or
keyboard controller is used as the IBF (input buffer full) bit. A device driver can check
this bit to see if a character has been received from the keyboard on which this bit will
turn to 1.

Sending bytes to the Keyboard

60H
From Proce ssor

Later on
Receives 0xFA to indicate
succe ssful transmi ssion

64H

Output buffer full

Similarly some data (as control information) can be send to the keyboard. The processor
will write on the port 60H. The device driver will check the OBF( output buffer full bit of
port 64H which remains set as long as the byte is not received by the keyboard. On
receipt of the byte from the port 60H the keyboard device write a code 0xFA on the port
60H to indicate that the byte has been received properly.

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22 - Keyboard Interface, DMA Controller

Using the described information we can design a protocol for correctly writing on the
keyboard device as described below.

Keyboard writing Protocol

• Wait till input buffer is full
• Write on buffer
• Wait till output buffer is full
• Check the acknowledgement byte
• Repeat the process if it was previously
unsuccessful.

Keyboard is a typically an input device but some data can also be send to the keyboard
device. This data is used as some control information by the keyboard. One such
information is the typematic rate. This type matic rate can be conveyed to the keyboard as
described by the slide below.

Command for writing Typematic rate

0xF3
Means Typematic rate will be sent in the
next byte.

Other such control information is the LED status. Every keyboard has three LEDs for
representing the status of Num Lock, Caps Lock and the Scroll Lock. If the device driver
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needs to change the status then the LED status byte should be written on the keyboard as
described below. But before writing this byte the keyboard should be told that the control
byte is to be written. This is done by sending the code 0XED before sending the status
byte using the above described protocol.

Keyboard LEDs
LED Status byte

2 1 0

Scroll Lock

Num Lock

Caps Lock

LED Control byte = 0xED

Changing Typematic Rate

#include <dos.h>
#include <conio.h>
char st [80];
int SendKbdRate(unsigned char data , int maxtry)
{
unsigned char ch;
do{
do{
ch=inport(0x64);
}while (ch&0x02);
outport(0x60,data);
do{
ch = inport(0x64);
}while (ch&0x01);

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if (ch==0xfa)
{ puts("success\n");
break;
}
maxtry = maxtry - 1;
} while (maxtry != 0);
if (maxtry==0)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

The above program has function SendKbdRate(). This function takes 2 parameters, first
one is value to be sent and the second one is the maximum number of retries it performs if
the byte cannot be sent. This function implements the described protocol. It first waits for
the IBF to be cleared and then starts trying to send the byte. The functions stops trying
either if 0xFA is received (success) or if the number of retries end (failure).

void main ()
{
//clrscr();
SendKbdRate(0xf3,3);
SendKbdRate(0x7f,3);
gets(st);
SendKbdRate(0xf3,3);
SendKbdRate(0,3);
gets(st);
}

Now this function is used to change the typematic rate. Firstly 0XF3 is written to indicate
that the typematic rate is to be changed then the typematic rate is set to 0x7F and a strng
can be type to experience the new typematic rate. Again this rate is set to 0. This program
will not work if you have booted the system in windows. First boot the system in DOS
and then run this program.
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Changing LEDs Status

#include <bios.h>
#include <dos.h>
char st [80];
unsigned char far *kbd =
(unsigned char far *) 0x00400017;
int SendKbdRate(unsigned char data , int maxtry)
{
unsigned char ch;
do{
do{
ch=inport(0x64);
}while (ch&0x02);
outport(0x60,data);

do{
ch = inport(0x64);
}while (ch&0x01);
ch=inport(0x60);
if (ch==0xfa)
{ puts("success\n");
break;
}
maxtry = maxtry - 1;
} while (maxtry != 0);
if (maxtry==0)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

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void main ()
{
//clrscr();
SendKbdRate(0xed,3);
SendKbdRate(0x7,3);
puts("Enter a string ");
gets(st);
*kbd=(*kbd )|0x70;
puts("Enter a string ");
gets(st);
}

Again the same function is being used in this program to turn on the keyboard LEDs.
Firstly 0xED is sent to indicate the operation and then 7 is written to turn on all the LEDs.
But tuning on the LEDs like this will not change the keyboard status indicated by the byte
at 40:17H. If the status for the device driver usage is to changes as well then the
corresponding at 40:17H can be set by ORing it with 0x70. This program will not work if
you have booted the system in windows. First boot the system in DOS and then run this
program.

DMA Controller

Proce ssor Main

I/O Memory

DMA

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22 - Keyboard Interface, DMA Controller

DMA is a device which can acquire complete control of the buses and hence can be used
to transfer data directly from port to memory or vice versa. Transferring data like this can
prove faster because a transfer will consume 2 bus cycles if it is performed using the
processor. So in this approach the processor is bypasses and its cycles are stolen and are
used by the DMA controller.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 185

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

The latch B of the DMA interface is used to hold the higher 4 or 8 bits of the 20 or 24 bit
absolute address respectively. The lower 16bits are loaded in the base address register and
the number of bytes to be loaded are placed in the count register. The DMA requests to
acquire buses through the HOLD signal, it receives a HLDA (Hold Acknowledge ) signal
if no higher priority signal is available. On acknowledgment the DMA acquires control of
the buses and can issue signals for read and write operations to memory and I/O ports
simultaneously. The DREQ signals are used by various devices to request a DMA
operation. And if the DMA controller is successful in acquiring the bus it sends back the
DACK signal to signify that the request is being serviced. For the request to be serviced
properly the DMA channel must the programmed accurately before the request.

DMA Cascading

A single DMA can transfer 8bit operands to and from memory in a single a bus cycle. If
16bit values are to be transmitted then two DMA controllers are required and should be
cascaded as shown above.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 186

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

DMA Programming Model

• DMA has 4 – Channels
• Each Channel can be programmed to transfer a
block of maximum size of 64k.
• For each Channel there is a
• Base Register
• Count Register
• Higher Address Nibble/Byte is placed in Latch B.
• The Mode register is conveyed which Channel is
to be programmed and for what purpose i.e. Read
Cycle, Write Cycle, Memory to memory transfer.
• A request to DMA is made to start it’s transfer.

Internal Registers
• No of 16 & 8 bit Internal registers
• Total of 27 internal registers in DMA
Register Number Width
Starting Addre ss 4 16
Counter 4 16
Current Addre ss 4 16
Current Counter 4 16
Temporary Addre ss 1 16
Temporary Counter 1 16
Status 1 8
Command 1 8
Intermediate Memory 1 8
Mode 4 8
Mask 1 8
Request 1 8

The above slides shows the characteristics of each register when a DMA channel is to be
programmed and also shows the total number of registers in the DMA controller. Some of
the registers are common for all channels and some are individual for each channel.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 187

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

DMA Modes
• Block Transfer
• Single Transfer
• Demand Transfer

The DMA can work in above listed modes. In block transfer mode the DMA is
programmed to transfer a block and does not pause or halt until the whole block is
transferred irrespective of the requests received meanwhile.
In Single transfer mode the DMA transfers a single byte on each request and updates the
counter registers on each transfer and the registers need not be programmed again. On the
next request the DMA will again transfer a single byte beginning from the location it last
ended.
Demand transfer is same as block transfer, only difference is that the DREQ signal
remains active throughout the transfer and as soon as the signal deactivates the transfer
stops and on reactivation of the DREQ signal the transfer may start from the point it left.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 188

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

Programming the DMA

The above table shows the addresses of all the registers that should be programmed to
perform a transfer. These registers act as status and control registers and are common for
all the channels.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 189

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

DMA Status Register

Terminal count if reached signifies that the whole of the block as requested through some
DMA channel has been transferred. The above status register maintains the status of
Terminal count (TC) and DREQ for each channel within the DMA.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 190

23 - Direct Memory Access (DMA)

This is the command register. It is used to program various common parameters of

transfer for all the channels.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 191

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

This register can be used to simulate a DMA request through software (in case of memory
to memory transfer). The lower 2 bits contains the channel number to be requested and
the bit # 2 is set to indicate a request.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 192

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

This register can be used to mask/unmask requests from a device for a certain DMA
channel. The lower 2 bits contains the channel number and the bit #2 is set if the channel
is to be masked.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 193

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

This register can also be used to mask the DMA channels. It contains a single bit for each
channel. The corresponding bit is set to mask the requests for that channel.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 194

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

This register can be used to set the mode on each. The slide shows the detail of the values
and bits which should be placed in the register in order to program a required mode.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 195

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

A channel is programmed for a start address and the count of bytes to be transferred
before the transfer can take place. Both these values are placed in various registers
according to the channel number as shown by the slide above. Once the transfer starts
these values start changing. The start address is updated in to the current address and the
count is also updates as bytes are transferred. During the transfer the status of the transfer
can be analyzed by getting the values of these registers listed In the slide above for the
channel(s) involved in the transfer.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 196

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

High Address Nibble/Byte

The above slide shows the port number for each channel in which the higher 4 or 8 bits of
the absolute address is stored in case of 20 or 24 bit address bus.

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
char st[80];
unsigned long int temp;
unsigned int i;
unsigned int count=48;

void main (void)

{
temp=(unsigned long int)_DS;
temp = temp << 4L;
i = *((unsigned int *)(&temp));
temp = temp>>16L;

This program, programs the DMA channel 3 for read cycle by placing 0x0B in mode
register (0x0B). Before the channel is unmasked and the channel mode is programmed the
base address the count and the higher 4 or 8 bits of the address should be placed in base
register, count register and Latch B respectively. The 20 (or 24) bit address is calculated.
The higher 4 ( or 8) bits are placed in the Latch B for channel 3, then the rest of the 16
bits of the base address are placed in base register for channe3 and ultimately the count is

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 197

24 - Direct Memory Access (DMA) II

loaded into the count register for channel 3.

outportb (0x81,*((unsigned char *)(&temp)));

outportb(0x06,*(((unsigned char *)(&i))));
outportb(0x06,*(((unsigned char *)(&i))+1));
count--;
outportb(0x07,*((unsigned char *)(&count)));
outportb(0x07,*(((unsigned char*)(&count))+1));
outportb(0x0b,0x0b);
outportb(0x08,0);
outport(0x0a,3);
getch();
}

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 198

25 - File Systems

25 - File Systems

This program attempts to perform memory to memory transfer operation. This program
will only work for a 8086 processor, higher processors’ DMA may not support memor to
memory transfer.

#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>

char st[2048]="hello u whats up?\0";

char st1[2048]="xyz";
unsigned long int temp;
unsigned int i;

void main (void)

{
temp=_DS;
temp = temp<<4;
i = *((unsigned int *)(&temp));
temp = temp >>16;

outportb(0x87,*((unsigned char *)(&temp)));

outportb(0,*((unsigned char *)(&i)));
outportb(0,*(((unsigned char *)(&i))+1));
outportb(1,0xff);
outportb(1,0x07);
outportb(0x0b,0x88);
temp=_DS;
temp= temp+128;
temp=temp<<4;
i= *((unsigned int *)(&temp));
temp=temp>>16;
outportb(0x83,*((unsigned char *)(&temp)));
outportb(2,*((unsigned char *)(&i)));
outportb(2,*(((unsigned char *)(&i))+1));

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 199

25 - File Systems

This program, programs the channel 0 and channel 1 of the DMA. It loads the address of
Source string st in base register and the Latch B and loads the count register for channel 0
and does the same for st1. It then programs the mode, mask and command register for
memory to memory transfer and to unmask channel 0 and channel 1.

outportb(3,0xff);
outportb(3,0x07);
outportb(0x0b,0x85);
outportb(0x08,1);
outportb(0x0f,0x0c);
outportb(0x09,0x04);
while (!kbhit())
{
printf("Channel 0 =
%x,% x\n",inportb(0x01),inportb(0x01));
printf("Channel 1 =
%x,% x\n",inportb(0x03),inportb(0x03));
printf("Status = % x\n",inportb(0x08));
}
puts(st1);
}

File Systems

File System
•Disk Architecture
•Disk Partitioning
•File systems

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 200

 CS609 - System Programming
(New topic-wise course)

Reading Contents

Topic 1: Windows Operating System

Software can be categorized into two main types: System Software and Application Software.
System Software is concerned to the system or its resources while Application Software is
related to some application. Operating System is one of the good examples of System software
that acts as a manager for the System’s resources. It arbitrates and schedules the resources
among the processes to avoid any kind of conflicts.
There are varieties of Operating Systems available in the market but Windows is one of the
important Operating Systems developed by Microsoft. It is widely used inside the PCs, Laptops,
enterprise servers, handheld devices and cell phones etc.

Core Features of Windows Operating System

1. Memory Management. Memory Management is the vital or key feature of Windows
Operating System. The OS is responsible for managing primary as well as secondary
memory. Virtual address space on secondary memory is also managed by OS to transfer
data between primary and secondary storage and accommodate a large process in small
memory space. All kinds of services and related data structures are supported by
Operating Systems to efficiently manage the Virtual memory space.
2. File systems. Windows OS manages all kinds of files and folders on disk in hierarchical
form. Large file naming space of 255 characters is supported by the OS. Number of APIs
are provided by the OS to access the files in both Sequential and Random mode.
3. Processors. Windows Operating System provides support to multiprocessors and multi
cores systems. It also arbitrates among the cores or processors to efficiently divide and
allocate computational tasks to them.
4. Resource naming and location. In Windows OS, the resources like processes or devices
are treated as objects and each object is assigned a unique name to identify, locate and
access it.
5. Multitasking. Windows OS supports multitasking. It manages processes, threads, and
other independent units, and their asynchronous execution. Tasks can be preempted
and scheduled according to dynamically calculated priorities.
6. Communication and Synchronization. The Windows OS provides constructs to manage
inter-process communication and synchronization within a computer or networked
computers.
7. Security and Protection. The Windows OS has a strong security mechanism to protect
resources from illegal and accidental access. A user cannot access other user data
without assigning privileges.
Topic 2: Windows Evolution
Windows exist in several versions. New versions of Windows are introduced from time to time.
Actually certain new APIs are included in the new version to improve or extend its
functionalities. The following major themes or features are considered while developing a new
version.
• Scalability. A new version of Windows OS runs on different platforms including PCs,
enterprise servers, multiprocessing systems, mobiles and systems having large memory space.
• Performance. A newer version of Windows certainly improves performance compared to
previous versions.
• Integration. A newer version must integrate with new technologies like web services, .NET
technologies, multimedia etc.
• Ease of use. Certain new APIs and improved GI in the new version can ensure ease of use.
• Enhanced API. Introducing new APIs or enhancements in existing APIs should be the main
theme of the new version.
Disk Operating System (DOS)
In the 1980s, Microsoft Disk Operating System was used inside the IBM PCs incorporating Intel
Processor. It was a text based and command line operating system. It was a single user OS. Its
filing system was based on FAT and was able to access up to the maximum of 4GB files.

Windows History
Keeping the demand of graphical user interface, Microsoft developed its first version Windows
3.1. In this version, DOS Kernel and FAT based file systems were used.
After that in the 1990s, certain new versions of Windows named Windows 95, 97 and 98 were
introduced supporting the 32-bit architecture of Intel’s processors.
Later on Windows NT versions were introduced supporting a file system based on new
technology called NTFS. Its security and file system was better than the previous versions.
Windows Server 2008 OS was developed for professional use to manage enterprise and server
applications. Support for multi-core technology and 64-bit applications was provided in this OS.
Other Windows versions supporting 32-bit, 64-bit architecture, multi-core and multiprocessing
were also introduced including Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, 8 and Windows 10.

Topic 3: Windows Market Role

Several competitors of Windows OS like UNIX, Linux etc. exist in the market; however, Windows
has its own unique status in the market. It has several significant advantages over other
operating systems.
Above 90% PCs are based on Intel’s processors and Windows is the most appropriate OS for
Intel PCs. In the world of desktop, the most dominant OS is the Microsoft Windows which
enjoys a market share of above 80%. Windows is not confined to the desktop, it also has
support for diverse platforms including multi-core, multiprocessing, servers and mobiles etc.

Due to its dominance role, certain applications and software development tools are available in
the market that can easily integrate with Windows OS and can develop windows applications
ranging from small scale to enterprise level.

One of the key features of Windows OS is its rich GUI that makes its use very convenient. This
interface can be easily customized according to the local setup. The size, color and visibility of
graphical interface objects can also be changed by the user.

Compared to other operating systems, certain modern features exist in Windows due to which
most of the developers develop their applications for Windows targeting the huge market of
Windows.

Topic 4: Windows, Standards and Open Systems

Open Source Software is a software that is publically available with its source code to use,
modify and distribute with original rights. It is developed by the community rather than a single
company or vendor. In contrast, proprietary software is copyrighted and only available to use
under a license.

Windows Operating system is a proprietary and copyrighted software of Microsoft corporation.

It is provided for use only under a License agreement. Without purchasing a license, its use is
illegal and is an act of copyright infringement.

Being a closed system, Windows has the following strengths.

· As Windows components are provided and updated only by a single vendor, its
implementation remains uniform throughout the world. Further, extensions in Window
components or APIs are only vendor-specific and so no non-standard extension is possible
except for platform differences.

Windows also support various types of hardware platforms like open systems.

Interoperability of Windows: Windows provide interoperability with non-window components.

 ● Windows OS provides support to the Standard C and C++ libraries. We can install and
use any C compilers on Windows systems.
● Socket is a resource that is required for interface when two computers are
interconnected to each other. Windows also supports sockets to communicate among
devices having different computer architectures and access to TCP/IP and other
networking protocols.
● It also supports the Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) architecture to call the remote
functions in distributed client-server based applications.
● Windows also supports the X Windows system which is open source, cross platform
software providing GUI in a distributive network environment.

Topic 5: Windows Principles

● In Windows OS, all the system resources including processes, threads, memory, pipes,
DLL etc. are represented by objects which are identified and referenced by a handle.
These objects cannot be directly accessed. In case, if any application approaches to
access these objects directly, Windows throws an appropriate exception. The only way
to access and operate on these objects is a set of APIs provided by Windows. Several
APIs can be related to a single object to manipulate it differently.
● A long list of parameters is associated with each API where each parameter has its own
significance but only few parameters are specified for a specific operation.
● To perform the task of multitasking and multi-threading efficiently, Windows provides a
number of synchronization constructs to arbitrate among the resources.
● The names of Windows APIs are long and descriptive for its proper and convenient use.
● Some pre-defined data types required for Windows APIs are:
■ BOOL (for storing a single logical value)
■ HANDLE (a handle for object)
■ LPTSTR (a string pointer)
■ DWORD (32-bit unsigned integer)
● Windows Data types avoid the pointer operator (*).
● Some lowercase prefix letters with variable names are used to identify the type of
variable. This notation is called Hungarian notation. For example, in the variable name
lpszFilename, ‘lpsz’ is Hungarian notation representing a long pointer to zero
terminated string.
● windows.h is a header file including all the APIs prototypes and data types
Topic 6: 32-Bit and 64-Bit Source Code Portability
Windows keeps two versions of each API, one for 32-bit and other for 64-bit. A 32-bit code can
be run on 64-bit hardware but will be unable to exploit some features of 64-bit like accessing
large disk space or using large pointer or 64-bit operation.

Latest versions of Windows support both 32 and 64-bit architectures by keeping two versions of
each API, one for 32-bit and other for 64-bit.

Interoperability of 32 and 64-bit: A single source code can be built for 32-bit as well as 64-bit
versions. To decide whether executable code of 32 or 64-bit is generated by the compiler at
runtime, it depends on its settings or configuration. Further, to decide which version of API is
used, it is also based on the compiler’s configuration.

A 32-bit code can run on 64-bit hardware successfully but will be unable to use some features
of 64-bit like large disk space, large pointer etc.

A source code developed for 64-bit architecture cannot easily run on a 32-bit machine. For this
purpose, re-compilation of the program is required and suitable configuration is made in the
compiler to generate a 32-bit executable code.

Topic 7: When to use Standard C Library for File Operations

Windows provides a set of built-in APIs to perform I/O operations. A related API with specific
parameters is invoked for the concerned resource and I/O operation is performed.

Similarly, certain C/C++ standard functions are available to perform I/O operations. For example,
fopen(), fclose(), fread(), fwrite() etc. are C functions that can be used to perform I/O
operations related to files.

Differences between Windows APIs and Standard Functions

Standard C functions can be used inside the source code to run on Windows platform because
Windows has system calls at low level to support C/C++ functions for I/O operations.

If it is required to run a program on cross-platform, then it is preferred to use the standard

C/C++ library functions inside the source code. However, in this case, the advanced Windows
features like locking, synchronization, asynchronous I/O, inter process communication etc.
cannot be achieved.

In case, if portability is not focused and required to avail the advanced Windows features, then
it is preferred to use the Windows APIs.

Topic 8: A Simple File Copy Program Using Standard C Library

// cpC. Basic File Copy Program: C Library Implementation
// Copy File1 to File2
#include<stdio.h>
#include<errno.h>
#define BUF_SIZE 256

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

FILE *inFile, *outFile;

char rec[BUF_SIZE];
size_t bytesIn, bytesOut;

if(argc!=3) {
printf(“Usage: cp file1 file2\n”);
return 1; }

inFile=fopen(argv[1], “rb”);
if(inFile==NULL) {
perror(argv[1]);
return 2;
}

outFile=fopen(argv[2], “wb”);
if(outFile==NULL) {
perror(argv[2]);
return 3; }

/* Process the input file a record at a time */

while((bytesIn = fread(rec, 1, BUF_SIZE, inFile)) > 0)
{
bytesOut=fwrite(rec, 1, bytesIn, outFile);
 if(bytesOut != bytesIn) {
perror(“Fatal write error”);
return 4; }
}
fclose(inFile);
fclose(outFile);
return 0;
}

This program is used to copy one file to another using C standard functions. In this program, a
buffer of size 256 bytes is used in which the chunks of file are copied one by one.
The source file is opened in read binary mode and the destination file in write binary mode
using the C fopen() function.
If both are successfully opened, then a file is read inside a loop chunk by chunk using fread()
function and written onto the destination file using fwrite() function. After a few iterations, the
file will be written to the destination file and both files are closed.

Topic 9: A Simple File Copy Program Using Windows APIs

Program 1 - 2
// cpC. Basic File Copy Program: Windows Implementation
// Copy File1 to File2
#include<stdio.h>
#include<windows.h>
#include<stringapiset.h>
#define BUF_SIZE 16384
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
HANDLE hIn, hOut;
DWORD nIn, nOut;
CHAR buffer[BUF_SIZE];
LPWSTR lpwszFile1, lpwszFile2;
INT iLen1, iLen2;

if(argc !=3) {
fprintf(stderr, “Usage: cp file1 file2\n”);
return 1; }
lpwszFile1 = (LPTSTR)malloc(510);
 lpwszFile2 = (LPTSTR)malloc(510);
iLen1 = MultiByteToWideChar(CP_ACP, 0, argv[1], -1, lpwszFile1, 510);
iLen2 = MultiByteToWideChar(CP_ACP, 0, argv[2], -1, lpwszFile2, 510);
hIn=CreateFile(lpwszFile1, GENERIC_READ, FILE_SHARE_READ, NULL,
OPEN_EXISTING, FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL);
if (hIn==INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE) {
fprintf(stderr, “Cannot open input file. Error: %x\n”, GetLastError());
return 2; }

hOut=CreateFile(lpwszFile2, GENERIC_WRITE, 0, NULL, CREATE_ALWAYS,

FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL);
if (hOut== INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE) {
fprintf(stderr, “cannot open output file. Error: %x\n”, GetLastError());
CloseHandle(hIn);
return 3;
}

while((ReadFile(hIn, buffer, BUF_SIZE, &nIn, NULL) && nIn > 0) {

WriteFile(hOut, buffer, nIn, &nOut, NULL);
if (nIn != nOut) {
fprintf(“Fatal write error: %x\n”, GetLastError());
CloseHandle(hIn);
CloseHandle(hOut);
return 4;
}
}
CloseHandle(hIn);
CloseHandle(hOut);
return 0;
}
In this program, Windows APIs are used instead of C standard functions. In the main program,
the words in capital letters like HANDLE, DWORD, CHAR, LPWSTR and INT are Windows data
types. As the file paths given in command line parameters are in ASCII format, the parameters
will be first converted to Unicode using the MultiByteToWideChar() function.
After that, a file is opened for reading purposes and its handle is stored in hIn. Similarly,
another file is created for writing purposes and its handle is stored in hOut.
If files are successfully opened, then the source file is read in a loop and written to the
destination file. At the end both the handles for files are closed.
Topic 10: A Simple File Copy Program Using Windows Convenience Function

Numerous Windows functions are used to perform various tasks at low level. However,
Windows has a set of Convenience functions that combine several functions to perform a
common task. In most cases, these functions improve the performance because several tasks
are performed by a single function.

For example, CopyFile() is a convenience function that replaces the algorithms used for creating,
opening, reading and writing one file to another.

Program 1 - 3

/* cpC. Basic File Copy Program: Windows Implementation

using convenience function CopyFile() */
// Copy File1 to File2

#include<stdio.h>
#include<windows.h>
#define BUF_SIZE 256
LPWSTR lpwszFile1, lpwszFile2;
INT iLen1, iLen2;

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

if(argc !=3) {
fprintf(stderr, “Usage: cp file1 file2\n”);
return 1;
}
lpwszFile1 = (LPTSTR)malloc(510);
lpwszFile2 = (LPTSTR)malloc(510);
iLen1 = MultiByteToWideChar(CP_ACP, 0, argv[1], -1, lpwszFile1, 510);
iLen2 = MultiByteToWideChar(CP_ACP, 0, argv[2], -1, lpwszFile2, 510);

if (!CopyFile(lpwszFile1, lpwszFile2, FALSE)

{
fprintf(stderr, “CopyFile Error: %x\n”, GetLastError());
return 2;
}
 return 0;
}

Lecture 11: Windows File System

Windows supports various file systems.
● NT File System
NTFS is an important file system supported by Windows, its main features are:
o Security: One user cannot access other user data without privileges.
o Fault tolerance (if a portion of disk corrupts, it works because different copies
of information are maintained in this files system).
o Encryption (data encrypted/decrypted, provide security)
o Compression (Space capacity increased due to data compression)
o Supports very huge file size
● File Allocation Tables
o FAT12, FAT16, FAT32 (Start version of File Systems, also supported by
Windows)
● Compact Disk File System (CDFS)
o Support CD
● Supports Universal Disk Format (UDF) & Live File System (LFS) also

Lecture 12: File Naming Conventions

● Windows OS supports a number of File Systems. Each file system has its own
mechanism for naming files.

Certain Limitations for File Naming

● Letters like A, B, C etc. are used to represent Drive, Network Drives are represented by
higher letters like N, K, L etc.
● Double slash (\\) in the start of path represents remote resource
● Forward slash ( \ ) or backslash ( / ) is used as a path name separator
● The first 31 ASCII characters (control characters) cannot be used in file names
● Special symbols like \, /, colon (:), pipe (|) etc. cannot be used in filenames
● File and directory names are case insensitive
● File name and extensions are separated by (.)
● Max size for file name is 255 and for path is 260 characters.
 ● File extension takes 2 – 4 bytes
● Single dot (.) represents current directory while double dot (..) represents one step back
(up) directory

Lecture 13: Creating and Opening Files (Using Windows API)

The CreateFile() API

CreateFile() API with a list of parameters is used to open or create a new file. Its return type is
HANDLE to an open file object in case of successful opening or creation. The parameters are:

lpFileName: It is a string pointer that points to a filename to be opened or created.

dwDesiredAccess: It is a 32-bit double word which specifies the GENERIC_READ and WRITE
access.

dwShareMode: This mode specifies how the file is shared?

● 0 signifies that file will not be shared
● FILE_SHARE_READ allows the file to be shared for concurrent read
● FILE_SHARE_WRITE allows the file to be shared for writing.

lpSecurityAttributes: points to a security attributes structure.

dwCreate: signifies whether to create a new file or overwrite an existing one.

● CREATE_NEW: Creates a new file. If the file already exists, then fail.
● CREATE_ALWAYS: Creates a new file or overwrites an existing one.
● OPEN_EXISTING: open an existing file or fail if the file does not exist
● OPEN_ALWAYS: open an existing file, if it does not exist, then create it.

dwFlagsAndAttributes: It signifies attributes of the newly created file.

hTemplateFile: It is the Handle of an open file that specifies attributes to apply to a newly
created file.
Lecture 14: Reading/Writing a File

The ReadFile() API is used to read data from file to buffer.

Syntax:

BOOL ReadFile(HANDLE hFile, LPVOID lpBuffer, DWORD nNumberOfBytesToRead, LPDWORD

lpNumberOfBytesRead, LPOVERLAPPED lpOverlapped);

● If the file is not opened in concurrent mode, then ReadFile() starts reading from the
current position.
● If the current location is End of File, then no Errors occur and *lpNumberOfBytesRead is
set to zero
● The function returns FALSE if it fails in case any of the parameter is invalid

Parameters

● HANDLE hFile is the file handle

● LPVOID lpBuffer is the address of the array that stores the data read from the file.
● DWORD nNumberOfBytesToRead is the number of bytes to be read from the file
● LPDWORD lpNumberOfBytesRead is the number of bytes actually read
● LPOVERLAPPED lpOverlapped is used for concurrent processing.

The WriteFile() API is used to write data from buffer to file.

Syntax:

BOOL WriteFile(HANDLE hFile, LPCVOID lpBuffer, DWORD nNumberOfBytesToWrite, LPDWORD

lpNumberOfBytesWritten, LPOVERLAPPED lpOverlapped);

To write through the current size of file, the file must be opened with
FILE_FLAG_WRITE_THROUGH option
Lecture 15: Closing a File

After opening & using a file, it is required to close and invalidate the file handles in order to
release the system resources.

The CloseFile() API is used to close a file. A file handle is passed as parameter to this API as a
result of which the API will return True or False value. If the operation is successful, then it
returns True value. In case if the handle is already invalid, then it will return False value.

Lecture 16: Generic Characters

● Windows supports both ASCII (8-bit standard) and Unicode (16-bit standard) characters
● Windows have different API function variants to deal with both Unicode and ASCII
characters.
● Unicode is used to represent characters in other languages like Arabic, Chinese, Urdu etc.
● The structure of a program is different for Unicode and ASCII characters.
● Generic program or code works for both the ASCII and Unicode.
● Windows provides a set of data types for ASCII, a set of data types for Unicode and a set
of data types for Generic code like TCHAR, LPTSTR, LPCTST etc.
● For Unicode the following two macros should be used before including <windows.h>
○ #define UNICODE: it includes all the function headers
○ #define _UNICODE: it includes variable types
○ These macros will force the generic data type to be replaced by Unicode data
types.
● sizeof() operator should be used in coding instead of hard coding if required.
● Use generic C Library functions like _itot(), _stprintf(), _tcscopy() etc.
● Use the _TEXT or T_macro for representing string constants.
● <tchar.h> file should be included for generic C functions.
● Most of the APIs in the latest version of Windows expect to pass the parameters in
Unicode, therefore a generic code should be written instead of ASCII code.

Lecture 17: Generic Functions

● Besides Generic data types, Windows also supports generic functions.
● Examples of generic functions are:
_tcscmp() instead of lstrcmp(), _tcscmpi() instead of lstrcmpi()
 ● Some functions that deal with Unicode characters and strings and work with locale
settings transparently are:
o CharUpper()
o IsCharAlphaNumeric()
o CompareString()
● Generic main() function is modified in terms of data types of its parameters and its
name as mentioned below:
int _tmain(int argc, LPTSTR argv[])
● <windows.h> and <tchar.h> header files must be included before the main() function.
● Windows usually have two versions for each API function. For example, TextOut will
have two variants i.e. TextOutA(16 bit API) and TextOutW(32 bit API)
● The use of Generic data types and Unicode macro enables the compiler to decide which
version to choose
Lecture 18: Unicode Strategies

While writing a new code or enhancing an existing one, a programmer can adapt any of the
following strategies based on requirements.

● Ignore Unicode Policy

● Use 8 bit only
● Ignore Unicode
● Use data types like char or CHAR
● Most of the Windows cannot be used ignoring unicode
● Use standard library functions like printf(), scanf(), atoi() etc.

Using Generic Code Policy

● The Unicode macro is used to switch between 8 bit and Unicode

● Generic functions are used
● Generic data types are used

Using Unicode Policy

● Use Unicode only

● Unicode functions are used
● Wide characters data types are used

Unicode and 8-bit Policy

● Handle Unicode and 8-bit

 ● Write code for both Unicode and 8-bit
● Decision regarding which option to choose is made at runtime
● Use of Unicode only strategy is now increasing popularly
● Use of generic code makes the code more flexible

Lecture 19: Reporting Errors

● Windows Operating System provides the facility to report errors, if occurs.
● It is an important and salient feature of Windows to display error messages for user
convenience.
● The important Windows function for reporting errors is GetLastError(). It returns the
code for the last system error.
● Another function FormatMessage() translates the error code into meaningful English or
language selected in preferences.
● A message string reference against the error code is stored in another parameter.
● Another function LocalFree() is also used with FormatMessage() to deallocate the
allocated local memory.
Topic 20:

Example: Reporting Errors

We will discuss an example of reporting errors. Windows have provide certain

API’s in which the functions of getlasterror() and formatmessage(), we will see
how we can use these functions to report errors. For this we will make a generic
function that we will use in reporting errors.

To write code we need following customized header files

● Enviornment.h
● Everything.h

Enviornment.h includes macros for the environment of the program which is

basically used of UNICODE macro.

#if(WIN32_WINNT>=0x600)

#define WIN32_WINNT 0x600 /* Enable use of NT 5 (XP,2000,2003) functions

*/

#else

#if (WIN32_WINNT>=0x500 ) /*enable use of NT5(XP,2000,2003) functions */

#endif

#endif

In environment.h we have also

#ifdef UNICODE

#define_UNICODE

#endif

#ifndef UNICODE

#undef_UNICODE
#endif

#define LANG_DFLT LANG_ENGLISH // set default language

#define SUBLANG_DFLT SUBLANG_ENGLISH_US

Everything.h includes all the header file that will be typically required for all the
subsequent window programs.

#include “ENVIORNMENT.h

#include<windows.h> // all headers

#include<tchar.h> // generic functions

#include<stdio.h> // use for working in CLI

#include<stdlib.h>

#include<malloc.h>// memory allocation

#include<io.h> // input output operations

#include<WinSock2.h> // for windows socket operations

#include “support.h”

#include _MT

#include <process.h> // for multi tasking and multi threading

#endif

Following is the code of reporting errors.

#include “Everything.h”

VOID ReportError{LPCTSTR userMessage, DWORD exitCode, BOOL

printErrorMessage}

DWORD eMsgLen, errNum=GetLastError();

LPSTR lpvSysMsg;

_ftprint(stderr,_t(“%s\n”},userMessage};

If (printErrorMessage)

eMsgLen= FormatMessage{FORMAT_MESSAGE_ALLOCATE_BUFFER|

FORMATE_MESSAGE_FROM_SYSTEM,

NULL,errNUM,MAKELANGID{LANG_NEUTRAL, SUBLANG_DEFAULT),

(LPSTR)&lpsSysMSg,0,NULL);

If(eMsgLen>0)

_ftprint(stder,T(“%s\n”|,lpvSysMsg));

Else

_ftprint{stderr,_T{“LastErrorNumber,%d\n”},errNum};

If (lpvSysMsg!=NULL) LOCALFree(lpvSysMsg);

If(exitCode>0)

ExitProcess(exitCode);

return;

}
Topic 21:- Standard IO devices:

Reading Material:

There are three standard IO devices used in Operating system.

● Input
● Output
● Error

An input operation is performed by default on standard IO devices. For example we

does not mention in printf command where to print, it print the letter or any string by
default on standard Output device and in getch, character is get by default input device.
All the IO devices are manipulate in windows through handles.

Certain APIs are used to acquire handle to standard IO devices.

HANDLE GetStdHandle(DWORD nStdHandle);

● It returns a valid handle if the function succeed

● In case of failure it return INVALID_HANDEL_VALUE
● Successive calls to the functions will still run the same handle
● If the handle is closed it makes it subsequently unusable for the process in
future.

Three types of values can be pass to the nSTDHandle

1. STD_INPUT_HANDLE
2. STD_OUPUT_HANDLE
3. STD_ERROR_HANDLE

STD_INPUT_HANDLE contains CONIN$(Console input) as an environment variable,

STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE contains CONOUT$(Console Output) as an environment variable.

Operating system have also the concept of redirection using the given API

BOOL SetStdHandle(DWORD nStdHandle, HANDLE hHandle);

It also return true if calls succeed and return false in case of fail.
Topic 22: Copying multiple files using windows API

Reading Content:

We will see in this module how to display files using cosonle APIs of windows,
in other words display file on screen is actually copying file on console. For this
we made utility function “options()”. We will also use this function further. This
function take a variable list of parameters and use to parse these variable list.
Basically we specify the list of parameters of a program on command prompt,
there are number of options in it. Option () is use to parse these options. It
identify the “-“ prefix and check all the possible options, and set the flag
against the set options.

Following is the code of the program

#include “Everything.h”

#include <stdarg.h>

DWORD Options (int argc, LPCTSTR argv [], LPCTSTR OptStr, …) /*… show the
parameters list are variables */

Va_list pFlagList;

LPBOOL pFlag;

Int iFlag = 0, iArg;

Va_start (pFlagList, OptStr);

While ( (pFlag= Va)arg (pFlagList, LPBOOL)) != NULL

&& iFlag<(int)_tcslen (OptStr)){

*pFlag= False;

For (iArg= 1; !(*(pFlag) && iArg <argc &&argv[iARG] [0]== _T(‘-‘); iArg++)
 *pFlag = _memtchr (argv [iArg], OptStr [iFlag], _tcslen (argv [iArg]))!=
NULL

iFlag++;

Va_end (pFlagList);

For (iArg= 1; !(*(pFlag) && iArg <argc &&argv[iARG] [0]== _T(‘-‘); iArg++);

Retrun iArg;

This utility or program takes the number of parameters through command

prompt, in which we specify option and file names. The Files names which are
given , it open these file and try to print the content of these file on console
and if no file name is given then it take the data from standard input and send
to the standard output. It also use report error function in case of any error
occur.

CatFile Function:

Static VOID CatFile (HANDLE hInFile, HANDLE hOutFile)

DWORD nIn, nOut;

BYTE buffer [BUF_SIZE];

While (ReadFile(hInFile, buffer, BUF_SIZE, $nIn, NULL) && (nIn !=0 )

&& WriteFile (hOutFile, buffer, nIn, &Out, NULL));

Return;

}
Topic 23 : Encrypting files

Reading Content:

Encryption is a very old technique, and roman empire use to encrypt secret
conversation in war days and they use Ceasar Cipher algorithm to encrypt. In
this method an alphabet is substituted by another alphabet placed n positions
forward in circular manner. The text that is changed using encryption method is
called Cipher text.

The text that we are going to encrypt is called plain text so it is denoted by P
and after encrypt we present it with C.

File Encryption Program

● if n=1 then A will be replaced by B, B will be replaced by C and so on

uptil Z which will be again replaced by A.
● if n=2 then A will be replaced by C, B will be replaced by Dand so on uptil
Y which will be again replaced by A
● it uses the function C= (P + n) mod 26

We take mod 26 because total character are 26.

We use mod 256 because of ASCII character

File Encryption Program

● The program uses a slightly different version of Ceasar Cipher adapted

for ASCII characters

● C = (P + n) mod 256

This technique is not exactly cipher but little bit similar to cipher. Following is
the code of encrypting file

#include "Everything.h"

#include <io.h>
BOOL cci_f (LPCTSTR, LPCTSTR, DWORD);

int _tmain (int argc, LPTSTR argv [])

if (argc != 4)

ReportError (_T ("Usage: cci shift file1 file2"), 1, FALSE);

if (!cci_f (argv [2], argv [3], _ttoi(argv[1])))

ReportError (_T ("Encryption failed."), 4, TRUE);

return 0;

BOOL cci_f (LPCTSTR fIn, LPCTSTR fOut, DWORD shift)

HANDLE hIn, hOut;

DWORD nIn, nOut, iCopy;

BYTE buffer [BUF_SIZE], bShift = (BYTE)shift;

BOOL writeOK = TRUE;

hIn = CreateFile (fIn, GENERIC_READ, 0, NULL, OPEN_EXISTING,

FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL);

if (hIn == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE) return FALSE;

hOut = CreateFile (fOut, GENERIC_WRITE, 0, NULL, CREATE_ALWAYS,

FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL);

if (hOut == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE) {

CloseHandle(hIn);

return FALSE;
 }

while (writeOK && ReadFile (hIn, buffer, BUF_SIZE, &nIn, NULL) && nIn > 0) {

for (iCopy = 0; iCopy < nIn; iCopy++)

buffer[iCopy] = buffer[iCopy] + bShift;

writeOK = WriteFile (hOut, buffer, nIn, &nOut, NULL);

CloseHandle (hIn);

CloseHandle (hOut);

return writeOK;

Topic 24: File and Directory Management

Reading Content:

We will see in this module the types of API for file management. Windows
provides lots of function for file and directory management. These functions
are pretty straightforward and easy to use.

• Such functions perform operations like

• Delete

• Copy

• Rename
Delete

 Delete function will help to delete the file on a given path. For deleting file
the following API is used.

 BOOL DeleteFile(LPCTSTR lpFileName) ;

 Returns TRUE if the file at the given valid file path is deleted

Copy

 For copying file the following API is used .

 BOOL CopyFile( LPCTSTR lpExistingFileName, LPCTSTR lpNewFileName, BOOL

bFailIfExists );

 Copies an existing file from lpExistingFileName path to lpNewFileName, If

new filename is same as existing then the file is overwritten only if
bFailIfExists is false. It returns TRUE if the file at the given file is copied
successfully

Hard Copy

 Windows also provides hardlinks. Following API is used for creating

hardlinks

BOOL CopyHardLink(LPCTSTR lpFileName, LPCTSTR lpExistingFileName,

LPSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES lpSecurityAttributes );

 Creates a hard link for existing file

 Both the files must be on same system volume

 Security attributes will apply on new file name

Move

 Use the following APIs to move files

 BOOL MoveFile( LPCTSTR lpExistingFileName, LPCTSTR lpNewFileName);

 BOOL MoveFileEx( LPCWSTR lpExistingFileName, LPCWSTR lpNewFileName,

 DWORD dwFlags );

 MoveFile() fails if new file already exists. We use MoveFileEx() to overwrite

existing file.

 MoveFileEx() is the extended version of MoveFile() It can be used for both

files and directories

Topic 25: Directory Management

We will discuss the functions which we can use for directory management. We
will do different directory operation like create directory , remove directory and
move directory.

For create directory we will use the following function

BOOL CreateDirectory(LPCTSTR lpPathName,

LPSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES lpSecurityAttributes

);

For remove directory we will use the following function

BOOL RemoveDirectory(

LPCSTR lpPathName

);

• lpPathName specifies the path of the directory to be created or deleted.

Current Directory

In windows and many other operating system concept of current directory or

current working directory is also exist. Each Process has a current working
directory which can be changed/retrieved using the following API

BOOL SetCurrentDirectory(

LPCTSTR lpPathName

);

DWORD GetCurrentDirectory(

DWORD nBufferLength,

LPTSTR lpBuffer

);

Topic 27: Printing and Prompting on Console

In the previous module we see the certain APIs , which perform input/output
operations on console, now we use these APIs. We create two types of utility
functions, one is help us to display string on console and other is pass some
message to user and also take input from users. Following are names and
description of these functions.

Variable parameter list

●PrintStrings() function is designed which take variable list of parameters.

●Variable parameter list is processed using va_start(), va_arg()and va_end()

library functions

Console Prompt functions:

 ● This function devised such that it prompt a given message to the user
on console

● Further it also receives user response through the console

Print String Function:

#include "Everything.h"

#include <stdarg.h>

BOOL PrintStrings (HANDLE hOut, ...){

DWORD msgLen, count;

LPCTSTR pMsg;

va_list pMsgList; /* Current message string. */

va_start (pMsgList, hOut); /* Start processing msgs. */

while ((pMsg = va_arg (pMsgList, LPCTSTR)) != NULL) { // read variable

list

msgLen = lstrlen (pMsg); // message length

if (!WriteConsole (hOut, pMsg, msgLen, &count, NULL) // in case of write

console fail

&& !WriteFile (hOut, pMsg, msgLen * sizeof (TCHAR),

&count, NULL)) {

va_end (pMsgList);

return FALSE;

va_end (pMsgList);
 return TRUE;

BOOL PrintMsg (HANDLE hOut, LPCTSTR pMsg){

return PrintStrings (hOut, pMsg, NULL);

Console Prompt Function

BOOL ConsolePrompt (LPCTSTR pPromptMsg, LPTSTR pResponse, DWORD

maxChar, BOOL echo){

HANDLE hIn, hOut;

DWORD charIn, echoFlag;

BOOL success;

// create console input file

hIn = CreateFile (_T("CONIN$"), GENERIC_READ | GENERIC_WRITE, 0,

NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS, FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL);

// create console output file

hOut = CreateFile (_T("CONOUT$"), GENERIC_WRITE, 0,

NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS, FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL);

/* Should the input be echoed? */

echoFlag = echo ? ENABLE_ECHO_INPUT : 0;

success = SetConsoleMode (hIn, ENABLE_LINE_INPUT | echoFlag |

ENABLE_PROCESSED_INPUT)

&& SetConsoleMode (hOut, ENABLE_WRAP_AT_EOL_OUTPUT |

ENABLE_PROCESSED_OUTPUT)
 && PrintStrings (hOut, pPromptMsg, NULL)

&& ReadConsole (hIn, pResponse, maxChar - 2, &charIn,

NULL);

/* Replace the CR-LF by the null character. */

if (success)

pResponse [charIn - 2] = _T('\0');

else

ReportError (_T("ConsolePrompt failure."), 0, TRUE);

CloseHandle (hIn);

CloseHandle (hOut);

return success;

Topic 28:

In this module we will see a small code which will use get current directory.

Printing Current Directory

This example uses the GetCurrentDirectory() function to get the current

directory, further it uses the console IO to print the path.

#include "Everything.h"

#define DIRNAME_LEN (MAX_PATH + 2)

int _tmain (int argc, LPTSTR argv [])

{

TCHAR pwdBuffer [DIRNAME_LEN];

DWORD lenCurDir;

//calling getcurrent directory and name stored in pwdbuffer

lenCurDir = GetCurrentDirectory (DIRNAME_LEN, pwdBuffer);

if (lenCurDir == 0) // in case of failure

ReportError (_T ("Failure getting pathname."), 1, TRUE);

if (lenCurDir > DIRNAME_LEN)

ReportError (_T ("Pathname is too long."), 2, FALSE);

PrintMsg (GetStdHandle (STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE), pwdBuffer); // in case of

correction

return 0;

Topic 29:

If we see historically, there were some file system which was of 12-bit after that
we have 32-bit system and still somewhere 32-bit file system are used. FAT
based system allowed a maximum file size of 232 bytes which is 4GB. NTFS
theoretically provides the file size limit of 264 which is very huge.

Files of such proportion are called huge files. Although for most of the
application 32 bit file space is sufficient. However due to rapid technological
changes leading to increased disk spaces its useful to know how to deal with 64
bit huge file spaces and windows facilitate with some API’s that support 64-bit
file system.

Topic 30:

File Pointer APIs

Whenever a file is opened using CreateFile() the file pointer is placed at the start
of file. The file pointer changes as ReadFile() or WriteFile() operations are
performed. Every subsequent read/write operation is performed at the current
file pointer position.

SetFilePointer() and SetFilePointerEx() functions are used to change file pointer

position. For random file accessSetFilePointer() is clumsy to used for 64 bit
operations. SetFilePointerEx() can be more readily used for 64 bit operations

Use of SetFilePointer() used is difficult as compared to SetFilePointerEx().

SetFilePointer()

DWORD SetFilePointer(

HANDLE hFile,

LONG lDistanceToMove, // for 32-bit file

PLONG lpDistanceToMoveHigh, // pointer to a long for NTFS

DWORD dwMoveMethod

);

hFile

A handle to the file.

lDistanceToMove
The low order 32-bits of a signed value that specifies the number of bytes to
move the file pointer.

lpDistanceToMoveHigh

A pointer to the high order 32-bits of the signed 64-bit distance to move.

dwMoveMethod

The starting point for the file pointer move.

FILE_BEGIN // file pointer move number of bytes w.r.t the start of file

FILE_CURRENT // file pointer move with respect to the current position

FILE_END // file pointer move w.r.t the end of file

Topic 31:

For large files that may have size 264 , we need to understand the 64 bit
arithmetic. To facilitate 64-bit integer arithmetic windows provide a union
LARGE_INTEGER. This union has structure for dealing with lower and higher
double words Moreover it also has a field to deal with whole quadword of type
LONGLONG.

Definition of Structure of large integer

typedef union _LARGE_INTEGER {

struct {

DWORD LowPart;

LONG HighPart;
 };

struct {

DWORD LowPart;

LONG HighPart;

} u;

LONGLONG QuadPart;

} LARGE_INTEGER;

Extension of SetFilePointerEx

BOOL SetFilePointerEx(

HANDLE hFile,

LARGE_INTEGER liDistanceToMove,

PLARGE_INTEGER lpNewFilePointer,

DWORD dwMoveMethod

);

hFile

A handle to the file. The file handle must have been created with the
GENERIC_READ or GENERIC_WRITE access right

liDistanceToMove

The number of bytes to move the file pointer.

lpNewFilePointer
A pointer to a variable to receive the new file pointer.

dwMoveMethod

he starting point for the file pointer move.

FILE_BEGIN

FILE_CURRENT

FILE_END

Topic 32:

Overlap structure is a structure which is defined in the ‘windows.h’ and can be

used with read file and write file API’s. This structure can also be used to set file
pointer position, Although the name is overlapped but it is not necessary that
can used only for overlapped operations, we also used in multitasking.

SetFilePointer() or SetFilePointerEx() need not be invoked we can achieve this

goal using readfile and write file. Also, you can append to the file by specifying
0xffffffff in both Offset and OffsetHigh fields

Definition of Overlap structure:

typedef struct _OVERLAPPED {

ULONG_PTR Internal; // reserved filed

ULONG_PTR InternalHigh; // reserved filed

union {

struct {
 DWORD Offset;

DWORD OffsetHigh;

} DUMMYSTRUCTNAME;

PVOID Pointer;

} DUMMYUNIONNAME;

HANDLE hEvent;

} OVERLAPPED, *LPOVERLAPPED;

Implementation:

filePos.QuadPart=x; // large integer variable

ov.Offset=filePos.LowPart; // place low part of file position

ov.OffsetHigh=filePos.HighPart; // place high part of file position

ReadFile(hFile, buf, sizeof(buf), &nRead, &ov);

…..

WriteFile(hFile, buf, sizeof(buf), &nWrite, &ov);

Topic 33:

One method of getting file size is already exist and that is to open a file first
using create file, once file is open the file pointer is pointing to the first byte
then we move file pointer to the end of file (eof). So file pointer is move from
starting to end of file is give use the size of the file. Windows also provides an
API to get file size GetFileSizeEx()

GetFileSizeEx()

BOOL GetFileSizeEx(

HANDLE hFile,

PLARGE_INTEGER lpFileSize

);

hFile

A handle to the file. The handle must have been created with the
FILE_READ_ATTRIBUTES access right

lpFileSize

A pointer to a LARGE_INTEGER structure that receives the file size, in bytes.

Windows also give option to set the size. The file size can also be changed,
reducing the file size truncate data. Increasing the file size can be useful where
the size of file is expected to grow. We use SetEndOfFileEx() to change the file
size.

Topic 34:

In this topic we discuss the example of creates a file with a capacity of specified
records. The file has a header followed by equal size records. The feature of
this example is, user can modify any record randomly and get the total count of
records in the file.
#include "Everything.h"

#define STRING_SIZE 256

typedef struct _RECORD { /* File record structure */

DWORD referenceCount; /* 0 meands an

empty record */

SYSTEMTIME recordCreationTime;

SYSTEMTIME recordLastRefernceTime;

SYSTEMTIME recordUpdateTime;

TCHAR dataString[STRING_SIZE];

} RECORD;

typedef struct _HEADER { /* File header descriptor */

DWORD numRecords;

DWORD numNonEmptyRecords;

} HEADER;

int _tmain (int argc, LPTSTR argv[])

HANDLE hFile;

LARGE_INTEGER currentPtr;

DWORD OpenOption, nXfer, recNo;

RECORD record;
 TCHAR string[STRING_SIZE], command, extra;

OVERLAPPED ov = {0, 0, 0, 0, NULL}, ovZero = {0, 0, 0, 0, NULL};

HEADER header = {0, 0};

SYSTEMTIME currentTime;

BOOLEAN headerChange, recordChange;

int prompt = (argc <= 3) ? 1 : 0;

if (argc < 2)

ReportError (_T("Usage: RecordAccess file [nrec [prompt]]"), 1, FALSE);

OpenOption = ((argc > 2 && _ttoi(argv[2]) <= 0) || argc <= 2) ?

OPEN_EXISTING : CREATE_ALWAYS;

hFile = CreateFile (argv[1], GENERIC_READ | GENERIC_WRITE,

0, NULL, OpenOption, FILE_FLAG_RANDOM_ACCESS,

NULL);

if (hFile == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE)

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess error: Cannot open existing file."), 2,

TRUE);

if (argc >= 3 && _ttoi(argv[2]) > 0) {

header.numRecords = _ttoi(argv[2]);

if (!WriteFile(hFile, &header, sizeof (header), &nXfer,

&ovZero))
 ReportError (_T("RecordAccess Error: WriteFile
header."), 4, TRUE);

currentPtr.QuadPart = (LONGLONG)sizeof(RECORD) *
_ttoi(argv[2]) + sizeof(HEADER);

if (!SetFilePointerEx (hFile, currentPtr, NULL, FILE_BEGIN))

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess Error: Set

Pointer."), 4, TRUE);

if (!SetEndOfFile(hFile))

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess Error: Set End of

File."), 5, TRUE);

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("Empty file with %d records

created.\n"), header.numRecords);

return 0;

if (!ReadFile(hFile, &header, sizeof (HEADER), &nXfer, &ovZero))

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess Error: ReadFile header."),

6, TRUE);

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("File %s contains %d non-empty records

of size %d.\n Total capacity: %d\n"),

argv[1], header.numNonEmptyRecords, sizeof(RECORD),

header.numRecords);

while (TRUE) {

headerChange = FALSE; recordChange = FALSE;

 if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("Enter
r(ead)/w(rite)/d(elete)/qu(it) record#\n"));

_tscanf (_T("%c%u%c"), &command, &recNo, &extra);

if (command == _T('q')) break;

if (recNo >= header.numRecords) {

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("record Number is too

large. Try again.\n"));

continue;

currentPtr.QuadPart = (LONGLONG)recNo *
sizeof(RECORD) + sizeof(HEADER);

ov.Offset = currentPtr.LowPart;

ov.OffsetHigh = currentPtr.HighPart;

if (!ReadFile (hFile, &record, sizeof (RECORD), &nXfer,

&ov))

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess: ReadFile failure."),

7, FALSE);

GetSystemTime (&currentTime); /* Use to update record

time fields */

record.recordLastRefernceTime = currentTime;

if (command == _T('r') || command == _T('d')) { /* Report record contents, if

any */

if (record.referenceCount == 0) {
 if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("record
Number %d is empty.\n"), recNo);

continue;

} else {

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("record

Number %d. Reference Count: %d \n"),

recNo, record.referenceCount);

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("Data: %s\n"),

record.dataString);

/* Exercise: Display times. See ls.c for an

example */

if (command == _T('d')) { /* Delete the record */

record.referenceCount = 0;

header.numNonEmptyRecords--;

headerChange = TRUE;

recordChange = TRUE;

} else if (command == _T('w')) { /* Write the record, even if for the first time */

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("Enter new data string for

the record.\n"));
 _fgetts (string, sizeof(string), stdin); // Don't use
_getts (potential buffer overflow)

string[_tcslen(string)-1] = _T('\0'); // remove the

newline character

if (record.referenceCount == 0) {

record.recordCreationTime =
currentTime;

header.numNonEmptyRecords++;

headerChange = TRUE;

record.recordUpdateTime = currentTime;

record.referenceCount++;

_tcsncpy (record.dataString, string,

STRING_SIZE-1);

recordChange = TRUE;

} else {

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("command must be r, w,

or d. Try again.\n"));}

/* Update the record in place if any record contents

have changed. */

if (recordChange && !WriteFile (hFile, &record, sizeof

(RECORD), &nXfer, &ov))
 ReportError (_T("RecordAccess: WriteFile update
failure."), 8, FALSE);

/* Update the number of non-empty records if required

*/

if (headerChange) {

if (!WriteFile (hFile, &header, sizeof (header),

&nXfer, &ovZero))

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess: WriteFile

update failure."), 9, FALSE);

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("Computed number of non-empty

records is: %d\n"), header.numNonEmptyRecords);

if (!ReadFile(hFile, &header, sizeof (HEADER), &nXfer, &ovZero))

ReportError (_T("RecordAccess Error: ReadFile header."),

10, TRUE);

if (prompt) _tprintf (_T("File %s NOW contains %d non-empty

records.\nTotal capacity is: %d\n"),

argv[1], header.numNonEmptyRecords,
header.numRecords);

CloseHandle (hFile);

return 0;

}
Topic 35:

Windows provide a certain set of APIs for search files/folders within the hierarchical
structure of Directories/folders. These APIs include:

FindFirstFile(), FindFirstFileEx(), FindNextFile() and FindClose(). Detail of these APIs are:

FindFirstFile() API

Handle FindFirstFile(LPCSTR lpFileName, LPWIN32_FIND_DATA A lpFindFileData);

Where lpFileName represents the directory or path, and the filename. The name can
include wildcard characters, for example, an asteristk (*) or a question mark (?).

lpFindFileData: A pointer to the WIN32_FIND_DATA structure that receives

information about a found file or directory.

Structure or Detail of WIN32_FIND_DATA structure:

typedef struct _WIN32_FIND_DATA {

DWORD dwFileAttributes;

FILETIME ftCreationTime;

FILETIME ftLastAccessTime;

FILETIME ftLastWriteTime;

DWORD nFileSizeHigh;

DWORD nFileSizeLow;
 DWORD dwReserved0;

DWORD dwReserved1;

CHAR cFileName[Max_Path];

CHAR cAlternateFileName[14];

DWORD dwFileType;

DWORD dwCreatorType;

DWORD WFinderFlags;

};

FindNextFile() API:

BOOL FindNextFile(HANDLE hFindFile, LPWIN32_FIND_DATA A lpFindFileData );

Where hFindFile represents the search handle returned by a previous call to the
FindFirstFile or FindFirstFileEx function &

lpFindFileData is a pointer to the WIN32_FIND_DATA structure that receives

information about the found file or sub-directory.

FindClose() API

BOOL FindClose(HANDLE hFindFile);

Topic 36:

Certain other APIs are also used for getting the file attributes but these API need to
have an open file handle rather than scan a directory or use a filename.
GetFileTime() API

BOOL GetFileTime(HANDLE hFile, LPFILETIME lpCreationTime, LPFILETIME

lpLastAccessTime, LPFILETIME lpLastWriteTime);

Where hFile is a handle to the file or directory.

lpCreationTime is a pointer to a FILETIME structure to receive the data and time the file
or directory was created.

lpLastAccessTime is a pointer to a FILETIME structure to receive the data and time the
file or directory was last accessed.

lpLastWriteTime is a pointer to a FILETIME structure to receive the data and time the
file or directory was last written to truncated or overwritten.

FileTimeToSystemTime() API

It converts the file time into system time.

SystemTimeToFileTime() API

It converts the system time into file time.

CompareFileTime() API

It compares file times of two files. It returns -1 if less, 0 if equal and +1 if greater.

SetFileTime() API

It sets the three time of file. NULL used if the file time is not to be changed.

FileTimeToLocalFileTime() and LocalFileTimeToFileTime() APIs converts UTC and local

File time.

GetFileType API

It provides information regarding the type of file (disk file or pipes)

GetFileAttributes() API
DWORD GetFileAttributes(LPCTSTR lpFileName);

Where lpFileName is the name of a file or directory. Its return value is:

FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY, FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY, FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL,

FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY.

In case of failure, the return value is INVALID_FILE_ATTRIBUTES whose value is

0xFFFFFFFF.

Topic 37:

Windows provide the facility of creating temporary files for storing the intermediate
results. These files are assigned unique names in a directory with extension .tmp.
Certain APIs are used for creating temporary files. These include:

GetTempFileName API

UINT GetTempFileName(LPCTSTR lpPathName, LPCTSTR lpPrefixString, UINT uUnique,

LPSTR lpTempFileName);

Where lpPathName represents the directory path for the filename. The string cannot be
longer than 14 characters.

lpPrefixString represents the null-terminated prefix string. The first 3 characters of

this string is used as a prefix of the filename.

uUnique represents an unsigned integer to be used in creating the temporay filename.

lpTempFileName is a pointer to the buffer that receives the temporary filename

Topic 38:

We can get the attributes of a file, listing of files and can traverse the directory
structure using certain windows APIs.

An application called lsW is used for showing files and listing their attributes. It uses
two option switched that is –l and –R where –l option is used to list the attributes of
files in a folder and –R is used for recursive traversal through subfolders.

This application or program will work with a relative pathname; it will not work with
absolute pathname.

Program: File Listing and Directory Traversal

#include<everything.h>

BOOL TraverseDirectory(LPTSTR, LPTSTR, DWORD, LPBOOL);

DWORD FileType(LPWIN32_FIND_DATA);

BOOL ProcessItem(LPWIN32_FIND_DATA, DWORD, LPBOOL);

Int _tmain(int argc, LPTSTR argv[])

BOOL flags[MAX_OPTIONS], ok=TRUE;

TCHAR searchPattern[MAX_PATH +1], currPath[MAX_PATH_LONG +1],

parrentPath[MAX_PATH_LONG +1];

LPTSTR pSlash, pSearchPattern;

int i, fileIndex;
DWORD pathLength;

fileIndex = Options(argc, argv, _T(“RI”), &flags[0], &flags[1], NULL);

/* parse the search pattern into two parts: the parent and the filename or wild card
expression. The filename is the longest suffix not containing a slash. The parent is the
remaining prefix with a slash. This is performed for all command line search pattern. If
no file is specified, use * as the search pattern */

pathLength = getCurrentDirectory(MAX_PATH_LONG, currPath);

if(pathLength==0 || pathLength>= MAX_PATH_LONG)

{ /* pathLength>= MAX_PATH_LONG (32780) should be impossible */

ReportError(_T(“GetCurrentDirectory failed”, 1, TRUE);

Topic 39: Setting File Times

UNIX Touch command changes file access and changes the time to
current system time.

For changing file time the GetSystemTimeAsFileTime is more

convenient than calling Get SystemTime followed by
SystemTimeToFileTime.

These two functions are provided by sysinfoapi.h api used to retrieve

system time.
GetSystemTimeAsFileTime() take file pointer as argument and retrieves
the current system date and time in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
format.

GetSystemTime() A pointer to a SYSTEMTIME structure to receive the

current system date and time. Retrieves the current system date and
time in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) format.

SetFileTime() Sets the date and time that the specified file or directory
was created, last accessed, or last modified.

Topic 40: File Processing Strategies

C Library for file processing have following features:

 Code is portable to Operating system running other than windows.
 Convenient line and character oriented functions are simply string
processing.
 The functions are higher level and easy to use than windows
functions.
 Line and stream character-oriented functions can be migrated to
generic calls.

C library also have some limitations but some performance advantages

are also present when compared to windows functions.
Topic 41: File Locking

Windows OS can lock files completely or some part of a file.There are

two functions avalible LockfileEx and LockFile.

The syntax and parameters list of LockfileEx is given below:

BOOL LockFileEx(
HANDLE hFile,
DWORD dwFlags,
DWORD dwReserved,
DWORD nNumberOfBytesToLockLow,
DWORD nNumberOfBytesToLockHigh,
LPPVERLAPPED lpOverlapped
)

To Unlock a file UnlockFileEx() function is used.Parameters list is

highly similar to LockFileEx.

Topic 42: Releasing file locks

If a program does not release a lock or holds the lock longer, other
programs will not be able to proceed and their performance will be
negatively impacted.

Therefore, programs should be designed in such a way that locks are

released after the usage is completed using appropriate functions.

Topic 43: Lock Logic consequences

 File locking can generate deadlocks just like deadlocks generated

by mutual exclusion locks.
 A read or write may be able to complete its request before
encountering a conflicting lock.
 The read or write will return false, and the byte transfer count will
be less than the number requested.
 Shared locks if not used properly also generate unexpected errors,
as if one process have a shared lock on a file other processes can
only ready the file but cannot write into it.

Topic 44: The Registry

The Windows Registry is a hierarchical database that stores low level

settings for the Microsoft Windows operating system and for
applications that opt to use the registry. The OS kernel, device drivers,
services, Security Accounts Manager, and user interfaces all can read
and update the registry values.

In other words, the registry or Windows Registry contains different

information e.g. settings, options, and other values for programs and
hardware installed on the system. For example, when a program is
installed, a new key containing settings such as its version is added to
the Windows Registry.

Topic 45: Registry Keys

The registry contains two basic elements: keys and values. Registry
keys are container objects similar to folders. Registry values are non-
container objects similar to files. Keys may contain values and sub-
keys. Keys are referenced with a syntax similar to Windows' path
names, using backslashes to indicate levels of hierarchy. Keys must
have a case insensitive name without backslashes.

The hierarchy of registry keys can only be accessed from a known root
key handle (which is anonymous but whose effective value is a
constant numeric handle) that is mapped to the content of a registry
key pre-loaded by the kernel from a stored "hive", or to the content of
a sub-key within another root key, or mapped to a registered service
or DLL that provides access to its contained sub-keys and values.

E.g. HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Microsoft\Windows refers to the

sub-key "Windows" of the sub-key "Microsoft" of the sub-key
"Software" of the HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE root key.

There are seven predefined root keys, traditionally named according to

their constant handles defined in the Win32 API, or by synonymous
abbreviations (depending on applications):[4]

 HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE or HKLM
 HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG or HKCC
 HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT or HKCR
 HKEY_CURRENT_USER or HKCU
 HKEY_USERS or HKU
 HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (only in Windows NT, but invisible in
the Windows Registry Editor)[5]
 HKEY_DYN_DATA (only in Windows 9x, and visible in the Windows
Registry Editor)

Topic 46: Key Management

Service Manager stores many settings in the registry. You seldom have
to edit the registry yourself, because most of those settings are
derived from entries that you make in day-to-day use. However, some
changes to settings might occasionally be required. Service Manager
stores most registry values in the following locations:

HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\System
Center<version>\Service Manager\Console
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\System
Center<version>
Topic 47: Listing Registry Keys

You can show all items directly within a registry key by using Get-
ChildItem. Add the optional Force parameter to display hidden or
system items. For example, this command displays the items directly
within PowerShell drive HKCU:, which corresponds to the
HKEY_CURRENT_USER registry hive:

PowerShell
Get-ChildItem -Path HKCU:\ | Select-Object Name

You can also specify this registry path by specifying the registry
provider's name, followed by ::. The registry provider's full name is
Microsoft.PowerShell.Core\Registry, but this can be shortened to just
Registry. Any of the following commands will list the contents directly
under HKCU:.

PowerShell
Get-ChildItem -Path Registry::HKEY_CURRENT_USERGet-ChildItem -
Path Microsoft.PowerShell.Core\Registry::HKEY_CURRENT_USERGet-
ChildItem -Path Registry::HKCUGet-ChildItem -Path
Microsoft.PowerShell.Core\Registry::HKCUGet-ChildItem HKCU:

Topic 48: Exception and their Handlers

Structured exception handling (SEH) is a Microsoft extension to C to

handle certain exceptional code situations, such as hardware faults,
gracefully. Although Windows and Microsoft C++ support SEH, we
recommend that you use ISO-standard C++ exception handling. It
makes your code more portable and flexible. However, to maintain
existing code or for particular kinds of programs, you still might have
to use SEH.
Topic 49: Try and Except Blocks

Different languages have different implementation for exception

handling.

For example Python handles the exception following way:

The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.
The except block lets you handle the error.
The else block lets you execute code when there is no error.
The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the
try- and except blocks.

Topic 50: Filter Expressions

Writing an exception filter in windows

You can handle an exception either by jumping to the level of the

exception handler or by continuing execution. Instead of using the
exception handler code to handle the exception and falling through,
you can use a filter expression to clean up the problem. Then, by
returning EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_EXECUTION (-1), you may resume
normal flow without clearing the stack.

It's a good idea to use a function call in the filter expression whenever
filter needs to do anything complex. Evaluating the expression causes
execution of the function, in this case, Eval_Exception.

This handler passes control to another handler unless the exception is

an integer or floating-point overflow. If it is, the handler calls a
function (ResetVars is only an example, not an API function) to reset
some global variables. The __except statement block, which in this
example is empty, can never be executed because Eval_Exception
never returns EXCEPTION_EXECUTE_HANDLER (1).
 Using a function call is a good general-purpose technique for dealing
with complex filter expressions. Two other C language features that
are useful are:

 The conditional operator

 The comma operator

Topic 51: Exception Codes

 There are specific codes to represent the type or cause of exceptions.

 To find this code, a Windows function GetExceptionCode() is used.

Its general syntax is:

DWORD GetExceptionCode(VOID);

It returns a value that determines the type of exception occurred.

This function can be invoked in a filter expression.

__except(GetExceptionCode())
{ --- }

The values returned by this function may be:

EXCEPTION_ACCESS_VIOLATION:
The thread attempts to read from or write to a virtual address for which it does not
have access.

EXCEPTION_ARRAY_BOUNDS_EXCEEDED:
The thread attempts to access an array element that is out of bounds

EXCEPTION_DATATYPE_MISALIGNMENT:
The thread attempts to read or write data that is misaligned on hardware that does
not provide alignment. For example, 16-bit values must be aligned on 2-byte
boundaries, 32-bit values on 4-byte boundaries, and so on.

EXCEPTION_FLT_DIVIDE_BY_ZERO:
The thread attempts to divide a floating point value by a floating point divisor of 0
(zero).

EXCEPTION_FLT_INEXACT_RESULT:
The result of a floating point operation cannot be represented exactly as a decimal
fraction.
Topic 52: Exceptions Handling Sequence

Exception Handling sequence for python is given below:

try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.

Topic 53: Floating-Point Exceptions

IEEE defines a standard for floating-point exceptions it is called IEEE Standard for Binary
Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754). This standard have defined five types of floating-point
exception:

 Invalid operation
 Division by zero
 Overflow
 Underflow
 Inexact calculation

Topic 54: Errors and Exceptions

Errors Exception
Errors are usually raised by the environment in Exceptions are caused by the code of the
which the application is running. app the code belongs to.
The use of try-catch blocks can handle
It is not possible to recover from an error. exceptions and recover the system from
exception.
Errors occur at run-time and are unknown by the Exceptions may or may not be caught by
compiler. the compiler.
Programmers include an explicit test to check for An exception could occur nearly
error,for example whether a file read/write operation anywhere, and it is practical to test for
has failed. an exception.
Topic 55: Treating Errors as Exceptions

Programmer can use ReportError function to report the error and let windows treat it and
terminate the process.But it have its own limitations.

• A fatal error terminates the entire process when only a single thread should terminate.

• The programmer may require to continue program execution rather than terminate the process.

• Synchronization resources, such as events or semaphores, will not be released in most of the
circumstances.

Topic 56: Termination Handlers

Termination handler provides same functionality as an exception handler,but it is executed when
a thread leaves a block as a result normal program flow as well as when an exception occurs. A
termination handler cannot diagnose an exception.
A termination handler consists of the following elements.

 A guarded body of code

 A block of termination code to be executed when the flow of control leaves the guarded
body

Termination handlers are declared in language-specific syntax. Using the Microsoft C/C++
Optimizing Compiler, they are implemented using __try and __finally.

The guarded body of code can be a block of code, a set of nested blocks, or an entire procedure
or function.
The termination block is executed when the flow of control leaves the guarded body, regardless
of whether the guarded body terminated normally or abnormally.

Topic 57: Better Programs with Termination Handlers

Termination and exception handlers allow you to make your program more robust by both
simplifying recovery from errors and exceptions and helping to ensure that resources and file
locks are freed at critical junctures.

Consider the below given code where we are checking for invalid handle and
ReportingException.

If (hin == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE)
 ReportException(argv[iFile],1);
If(!GetFileSizeEx(hIn, &fsize) || fsize.HighPart > 0)
ReportException(_T(“FIle is Too Large”,1));

Topic 58: Filter Functions

The filter function identifies the exception type and based on the type of the exception, the
handler can treat each exception differently. In the following program, the exception handling
and termination of a program are illustrated using a filter function.

The program generates an exception based on the type of the exception entered by the user. The
floating point exceptions are enabled with the help of controlfp function and old status is saved
in the fpOld. The try block mentions the different cases of exception generation with the help of
a switch statement.

In the except clause, there is a filter function calling another function

GetExceptionInformation(). eCategory is a reference variable whose value determines the type of
exception being thrown. For the outer try, there is a finally clause used for any abnormal
termination of the program. The old value of the floating point mask is also restored at this stage.

Now we will see how the values in the ecategory reference variable are placed.

User generated exceptions are identified based on the masking operation generating zero as a
result.

Topic 59: Console Control Handles

Console control handlers are quite similar to the mechanism of exception handlers. Normal
exceptions respond to several asynchronous events like division by zero, invalid page fault etc.,
but they do not respond to console related events like Ctrl+C. Console control handlers can
detect and handle the events that are console related. The API SetConsoleCtrlHandler() is used to
add console handlers.

BOOL SetConsoleCtrlHandler( PHANDLER_ROUTINE HandlerRoutine, BOOL Add);

The API takes the address of the HandlerRoutine and Add Boolean as parameters. There can be a
number of handler routines if the Add parameter is set as TRUE. If the HandlerRoutine
parameter is set as NULL and Add is TRUE, then the Ctrl-C signal will be ignored.

BOOL HandlerRoutine (DWORD dwCtrlType);

The return type of HanlderRoutine should be Boolean taking only one parameter of type
DWORD. The HandlerRoutine() function takes a DWORD as a parameter and returns a Boolean
value.

dwCtrlType identifies the signal and its values can be:

1. CTRL_C_EVENT: Indicates that a Ctrl-C sequence was entered through

keyboards.

2. CTRL_CLOSE_EVENT: Indicates that the console window is being closed.

3. CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: Indicates Ctrl-Break sequence.

4. CTRL_LOGOFF_EVENT: Indicates the user is trying to logoff.

5. CTRL_SHUTDOWN_EVENT: Indicates the user is trying to shut down.

The handler routine will be invoked if a console exception is detected. Handler routine runs in an
independent thread within the process. Raising an exception within the handler routine will not
interfere with the working of the original routine that created the handler routine. Signals apply
to the whole process, while exception applies to a single thread.

Usually signal handlers are used to perform cleanup tasks whenever a shutdown, close or logoff
events are detected. Signal Handler would return a TRUE value in case it takes care of the task
or it may return FALSE. In case of FALSE, the next handler in the chain is invoked. Signal
handler chain is invoked in the reverse order of which they are set up in and the system signal
handler is the last one in this chain.

Topic 60: Console Control Handler Example

We have a simple program that set up a console control handler and starts beeping in a
loop. The control handler is invoked whenever a console event occurs. The handler
handles the event likewise and clears an exitFlag to end the loop of the main function.

/* Chapter 4. CNTRLC.C */
/* Catch Cntrl-C signals. */
#include "Everything.h"
static BOOL WINAPI Handler(DWORD cntrlEvent);
static BOOL exitFlag = FALSE;
int _tmain(int argc, LPTSTR argv[])

/* Beep periodically until signaled to stop. */

{
/* Add an event handler. */
if (!SetConsoleCtrlHandler(Handler, TRUE))
 ReportError(_T("Error setting event handler"), 1, TRUE);

while (!exitFlag) { /* This flag is detected right after a beep, before a handler exits */
Sleep(4750); /* Beep every 5 seconds; allowing 250 ms of beep time. */
Beep(1000 /* Frequency */, 250 /* Duration */);
}
}
_tprintf(_T("Stopping the main program as requested.\n"));
return 0;
}
BOOL WINAPI Handler(DWORD cntrlEvent)
{
switch (cntrlEvent) {
/* The signal timing will determine if you see the second handler message */
case CTRL_C_EVENT:
_tprintf(_T("Ctrl-C received by handler. Leaving in 5 seconds or
less.\n"));
exitFlag = TRUE;
Sleep(4000); /* Decrease this time to get a different effect */
_tprintf(_T("Leaving handler in 1 second or less.\n"));
return TRUE; /* TRUE indicates that the signal was handled. */
case CTRL_CLOSE_EVENT:
_tprintf(_T("Close event received by handler. Leaving the handler in 5
seconds or less.\n"));
exitFlag = TRUE;
Sleep(4000); /* Decrease this time to get a different effect */
_tprintf(_T("Leaving handler in 1 second or less.\n"));
return TRUE; /* Try returning FALSE. Any difference? */
default:
_tprintf(_T("Event: %d received by handler. Leaving in 5 seconds or
less.\n"), cntrlEvent);
exitFlag = TRUE;
Sleep(4000); /* Decrease this time to get a different effect */
_tprintf(_T("Leaving handler in 1 seconds or less.\n"));
return TRUE; /* TRUE indicates that the signal was handled. */
}
}

The program can be terminated by the user either by closing the console or with a Ctrl-C. The
handler will register with windows using the SetConsoleCtrlHandler(Handler, TRUE) function.
The handler will be activated upon the occurrence of any console event. If the registration of any
handler fails due to any reason, then an error message will be printed.

Topic 61: Vectored Exceptions Handling

Exception handling functions can be directly associated with an exception just like console
handlers. In case a vectored exception is set up, then windows first looks for Vectored Exception
Handlers (VEH) and then unwinds the stack.

No __try and __catch keywords are required with VEH and they are like console control
handlers. Windows provides a set of APIs for VEH management as follows.

PVOID WINAPI AddVectoredExceptionHandler(ULONG FirstHandler,

PVECTORED_EXCEPTION_HANDLER VectoredHandler);

The given API has two parameters; FirstHandler is the parameter used to specify the order in
which the handler executes. Non-zero value indicates that it will be the first one to execute and
zero specifies it to be the last. If there are more than one handlers setup with zero value, then
they will be invoked in the order they are added using AddVectoredExceptionHandler(). Return
value is NULL in case of failure, otherwise it returns the Handle to the Vectored Exception
Handler.

A call to RemoveVectoredExceptionHandler() is used to remove the vectored exception from a

chain. Following is the structure of a vectored exception handler to be set up by the
AddVectoredExceptionHandler().

LONG WINAPI VectorHandler(PEXCEPTION_POINTERS ExceptionInfo);

PEXCEPTION_POINTER is a pointer to EXCEPTION_POINTER structure that was previously

retrieved by GetExceptionInformation().

Pitfalls of Vectored Exceptions

The exception handler function should be fast and must return as quickly as possible, therefore it
should not have a lot of code. The VEH should neither perform any blocking operation like the
Sleep() function nor use any synchronization objects. Typically a VEH would access exception
information structure, do some minimal processing, and set a few flags.

VEH uses the same return values as SHE.

EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_EXECUTION : No more handlers invoke, exception stack does not

unwind, and the execution continues from the point where the exception occurred.

EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_SEARCH : The next VEH handler is probed, if there are no

additional VEH handlers, then SEH stack is unwound.

Topic 62: Memory Management

Dynamic Memory
Need of dynamic memory arises whenever dynamic data structures like search tables, trees,
linked lists etc. are used. Windows provides a set of APIs for handling dynamic memory
allocation.

Windows also provides memory mapped files which allows direct movement of data to and from
user space and files without the use of file APIs. Memory Mapped files can help conveniently
handle dynamic data structure and make file handling faster because they are treated just like
memory. It also provides a mechanism for memory sharing among processes.

Windows Memory Management

Windows essentially uses two API platforms i.e. Win32 and Win64.

The Win32 API uses pointers of size 32 bits, hence the virtual space is 2^32. All data types have
been optimized for 32 bit boundaries. Win64 uses a virtual space of 2^64 (16 Exabytes).

A good strategy is to design an application in such a way that it could run in both modes without
any change in code.

Win32 makes at least half of the virtual space (8GB) accessible to a process and the rest of the
space is reserved by the system for shared data, code, and drivers etc. Overall Windows provides
a large memory space available to user programs and hence requires optimal management.

Topic 63: Windows Memory Management Overview

Dynamic Memory

Need of dynamic memory arises whenever dynamic data structures like search tables, trees,
linked lists etc. are used. Windows provides a set of APIs for handling dynamic memory
allocation.

Windows also provides memory mapped files which allows direct movement of data to and from
user space and files without the use of file APIs. Memory Mapped files can help conveniently
handle dynamic data structure and make file handling faster because they are treated just like
memory. It also provides a mechanism for memory sharing among processes.

Windows Memory Management

Windows essentially uses two API platforms i.e. Win32 and Win64.

The Win32 API uses pointers of size 32 bits, hence the virtual space is 2^32. All data types have
been optimized for 32 bit boundaries. Win64 uses a virtual space of 2^64 (16 Exabytes).

A good strategy is to design an application in such a way that it could run in both modes without
any change in code.
Win32 makes at least half of the virtual space (2 GB) accessible to a process and the rest of the
space is reserved by the system for shared data, code, and drivers etc. Overall Windows provides
a large memory space available to user programs and hence requires optimal management.

Further information about the parameters of Windows Memory Management can be probed
using the following API.

VOID GetSystemInfo(LPSYSTEM_INFO lpSysInfo)

The API returns a pointer to SYSTEM_INFO structure. The structure contains various
information regarding the system like page size, granularity, and application’s physical memory
address space.

Topic 64: Introduction to Heaps

A programmer allocates memory dynamically from a heap. Windows maintains a pool of heaps
and a process can have many heaps. Traditionally, one heap is considered enough. But several
heaps may be required to make a program more efficient.

In case a single heap is sufficient, then a runtime library function for heap allocation like
malloc(), free(), calloc(), realloc() might be enough.

Heap is a windows object and hence is accessed by a handle. Whenever you require allocating
memory from heap, you need a heap handle. Every process in windows has a default heap which
can be accessed through the following API.

HANDLE GetProcessHeap(VOID)

The API returns a handle to the process heap. NULL is returned in case of failure and not
INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE.

However, due to a number of reasons it would be desirable to have more than one heap.
Sometimes it is convenient to have distinct heaps for different data structures.

Separate Heaps

Following are the benefits of separate heaps:

1. If a distinct heap is assigned to each thread, then each thread will only be able to use the
memory allocated to each thread.

2. Separation of memory space among threads reduces memory contention.

3. Fragmentation is reduced when one fixed size data structure is allocated from a single heap.
4. Allocating a single heap among each thread simplifies synchronization.

5. If a single heap contains complex data structures, then they can be easily de-allocated with
a single API call by de-allocating the entire heap. We will not need complex de-allocation
algorithms in such cases.

6. Small heaps for a single data structure reduces the chances of page faults as per the
principle of locality.

Topic 65: Creating Heaps

We can create a new heap using HeapCreate() API and its size can be set to zero. The API
adjusts the heap size to the nearest multiple of page size. Memory is committed to the heap
initially, rather than on demand. In case the memory requirements increase than the initial, more
pages will automatically be allocated to the heap up to maximum size allowed.

If the required memory is not known, then deferring memory commitment is a good practice as
heap is a limited resource. Following is the syntax of the API used to create new heaps.

HANDLE HeapCreate(DWORD flOptions, SIZE_T dwInitialSize, SIZE_T dwMaximumSize);

dwMaximumSize if non-zero, determines the maximum limit of the heap memory set by the
user. Heap is not grow-able beyond this point. In case it’s zero, then the heap is grow-able to the
extent of the virtual memory space available for the heap.

dwInitialSize is the initial size of the heap set by the programmer. SIZE_T is used to enable
portability. Based on the win32 or win64 platforms, SIZE_T will be 32 or 64 bit wide.

flOptions is usually a combination of the following three flags predefined in Windows:

1. HEAP_GENERATE_EXCEPTIONS: This flag will raise exceptions in case there is any

failure while allocating memory to heap. Exceptions are not generated by CreateHeap(), rather
they may occur at the time of allocation.

2. HEAP_NO_SERIALIZE: This option provides a slight performance improvement when

serialization of data is not required.

3. HEAP_CREATE_ENABLE_EXECUTE: It is an advanced option that allows you to

execute code from heap. Usually an exception will occur if data from heap is interpreted as code
due to the data execution prevention (DEP) restriction by Windows.

CloseHandle() is not appropriate to dispose of a heap handle rather HeapDestroy() is used as

follows.

BOOL HeapDestroy(
 HANDLE hHeap

);

hHeap is the handle to a previously created heap. Do not use the handle obtained from
GetProcessHeap() because it may raise an exception. This is an easy way to get rid of all the
contents of the heap including complex data structures.

Topic 66: Managing Heap Memory

Once a heap is created, it does not allocate memory that is directly available to the program.
Rather, it only creates a logical structure of heap that will be used to allocate new memory
blocks. Memory blocks are allocated using heap memory allocation APIs like HeapAlloc() and
HeapReAlloc().

LPVOID HeapAlloc(HANDLE hHeap, DWORD dwFlags, SIZE_T dwBytes);

hHeap is the handle of the heap from which memory is to be allocated. dwFlags are quite similar
to the flags used in HeapCreate().

HEAP_GENERATE_EXCEPTIONS: This flag will raise exceptions in case there is any failure
while allocating memory to heap. Exceptions are not generated by CreateHeap(), rather they may
occur at the time of allocation.

HEAP_NO_SERIALIZE: This option provides a slight performance improvement when

serialization of data is not required.

The first flag HEAP_GENERATE_EXCEPTION is ignored if it is already set in HeapCreate().

HEAP_ZERO_MEMORY: Specifies that the allocated memory will be initialized to zero.

dwBytes is the size of the memory block to be allocated. For non-grow-able heap, its 0x7FFF8
approximately equivalent to 0.5 MB.

The return value of the function is LPVOID. This is the address of the allocated memory block.
Use this pointer in a formal way and there is no need to make any reference to the Heap handle.

In case HEAP_GENERATE_EXCEPTION flag is set, an exception is generated if failure

occurs. The exception is either STATUS_NO_MEMORY or STATUS_ACCESS_VIOLATION.

If the exception flag is not set, then NULL is returned by HeapAlloc() and the GetLastError()
does not work on HeapAlloc().
BOOL HeapFree(HANDLE hHeap, DWORD dwFlags,

_Frees_ptr_opt_ LPVOID lpMem);

hHeap is the heap handle from which memory is to be allocated. dwFlags should be 0 or set to
HEAP_NO_SERIALIZE. lpMem should be the pointer previously returned by HeapAlloc() or
HeapReAlloc().

Return value of FALSE will indicate a failure. GetLastError() can be used to get the error.

LPVOID HeapReAlloc(HANDLE hHeap, DWORD dwFlags,

_Frees_ptr_opt_ LPVOID lpMem, SIZE_T dwBytes);

hHeap is the heap handle from which memory is to be allocated. dwFlags:

HEAP_GENERATE_EXCEPTION and HEAP_NO_SERIALIZE are quite similar to the flags
used in HeapAlloc().

HEAP_ZERO_MEMORY: only the newly allocated memory is set to zero (in case dwBytes is
greater than the previous allocation).

HEAP_REALLOC_IN_PLACE_ONLY: It indicates the newly allocated block should lie

contiguously to the previously allocated block.

lpMem: specifies the pointer to the block previously allocated to the same heap hHeap.

dwBytes: It refers to the block size to be allocated that can be lesser or greater than the previous
allocation. But the same restriction as HeapAlloc applies i.e. the block size cannot be greater
than 0x7FFF8.

Topic 67: Heap Size and Serialization

Some programs may require to determine the size of allocated blocks in the Heap. The size of the
allocated block is determined using the API HeapSize() as follows.

SIZE_T HeapSize(

HANDLE hHeap,

DWORD dwFlags,

LPCVOID lpMem

);
The function returns the size of the block or zero in case of failure. The only valid dwFlag is
HEAP_NO_SERIALIZE.

Serialization

Serialization is required when dealing with concurrent threads using some common resource.
Serialization is not required if threads are autonomous and there is no possibility of concurrent
threads disrupting each other.

The flag HEAP_NO_SERIALIZE provides an estimated performance advantage of 16%. Using

this flag can improve performance if there are no conflicts. This flag can be conveniently used if:

a. The program is single threaded.

b. Each thread has its own heap that is insulated from other threads.

c. The program has its own mutual exclusion mechanism.

Heap Exceptions

Heap exceptions are enabled using the flag HEAP_GENERATE_EXCEPTION. This allows the
program to close open “handles” before a program terminates. There can be two scenarios with
this option:

a. STATUS_NO_MEMORY: It means there is no more memory to be allocated

because the heap has reached its limits.

b. STATUS_ACCESS_VIOLATION: It indicates that the heap has been corrupted.

Either the heap has been accessed as code, or has been accessed beyond its bounds.

There are some other functions that can be used while working with heaps. For example,

HeapSetInformation() can be used to enable low fragmentation mode. It can also be used to
allow termination of a thread upon heap’s corruption.

HeapCompact() allows finding the largest allocated block in the heap.

HeapValidate() allows detecting heap corruption.

HeapWalk() enumerates the allocated blocks on heap.

HeapLock() and HeapUnLock() allow serializing access to the heap.

Topic 68: Using Heaps

Using Memory Management APIs

Till now we have used the Memory Management APIs for allocating, reallocating and
deallocating heaps. We can also get the size of a heap through an API.

A typical methodology of dealing with heaps should be to get a heap handle either using
HeapCreate() or GetProcessHeap(). Use the handle obtained from the above to allocate memory
blocks from the heap using HeapAlloc(). If some block needs to be deallocated, use HeapFree().
Before the program is terminated or when the heap is not required, use HeapDestroy() to dispose
of the heap.

It is convenient not to mix up windows heap API and Run Time Library functions. Anything
allocated with C library functions should also be deallocated with C library functions.

Topic 69: Working with Heaps

A Sorting File example using heaps

The example is formulated using two heaps. The first one will be a node heap, while the other is
a record heap. Node heap will be used to build a tree, while the data heap will be used to store
keys.
 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
1. Which of the following tasks is not performed by the operating system.
 Multitasking
 Memory Management
 File Management
 Hardware repairing
2. Windows operating system allows us to run a huge process in a small
memory space due to
 Efficient primary memory management
 Flexibility naming scheme for resources
 High processing speed of processor
 Virtual memory management
3. To provide an interface between the user and computer, a system is required
which is called_______
 Application software
 Operating system
 Customized software
 Both application and customized software
4. A process-1 in windows operating system can access the momery space of
process-2 if _______
 Process-1 has no privilege to access memory space of other processes
 Both processes have same ID
 Process-1 loaded in the same space as process-2
 Process-1 has privilege to access memory space of other processes.

5. Windows operating system provides a naming scheme for the resources

which allows maximum character only
 255
 16
 55
 155
6. DOS was a _______ operating system.
 GUI based
 Command line

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 Real time
 Multitasking
7. API stands for ______.
 Application programming interface
 Advance programming interface
 Application programming integrity
 Application programs interoperability.
8. Which operating system was offered by Microsoft that was used prior to
windows
 LINUX
 UNIX
 Solaris
 Dos
9. Which of the following theme is not consider while introducing the new
version of windows?
 Enhanced API
 Scalability
 Performance
 Increasing cost
10.Which version of windows is used for mobile devices
 Windows ME
 Windows CE
 Windows vista
 Windows server
11.In 2021, which of the following desktop operating systems was widely used
in the world market?
 Windows
 Fedora
 Salaris
 Linux
12.Using _____ commands can be issued to the system through icons, buttons,
shortcuts, sound etc.
 Result- driven interface

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 Graphical user interface
 Menu-driven interface only
 Command only
13.One of the major causes of windows dominance in PC’s market is its
 User-friendly GUI
 Best security features
 Feature of multitasking
 Best marketing strategy
14.Which statement is not correct about the windows operating system
 It can only be used in desktop system
 It supports both 32&64-bit architecture
 It supports voice commands
 It supports diverse hardware platforms
15.Which statement is incorrect about open source software?
 Paid license is required for it use
 Changes can be made by the general public
 Source code is freely available
 It is publicly available
16.Choose the major drawback of a closed source software
 Not affordable by the user
 Not customizable
 Not freely available to download
 Neither affordable, customizable, nor freely available for download
17.Example of a closed source software is _______
 Linux
 Windows OS
 Chrome browser
 Fedora
18.A uniform extension is software components is possible in ___ software.
 Vender specific
 Open source
 Community source
 Both open and closed

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19.A socket on end-point is required only if
 Processor tries to write on internal hard disk
 Two processes communication over network
 A process needs a resource
 Process needs to access main memory
20.DWORD data type represents ______
 32 bit unsigned integer
 32 bit signed integer
 16 bit unsigned integer
 16 bit signed integer
21.A software or application can access any windows object ______
 Directly
 Directly and through API as well
 Through API only
 Not directly nor through API
22.Windows datatype LPTSTR
 Long pointer to TSTR
 Last pointer to TSTR
 Last pointer to string
 Long pointer to STR
23.Each windows API has a _____ number of parameters.
 Fixed
 Two
 Variable
 Four
24.Which statement is true about a multi- threading process?
 A process has one or more threads
 A process has only one thread
 A thread has only one process
 A thread can be created without process
25.Windows supports both the 32 and 64-bit source code by _____
 Keeping separate API’s for 32 and 64-bit code
 Converting 32-bit into 64-bit code

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 Converting 64-bit into 32-bit code
 Keeping separate compilers for each hardware
26.Windows operating system keeps _____ version of each API
 Two
 One
 Complied
 Interpreted
27.Which statement is incorrect about the 32-bit source code?
 It runs on 64-bit hardware and can use its all features
 It has its own windows API
 It does not support large disk space
 It runs on 64-bit hardware
28.Choose the appropriate advantage of C source code that uses C standard
function
 Can access advance windows features
 Portable source code
 Runs on windows platform only
 Runs without making system calls to windows API’s.
29.Choose the correct option for a source code that uses only windows API
instead of C library functions.
 Source code can only access some features of windows
 Source code will not remain portable
 Source code cannot be complied
 Source code is portable
30.Which statement is true about open () function in C?
 It opens the existing file and not exists it creats a new file
 It opens the file only writing
 It opens the file only reading
 It opens the file only existing
31.fopen() function in C returns ____ if the file is not successfully opened
 Zero value
 Point to a file
 NULL value

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 Neither NULL nor Zero
32.Open file objects using C library functions are identified by _____
 Pointer to a file structure
 Buffer
 Handle
 Both buffer and handle
33. A successfully read using fread() function in C is indicated by a ____ return
value.
 Non-negative
 Zero
 Negative
 Boolean
34.What the following C statement represents; FILE *ptr;
 Pointer to a file structure
 Pointer to a character
 Pointer to a integer
 Pointer to a binary number
35.Which statement is true about createfile() function
 DWORD
 BOOL
 HANDLE
 INT
36.The return type of readfile() and writefile() is
 It open the existing file or creating a new file
 It is not used for opening a file
 It opens or create a file only for generic read
 It open or create a file only for generic write
37.LPWSTR stand for
 Last pointer to wide string
 Long pointer to wind string
 Long pointer with string
 Last pointer to string
38. The return type of malloc() function in C can be

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 Pointer to allocate space or NULL
 Linked list
 NULL only
 A array
39.Which statement is correct about the convenience function?
 It does not improve overall performance
 It takes considerable time in execution
 It performs a small task
 A big task is performed a single API
40.UDF stands for
 Universal driven format
 Universal disk file
 Universal driven file
 Universal disk format
41.Which option is not related to the NT file system
 Compression
 Encryption
 File size limitation
 Fault tolerance
42.Which feature of NTFS related to data security?
 Large file name mechanism
 Encryption AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUET
 File allocation table
 Compression
43.Keeping in view the support for huge file size, which file system is more
favorable?
 NTFS
 FAT16
 FAT32
 FAT8
44.NTFS stand for ______
 New trend file system
 New technology file system

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 New trend for system
 New technology for system
45.Which special symbol can be used in windows filename?
 Pipe
 Forward slash
 Backward slash
 Underscore
46.The path name of a remote resource of server starts with ____ symbol.
 Forward slash
 Pipe
 Double back slash
 Black slash
47.In the windows file system, which symbol can be used as a path separator?
 Pipe symbol
 Back slash only
 Both forward and backward
 Forward slash only
48.The file extension usually contains _____ characters.
 5 to 8
 2 to 4
 1 to 2
 1 to 3
49.In windows file system, the extension and file name is separated by
_________.
|
 Dot(.)
\
/ AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
50.The name of windows API used for opening and creating a new file is
 CreateFile()
 OpenFile()
 CreateopenFile()
 ReopenFile()

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51.The return type of create file() function is.
 NULL
 A handle to an open file or INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE
 INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE
 Always handle to run open file object
52.In FILE_SHARE_READ mode, the file is shared for ______
 Concurrent read and write by multiple process
 Concurrent read and write by a single process
 Concurrent read by single process
 Concurrent read by multiple process
53.In the createfile() function, if the same name file already exists when the
attributes, create, Always is used to
 Delete the existing file and create a new file
 Delete the existing file
 Over write an existing file
 Create an existing file
54.In the createFile() function, which statement is true about open-existing
attribute if the file does not exist.
 It will create an existing file
 It will open some other file insteated of specified file
 It will fail to open the new file
 It will create a new file
55.The windows API ______ used to read data from a file and store it in a buffer.
 Create File()
 Copy file()
 Read file()
 Write file()
56.If the file is not opened in concurrent mode, then ReadFile() API.
ReadFile()API starts reading from the ______
 Backup file
 Start file
 End of file
 Current file

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57.If we want to read 1000 bytes from a file with ReadFile() function but there
are actually only 400 bytes in a file then _______
 Read operation will fail
 400 bytes will be read
 1000 bytes will be read
 Exception will be thrown
58.The windows API _______ is used to write data from a better and store it in a
file
 Create file
 Copy file
 Read file
 Write file
59.The return type of writeFile() function is
 BOOL
 DWORD
 LPDWORD
 LPOVERLAPPED
60.It an invalid file handle is passed as a parameter to the closeFile() function,
then it will return _____
1
 Empty string
 File handle
 False value
61.A Unicode word consists of ______ bits
 24
 32
 16
8 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE

62.In Unicode format, _____ number of character can be encoded.

2
2
2

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2
63.The latest version of windows supports _______ standard.
 ASCII
 Unicode
 Scan codes
 Both ASCII and Unicode
64.TCHAR is a/ an _______ type variable.
 ASCII
 Generic
 Unicode
 Both ASCII and Unicode
65._stprintf() is a/ an ______ c library function.
 Both ASCII and Unicode
 Generic
 Unicode
 ASCII
66._tcscmp() is _____ function to compare the string
 An ASCII
 A Unicode
 Not a generic
 A generic
67.Which one is the correct definition of generic main() function?
 Int-main
 Int main
 Int main
 Int_main
68.All generic data types are include ____ header file.
 <tchar.h>
 <string.h>
 <windows.h>
 <char.h>
69.All generic functions are include in _____ header file
 <string.h>

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 <windows.h>
 <char.h>
 <tchar.h>
70.TextOutW() is _____ bit API and it supports ____ standard.
 32,Generic
 32,ASCII
 32,Unicode
 16,Unicode
71.The standard C library function atio() supports _____
 Generic code
 Unicode AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
 128-bit character code
 8-bit character code
72.To switch between 8-bit character code and standard Unicode ____ functions
and data type are required.
 Generic
 Non-generic
 Unicode
 8-bit
73.Developing generic code needs extra effort but provides maximum ____
 Productivity
 User-friendly look
 Chance of errors
 Flexibility
74.What is the return value of GetlastError() function?
 It returns error code for last error
 It return a formatted message for last error
 It takes input message from user and returns
 It return error message for the last error
75.Which windows API is used to return a system error code?
 Geterror()
 Format message ()
 Get last error()

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 Both geterror() and format Message()
76.Which header file includes all the Unicode macros for setting environment of
a program?
 <everything.h>
 <environment.h>
 <tchar.h>
 <windows.h>
77.There are _____number of standard I/O devices in a windows system.
 Five
 Three
 Two
 Four
78.In a windows system, input ____ and _____ are three standard I/O devices.
 Error, correction
 Output, display
 Display, error
 Output, error
79.On execution, HANDLE_GetstHandle(DWORDnst Handle) will return a valid
handle in case of
 Passing invalid parameters
 Success
 Exception AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
 Failure
80.STD_INPUT_HANDLE macro contains a variable, CONIN$,which is a/an
______.
 Input variable
 Default variable
 Environment variable
 Console variable
81.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE contains _____ as an environment variable.
 CONIN$
 CONOUT$
 CONPRNT$

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 CONDIS$
82.Option () function takes ______ parameters.
3
4
5
 Variable
83.Catfile() function takes ______ parameters.
3
5
4
2
84.______ empire is considered to be pioneers of encryption as they used basic
encryption algorithms to encrypt secret conversation in a war.
 Persian
 Chines
 Roman
 Mughal
85.Roman empire use _____ algorithm to encrypt secret conversation.
 CTR
 Ceaser cipher
 Brute force
 Cryto graph
86.The text that we are going to encrypt is called ____ test so it is denoted by
 Personal, p
 Secret, w
 Proposed, p
 Plain, p AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
87.We represent that text by the symbol _____ in the encryption formula.
E
B
A
C
88.The formula of ceaser chopper is ______

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 C = (E + W)mod26
 E = (P +n) mod27
 E = (D +n)mod27
 C = (P + n) mod26
89.We use MoveFileEx() to ____ the existing file
 Copy
 Rename
 Over write
 Delete
90.Which statement is true about hard copy function?
 Both the files must not be on same system volume.
 Both the files must be in encrypted form
 Creates a hard link for copy file
 Security attributes will apply on new file name
91.deleteFile() function takes _____ parameter.
4
1
2
3
92.Which of the following API is used for coping a file?
 CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR IPNewFileName,
bool bfailExists);
 Char CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR
IPNewFileName, bool bfailExists);
 Bool CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR
IPNewFileName, bool bfailExists);
 String CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR
IPNewFileName, bool bfailExists);
93.Correct syntax of MoveFile() function is ______
 Bool Move (LIPCTSTR lpNewName, LPCTSTR lpExistingFileName);
 Bool Move (LIPCTSTR lpNewName, LPCTSTR lpNewFileName);
 Bool MoveFile (bool LIPCTSTR lpNewName, LPCTSTR
lpExistingFileName);

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 Bool Move (bool lpNewName, LIPCTSTR LPCTSTR
lpExistingFileName);
94.RemoveDirectory() function takes ______parameter(s)
1
4
3
2
95.Set currentDirectory() function takes ______ parameter(s)
 2
1
4
3
96.Return type of GetcurrentDirectory() function is ()
 Int
 Bool
 String
 DWORD
97.createDirectory() function takes _____ parameter(s)
4
3
1
2
98.deleteFiles() function takes ______ parameter(s)
1
4
3
2
99.Return type of printMsg() function is ______
 DWORD
 CHAR
 BOOL
 WORD
100. Return type of printString() function is ______

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 DWORD
 CHAR
 BOOL
 WORD
101. Correct syntax for create console input file is
 hln = createFile(_T(“CONOUT$”), GENERIC_READ&NULL,
OPEN_ALWAYS, FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
 hln = createFile(_T(“CONOUT$”), GENERIC_READ,1
GENERIC_WRITE,0&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
 hln = createFile(_T(“CONIN$”), GENERIC_READ,1
GENERIC_WRITE,0&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
 prohln = createFile(_T(“CONIN$”), GENERIC_READ,1
GENERIC_WRITE,0&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
102. consoleprompt() function takes _____ parameter(s)
2
3
5
4
103. Current syntax of Get currentDirectort() function is _____
 lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(DIRNAME_LEN,PwdBuffer);
 lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(DIRNAME_LEN);
 lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(DIRNAME_LEN);
 lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(PwdBuffer);
104. Get currentDirectory() function takes _____ parameter(s)
2
3
5
4
105. Return type of prontMsg() function is ______
 WORD

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 BOOL
 CHAR
 DWORD
106. Get Directory() function takes _____ parameter(s)
2
3
5
4
107. In NTPS based system ______ is the maximum allowed size for a
single file
2
2
2
2
108. FAT 32 based system ______ is the maximum allowed size for a
single file
2
2
2
2
109. setFilepointer() function takes _____ parameter(s)
2
3
5
4
110. PLONG is a _____
 Pointer to a long variable
 String
 Variable
 Pointer to a string
111. Return type of setFilePointerEx() is _____
 String
 Bool

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 Word
 DWORD
112. In setfilepointer() function, lpNewFilePointer parameter is placed is
a/an
 Handle
 PLARGE_INTEGER
 DWORD
 LARGE_INTEGER
113. In setFilePoiter() function, distance to move parameter is placed in
 DWORD
 Handle
 PLARGE_INTEGER
 LARGE_INTEGER
114. There are ______ components of a LARGE integer
2
3
4
5
115. In the Overlapped structure, ULONG_PTR internal is a _____field.
 DWORD
 Integer
 Pointer
 Reserved
116. Overlap structure is a structure which is defined in the _____ header
file
 Window.h
 Stdary.h
 Everything.h
 Stdio.h
117. In the overlapped structure the data type of ofsetand offsethigh is
 DWORD
 WORD
 INT

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 BOOL
118. EOF is short form of _____
 Erase of file
 End of file AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
 End of folder
 Erase of folder
119. Return types of getfilesizeEx() is _____
 Bool
 Char
 Int
 DWORD
120. To reduce the filesize we use _____ windows API.
 Setfilesize()
 Changefilesize()
 SetendoffileEx()
 setfileEx()
121. File size cn be obtained using the ____ windows API.
 GetFileSizwEx()
 FileSizeExGet()
 GetFileSize()
 FileSize()
122. In the RECORD structure, datatype of numRecord is _____
 DWORD
 BOOL
 Double
 Int
123. In the RECORD structure, datatype of numNonemptyRecord is _____
 DWORD
 BOOL
 Double
 Int
124. What will be next code statement, if the following if statement id
true? If (!setFilePointer Ex(nfilecurrentptr, NULL,FILE_BEGIN))

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 RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: writeFile header”.)4,TRUE);
 RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: writeFile header”.)6,TRUE);
 RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: setpointer”.)4,TRUE);
 RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: set End of File”.)5,TRUE);
125. What will be next code statement, if the following if statement is true?
If (!readFile(hFile& header, size of(Header),&nXfer,&ovzero))
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set End of File.”),5,TRUE);
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set pointer.”),4,TRUE);
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:write File header.”),4,TRUE);
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:readFile header.”),6,TRUE);

126. During searching files/folders, a data structure ______ is used to store

the information about a found file or directory
 Directory -64
 Attribute
 Directory -32
 WIN32_FIND DATA
127. What will be next code statement, if the following if statement is true?
If (!writeFile(hFile& header, size of(Header),&nXfer,&ovzero))
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set End of header.”),6,TRUE);
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set pointer.”),4,TRUE);
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:write File header.”),5,TRUE);
 ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:readFile header.”),4,TRUE);
128. The number of arguments required for Findclose()API is ____
3
1
 2 AL-JUNAID TECH INSTITUTE
0
129. The field flastAccessTime in a WIN32-FIND-DATA structure is used
to represent a time when a file was ______ time accessed
 Closing
 Last
 First

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 Second ;last
130. Using GetFileTime() API argument(s) is/are provided.
 Both creation and last access time
 Only last access time
 Creation, last access and last write time
 Only creation time
131. GetFileAttribute() API need ____ argument(s) to return the attributes
of a file or directory
1
2
3
0
132. compareFileTime() API returns _____ if both the file time are equal
0
2
1
 -1
133. Which option is incorrect when the traverseDirectory() API is
required to be use?
 It allow non-recutsive traversal
 Recursive and non-recursive traversal option is irrelevant
 It allows recursive traversal
 It allows both non- recursive and recursive traversal
134. Which of the followingis not an argument of the traverse Directory()
API
 Option for simple listing or recursive processing
 Search pattern
 Parent path
 File creation time
135. Temporary files are assigned an extension ____ and they are used to
store ____
 .temp,final result
 .tmpe,intermediate result

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 .tmp,intermediate result
 .com,intermediate result
136. ______ is not a value argument for setFiletime() function
 pModifyTime
 NULL
 _T(ame)
 _P(accesstime)
137. SetFileTime() function takes a total of arguments.
3
5
4
2
138. GetsystemTimeAsFiletime() function receive _____ as an argument.
 File array
 File pointer
 File handle
 File objects
139. Which of the following is not a correct argument of options() function
 Argc
 Argv
 _T(amg)
 _T(amc)
140. The fseek() C library function uses _____ bit file position
8
 16
 32
 64
141. For file processing windows provides a propriating function
called______
 Pseek64()
 Fseek()
 Fseek64()
 Pseek()

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142. In MicrosoftUNIX library, all I/O function are named with _____
prefix.
 Semicolon
 Dot
 Underscore
 Colon
143. In lockFileEx() function, the OVERLAPPED data structure contains
______ data members.
3
5
2
4
144. File lock can be _____ or ____
 Read-only, write-only
 Read-only, write-only
 Read-locked, write only
 Read-only, read-write
145. The read operation does not conflict with the _____
 Existing shared lock
 Remove operation
 Write operation
 Existing exclusive lock
146. Before encountering a/an _____ lock, the read or write operation can
complete its request partially
 Exclusive lock
 Shared lock
 Mutually exclusive lock
 Conflicting lock
147. If process-A has a shared lock on a file, and process-B tries to read
without a shared lock then the read attempt will _____
 Return exception
 Succeed
 Return a shared lock

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 Fail
148. UNIX system stores information in _____ directory similar to the
registry entry
 /etc
 /reg
 /key
 /root
149. Programmers usually access windows build number through _____
 Web sockets
 Web API
 RESI API
 Windows API
150. Information about _____ is not present in the registry file.
 Power supply
 Chipset
 Memory
 Processor
151. ______information is present in the registry
HKEY_CURRENT_CINFIG.
 Display resolution
 Process make
 Display size
 Memory amount
152. The registry HKEY_CURRENT_USER does not contain ____
information.
 System fonts
 Printers
 Environment variable
 Application preferences
153. The registry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHNE stores _____ information
about the machine
 Physical
 Private

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 Protected
 Logical
154. ______function enumerates subkey names of an open registry key.
 RegEnumKey()
 RegOpenKey()
 RegOpenKeyEx()
 RegENUMKeyEx()
155. The RegOpenKeyEx() function opens a named____
 Instance
 Sub key
 Key
 List
156. The function RegCreateKeyEx() ha ____ parameters.
8
7
9
6
157. Is Reg() function processes registry keys rather than ____ and ____
 Key-value pairs, files
 Key-value pairs, properties
 Directories, key-value pairs
 Directories, files
158. RegSetvalueEx() function is used to set the data of a ____ value.
 Final
 Fixed
 Named
 Static
159. The exception could occur within a _____ embedded in the try block.
 List
 Function
 Constructor
 Block

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160. If filter_expression returns _____ then windows ignores the exception
handler and searches for an exception handler in the enclosing block.
 EXCEPTION_SKIP_EXECUTION
 EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_SEARCH
 EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_EXECUTION
 EXCEPTION_SKIP_SEARCH
161. If the filter-expression was set to continue the execution but it is not
possible to continue, then ______ exception code will be returned.
 EXECUTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXCEPTION
 EXECUTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXECUTION
 EXECPTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXCEPTION
 EXECPTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXCUTION
162. _____ exception code is returned if the process attempts to read or
write a virtual address for which it has no access rights
 EXCEPTION-INTEGERS-VOILATION
 EXCEPTION-INTEGERS-BREACH
 EXCEPTION-ACCESS-VOILATION
 EXCEPTION-INTEGERS-BREACH
163. SHE is not supported through_______
 Run time support
 Windows function
 Compiler supported language extensions
 Windows registry
164. The filter-expression in the _____ clause is evaluated immediately
after the exception occurs.
 -try
 -catch
 -except
 -finaly
165. The value of the ____ determine actions that follow
 Filter-except
 Filter-expression
 Filter-try

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 Filter-search
166. ______ function is used to clear the floating-point exception after it is
processed.
 _clear()
 _clearfp()
 _clean()
 _cls()
167. Programs can raise their own exception using the____ function
 BuildException
 RaiseException
 Createexception
 GenException
168. RaiseException has _____ parameters.
4
2
5
3
169. The exception handler is actually a code portion associated with
_____ block.
 -finally
 -try
 -except
 -catch
170. The new value of floating point mask is determined by its value _____
and its two arguments.
 Current-value
 C-value
 Current-mask
 Current-val
171. The ______ function terminates the process if the program indicates
that the error is fatal.
 Report handle()
 Terminate handle()

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 Terminate process()
 Report error()
172. SIGSEGV error can only be generated bt ____ but not by ____
 Windows, Raise
 Linux, macos
 Windows, linux
 Raise windows
173. A single try block must have a single ____ or _____ block
 Terminate, Except
 Finally, Except
 Finally, continue
 Terminate, finally
174. ____ function is used within the termination handle to check how the
try block is terminated
 Check termination()
 Check handle()
 Check termination
 Abnormal termination
175. ReportException() function have _____ arguments.
3
4
2
5
176. Second arguments of ReportException()function is _____
 Exception code
 Exception handle
 Exception address
 Exception name
177. The process or thread can terminate itself using ____ or ___ functions.
 Terminate process(), Exist thread()
 Terminate process(), Terminate thread()
 Exist process(), Exist thread()
 Exist thread(), Terminate thread()

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178. The termination handler cannot axecute the____ statement
 Break
 Report
 Continue
 Retur
179. C ++ execution handling is implemented using____
 SCH
 ECH
 ESH
 SEH
180. A filter function ____ the type of n exception.
 Restrick
 Evaluates
 Exclude
 Identifies
181. The _____ exception are enabled with the help of controlfp() function
 Floating point
 String
 Mutex
 Integer
182. ecategory is a/an _____
 Reference variable
 Simple variable
 Class
 Pointer
183. Which of the following in the number of parameters takes by
controlpf() function
3
4
1
2
184. Which of the following in the number of parameters takes by filter
function

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1
2
3
4
185. Which of the following instruction is used to suspend the execution of
a program for 5 milliseconds?
 Sleep(500)
 Sleep(5000)
 Sleep(5)
 Sleep(0.5)
186. Which of the following functions is used to generate a sound beep for
0.7 seconds with the frequency if 750?
 Beep (750,800)
 Beep(700,750)
 Beep(750,700)
 Beep(750,0.7)
187. A program can be terminated by passing____ from keyboard
 Ctrl +p
 Ctrl +N
 Ctrl +C
 Ctrl +Z
188. The return type of WINAPI Handler() function if _____
 Void
 Static integer
 Static bool
 Static float
189. Correct Syntax of getcurrentdirectory()___
 lenCurDir = GetCurrentDirectory (DIRNAME_LEN, pwdBuffer)
 lenCurDir = GetCurrentDirectory (pwdBuffer, DIRNAME_LEN)
 lenCurDir = GetCurrentDirectory (DIRNAME_LEN)
 NONE

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 CS609- SYSTEM
PROGRAMMING
(SOLVED MCQs)
FROM MIDTERM PAPERS
(1 to 92 TOPICS)

[email protected] For More Visit: vulmshelp.com

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ALL MCQS ARE CONFIRMED IF ANY ISSUE THE CORRECT
ACCORDINGLY
1. Which of the following tasks is not performed by the operating system?
❖ Multitasking
❖ Memory Management
❖ File Management
❖ Hardware repairing
1. Windows operating system allows us to run a huge process in a small memory space
due to
❖ Efficient primary memory management
❖ Flexibility naming scheme for resources
❖ High processing speed of processor
❖ Virtual memory management
2. To provide an interface between the user and computer, a system is required which is
called_______
❖ Application software
❖ Operating system
❖ Customized software
❖ Both application and customized software
3. A process-1 in windows operating system can access the momery space of process-2 if
_______
❖ Process-1 has no privilege to access memory space of other processes
❖ Both processes have same ID
❖ Process-1 loaded in the same space as process-2
❖ Process-1 has privilege to access memory space of other processes.

4. Windows operating system provides a naming scheme for the resources which allows
maximum character only
❖ 255
❖ 16
❖ 55
❖ 155
5. DOS was a _______ operating system.
❖ GUI based
❖ Command line

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❖ Real time
❖ Multitasking
6. API stands for ______.
❖ Application programming interface
❖ Advance programming interface
❖ Application programming integrity
❖ Application programs interoperability.
7. Which operating system was offered by Microsoft that was used prior to windows
❖ LINUX
❖ UNIX
❖ Solaris
❖ Dos
8. Which of the following theme is not consider while introducing the new version of
windows?
❖ Enhanced API
❖ Scalability
❖ Performance
❖ Increasing cost
9. Which version of windows is used for mobile devices
❖ Windows ME
❖ Windows CE
❖ Windows vista
❖ Windows server
10.In 2021, which of the following desktop operating systems was widely used in the
world market?
❖ Windows
❖ Fedora
❖ Salaris
❖ Linux
11.Using _____ commands can be issued to the system through icons, buttons, shortcuts,
sound etc.
❖ Result- driven interface
❖ Graphical user interface
❖ Menu-driven interface only
❖ Command only
12.One of the major causes of windows dominance in PC’s market is its

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❖ User-friendly GUI
❖ Best security features
❖ Feature of multitasking
❖ Best marketing strategy
13.Which statement is not correct about the windows operating system
❖ It can only be used in desktop system
❖ It supports both 32&64-bit architecture
❖ It supports voice commands
❖ It supports diverse hardware platforms
14.Which statement is incorrect about open source software?
❖ Paid license is required for it use
❖ Changes can be made by the general public
❖ Source code is freely available
❖ It is publicly available
15.Choose the major drawback of a closed source software
❖ Not affordable by the user
❖ Not customizable
❖ Not freely available to download
❖ Neither affordable, customizable, nor freely available for download
16.Example of a closed source software is _______
❖ Linux
❖ Windows OS
❖ Chrome browser
❖ Fedora
17.A uniform extension is software components is possible in ___ software.
❖ Vender specific
❖ Open source
❖ Community source
❖ Both open and closed
18.A socket on end-point is required only if
❖ Processor tries to write on internal hard disk
❖ Two processes communication over network
❖ A process needs a resource
❖ Process needs to access main memory
19.DWORD data type represents ______
❖ 32 bit unsigned integer

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❖ 32 bit signed integer
❖ 16 bit unsigned integer
❖ 16 bit signed integer
20.A software or application can access any windows object ______
❖ Directly
❖ Directly and through API as well
❖ Through API only
❖ Not directly nor through API
21.Windows datatype LPTSTR
❖ Long pointer to TSTR
❖ Last pointer to TSTR
❖ Last pointer to string
❖ Long pointer to STR
22.Each windows API has a _____ number of parameters.
❖ Fixed
❖ Two
❖ Variable
❖ Four
23.Which statement is true about a multi- threading process?
❖ A process has one or more threads
❖ A process has only one thread
❖ A thread has only one process
❖ A thread can be created without process
24.Windows supports both the 32 and 64-bit source code by _____
❖ Keeping separate API’s for 32 and 64-bit code
❖ Converting 32-bit into 64-bit code
❖ Converting 64-bit into 32-bit code
❖ Keeping separate compilers for each hardware
25.Windows operating system keeps _____ version of each API
❖ Two
❖ One
❖ Complied
❖ Interpreted
26.Which statement is incorrect about the 32-bit source code?
❖ It runs on 64-bit hardware and can use its all features
❖ It has its own windows API

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❖ It does not support large disk space
❖ It runs on 64-bit hardware
27.Choose the appropriate advantage of C source code that uses C standard function
❖ Can access advance windows features
❖ Portable source code
❖ Runs on windows platform only
❖ Runs without making system calls to windows API’s.
28.Choose the correct option for a source code that uses only windows API instead of C
library functions.
❖ Source code can only access some features of windows
❖ Source code will not remain portable
❖ Source code cannot be complied
❖ Source code is portable
29.Which statement is true about fopen () function in C?
❖ It opens the existing file and not exists it creats a new file
❖ It opens the file only writing
❖ It opens the file only reading
❖ It opens the file only existing
30.fopen() function in C returns ____ if the file is not successfully opened
❖ Zero value
❖ Point to a file
❖ NULL value
❖ Neither NULL nor Zero
31.Open file objects using C library functions are identified by _____
❖ Pointer to a file structure
❖ Buffer
❖ Handle
❖ Both buffer and handle
32. A successfully read using fread() function in C is indicated by a ____ return value.
❖ Non-negative
❖ Zero
❖ Negative
❖ Boolean
33.What the following C statement represents; FILE *ptr;
❖ Pointer to a file structure
❖ Pointer to a character

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❖ Pointer to a integer
❖ Pointer to a binary number
34. The return type of readfile() and writefile() is___________.
❖ DROWD
❖ BOOL
❖ HANDLE
❖ INT
35.Which statement is true about createfile() function
❖ DWORD
❖ BOOL
❖ HANDLE
❖ INT
36.Which statement is true about createfile() function
❖ It open the existing file or creating a new file
❖ It is not used for opening a file
❖ It opens or create a file only for generic read
❖ It opens or create a file only for generic write
37.LPWSTR stand for
❖ Last pointer to wide string
❖ Long pointer to wind string
❖ Long pointer with string
❖ Last pointer to string
38. The return type of malloc() function in C can be
❖ Pointer to allocate space or NULL
❖ Linked list
❖ NULL only
❖ An array
39.Which statement is correct about the convenience function?
❖ It does not improve overall performance
❖ It takes considerable time in execution
❖ It performs a small task
❖ A big task is performed a single API
40.UDF stands for
❖ Universal driven format
❖ Universal disk file
❖ Universal driven file

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❖ Universal disk format
41.Which option is not related to the NT file system
❖ Compression
❖ Encryption
❖ File size limitation
❖ Fault tolerance
42.Which feature of NTFS related to data security?
❖ Large file name mechanism
❖ Encryption
❖ File allocation table
❖ Compression
43.Keeping in view the support for huge fole size, which file system is more favorable?
❖ NTFS
❖ FAT16
❖ FAT32
❖ FAT8
44.NTFS stand for ______
❖ New trend file system
❖ New technology file system
❖ New trend for system
❖ New technology for system
45.Which special symbol can be used in windows filename?
❖ Pipe
❖ Forward slash
❖ Backward slash
❖ Underscore
46.The path name of a remote resource of server starts with ____ symbol.
❖ Forward slash
❖ Pipe
❖ Double back slash
❖ Black slash
47.In the windows file system, which symbol can be used as a path separator?
❖ Pipe symbol
❖ Back slash only
❖ Both forward and backward
❖ Forward slash only

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48.The file extension usually contains _____ characters.
❖ 5 to 8
❖ 2 to 4
❖ 1 to 2
❖ 1 to 3
49.In windows file system, the extension and file name is separated by _________.
❖ |
❖ Dot(.)
❖ \
❖ /
50.The name of windows API used for opening and creating a new file is
❖ CreateFile()
❖ OpenFile()
❖ CreateopenFile()
❖ ReopenFile()
51.The return type of create file() function is.
❖ NULL
❖ A handle to an open file or INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE
❖ INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE
❖ Always handle to run open file object
52.In FILE_SHARE_READ mode, the file is shared for ______
❖ Concurrent read and write by multiple process
❖ Concurrent read and write by a single process
❖ Concurrent read by single process
❖ Concurrent read by multiple process
53.In the createfile() function, if the same name file already exists when the attributes, create,
Always is used to
❖ Delete the existing file and create a new file
❖ Delete the existing file
❖ Over write an existing file
❖ Create an existing file
54.In the createFile() function, which statement is true about open_existing attribute if the
file does not exist.
❖ It will create an existing file
❖ It will open some other file insteated of specified file
❖ It will fail to open the new file

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❖ It will create a new file
55.The windows API ______ is used to read data from a file and store it in a buffer.
❖ Create File()
❖ Copy file()
❖ Read file()
❖ Write file()
56.If the file is not opened in concurrent mode, then ReadFile() API. ReadFile()API starts
reading from the ______
❖ Backup file
❖ Start file
❖ End of file
❖ Current file
57.If we want to read 1000 bytes from a file with ReadFile() function but there are actually
only 400 bytes in a file then _______
❖ Read operation will fail
❖ 400 bytes will be read
❖ 1000 bytes will be read
❖ Exception will be thrown
58.The windows API _______ is used to write data from a better and store it in a file
❖ Create file
❖ Copy file
❖ Read file
❖ Write file
59.The return type of writeFile() function is
❖ BOOL
❖ DWORD
❖ LPDWORD
❖ LPOVERLAPPED
60.A Unicode word consists of ______ bits
❖ 24
❖ 32
❖ 16
❖ 8
61.In Unicode formate, _____ number of character can be encoded.
❖ 2
❖ 2

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❖ 2
❖ 2
62.The latest version of windows supports _______ standard.
❖ ASCII
❖ Unicode
❖ Scan codes
❖ Both ASCII and Unicode
63.TCHAR is a/ an _______ type variable.
❖ ASCII
❖ Generic
❖ Unicode
❖ Both ASCII and Unicode
64._stprintf() is a/ an ______ c library function.
❖ Both ASCII and Unicode
❖ Generic
❖ Unicode
❖ ASCII
65._tcscmp() is _____ function to compare the string
❖ An ASCII
❖ A Unicode
❖ Not a generic
❖ A generic
66.Which one is the correct definition of generic main() function?
❖ int _tmain(int argc, LPTSTR argv[])
❖ Int main
❖ Int main
❖ Int_main
67.All generic data types are include ____ header file.
❖ <tchar.h>
❖ <string.h>
❖ <windows.h>
❖ <char.h>
68.All generic functions are include in _____ header file
❖ <string.h>
❖ <windows.h>
❖ <char.h>

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❖ <tchar.h>
69.TextOutW() is _____ bit API and it supports ____ standard.
❖ 32,Generic
❖ 32,ASCII
❖ 32,Unicode
❖ 16,Unicode
70.The standard C library function atio() supports _____
❖ Generic code
❖ Unicode
❖ 128-bit character code
❖ 8-bit character code
71.To switch between 8-bit character code and standard Unicode ____ functions and data
type are required.
❖ Generic
❖ Non-generic
❖ Unicode
❖ 8-bit
72.Developing generic code needs extra effort but provides maximum ____
❖ Productivity
❖ User-friendly look
❖ Chance of errors
❖ Flexibility
73.What is the return value of GetlastError() function?
❖ It returns error code for last error
❖ It returns a formatted message for last error
❖ It takes input message from user and returns
❖ It returns error message for the last error
74.Which windows API is used to return a system error code?
❖ Geterror()
❖ Format message ()
❖ Get last error()
❖ Both geterror() and format Message()
75.Which header file includes all the Unicode macros for setting environment of a program?
❖ <everything.h>
❖ <environment.h>
❖ <tchar.h>

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❖ <windows.h>
76.There are _____number of standard I/O devices in a windows system.
❖ Five
❖ Three
❖ Two
❖ Four
77.In a windows system, input ____ and _____ are three standard I/O devices.
❖ Error, correction
❖ Output, display
❖ Display, error
❖ Output, error
78.On execution, HANDLE_GetstHandle(DWORDnst Handle) will return a valid handle in
case of
❖ Passing invalid parameters
❖ Success
❖ Exception
❖ Failure
79.STD_INPUT_HANDLE macro contains a variable, CONIN$,which is a/an ______.
❖ Input variable
❖ Default variable
❖ Environment variable
❖ Console variable
80.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE contains _____ as an environment variable.
❖ CONIN$
❖ CONOUT$
❖ CONPRNT$
❖ CONDIS$
81.Option () function takes ______ parameters.
❖ 3
❖ 4
❖ 5
❖ Variable
82.Catfile() function takes ______ parameters.
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4

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❖ 2
83.______ empire is considered to be pioneers of encryption as they used basic encryption
algorithms to encrypt secret conversation in a war.
❖ Persian
❖ Chines
❖ Roman
❖ Mughal
84.Roman empire use _____ algorithm to encrypt secret conversation.
❖ CTR
❖ Ceaser cipher
❖ Brute force
❖ Cryto graph
85.The text that we are going to encrypt is called ____ test so it is denoted by
❖ Personal, p
❖ Secret, w
❖ Proposed, p
❖ Plain, p
86.We represent that text by the symbol _____ in the encryption formula.
❖ E
❖ B
❖ A
❖ C
87.The formula of ceaser chopper is ______
❖ C = (E + W)mod26
❖ E = (P +n) mod27
❖ E = (D +n)mod27
❖ C = (P + n) mod26
88.We use MoveFileEx() to ____ the existing file
❖ Copy
❖ Rename
❖ Over write
❖ Delete
89.Which statement is true about hard copy function?
❖ Both the files must not be on same system volume.
❖ Both the files must be in encrypted form
❖ Creates a hard link for copy file

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❖ Security attributes will apply on new file name
90.deleteFile() function takes _____ parameter.
❖ 4
❖ 1
❖ 2
❖ 3
91.Which of the following API is used for coping a file?
❖ CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR IPNewFileName, bool
bfailExists);
❖ Char CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR IPNewFileName, bool
bfailExists);
❖ Bool CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR IPNewFileName, bool
bfailExists);
❖ String CopyFile(LPCTSTRIPExistingFileName,LPCTSTR IPNewFileName, bool
bfailExists);
92.Correct syntax of MoveFile() function is ______
❖ Bool Move (LIPCTSTR lpNewName, LPCTSTR lpExistingFileName);
❖ Bool Move (LIPCTSTR lpNewName, LPCTSTR lpNewFileName);
❖ Bool MoveFile (LIPCSTR lpExistingFileName, LPCTSTR lpExistingNewName);
❖ Bool Move (bool lpNewName, LIPCTSTR LPCTSTR lpExistingFileName);
93.RemoveDirectory() function takes ______parameter(s)
❖ 1
❖ 4
❖ 3
❖ 2
94.Set currentDirectory() function takes ______ parameter(s)
❖ 2
❖ 1
❖ 4
❖ 3
95.Return type of GetcurrentDirectory() function is ()
❖ Int
❖ Bool
❖ String
❖ DWORD
96.createDirectory() function takes _____ parameter(s)

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❖ 4
❖ 3
❖ 1
❖ 2
97.deleteFiles() function takes ______ parameter(s)
❖ 1
❖ 4
❖ 3
❖ 2
98.Return type of printMsg() function is ______
❖ DWORD
❖ CHAR
❖ BOOL
❖ WORD
99.Return type of printString() function is ______
❖ DWORD
❖ CHAR
❖ BOOL
❖ WORD
100. Correct syntax for create console input file is
❖ hln = createFile(_T(“CONOUT$”), GENERIC_READ&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
❖ hln = createFile(_T(“CONOUT$”), GENERIC_READ,1
GENERIC_WRITE,0&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
❖ hln = createFile(_T(“CONIN$”), GENERIC_READ,1
GENERIC_WRITE,0&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
❖ prohln = createFile(_T(“CONIN$”), GENERIC_READ,1
GENERIC_WRITE,0&NULL, OPEN_ALWAYS,
FILE_ATTRIBURT_NORMALNULL);
101. consoleprompt() function takes _____ parameter(s)
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4
102. Current syntax of Get currentDirectort() function is _____

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❖ lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(DIRNAME_LEN,PwdBuffer);
❖ lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(DIRNAME_LEN);
❖ lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(DIRNAME_LEN);
❖ lencurDir =GetcurrentDirectory(PwdBuffer);
103. Get currentDirectory() function takes _____ parameter(s)
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4
104. Return type of prontMsg() function is ______
❖ WORD
❖ BOOL
❖ CHAR
❖ DWORD
105. Get Directory() function takes _____ parameter(s)
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4
106. In NTPS based system ______ is the maximum allowed size for a single file
❖ 2
❖ 2
❖ 2
❖ 2
107. FAT 32 based system ______ is the maximum allowed size for a single file
❖ 2
❖ 2
❖ 2
❖ 2
108. setFilepointer() function takes _____ parameter(s)
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4
109. PLONG is a _____
❖ Pointer to a long variable

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❖ String
❖ Variable
❖ Pointer to a string
110. Return type of setFilePointerEx() is _____
❖ String
❖ Bool
❖ Word
❖ DWORD
111. In setfilepointer() function, lpNewFilePointer parameter is placed is a/an
❖ Handle
❖ PLARGE_INTEGER
❖ DWORD
❖ LARGE_INTEGER
112. In setFilePoiter() function, distance to move parameter is placed in
❖ DWORD
❖ Handle
❖ PLARGE_INTEGER
❖ LARGE_INTEGER
113. There are ______ components of a LARGE integer
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 4
❖ 5
114. In the Overlapped structure, ULONG_PTR internal is a _____field.
❖ DWORD
❖ Integer
❖ Pointer
❖ Reserved
115. Overlap structure is a structure which is defined in the _____ header file
❖ Window.h
❖ Stdary.h
❖ Everything.h
❖ Stdio.h
116. In the overlapped structure the data type of ofsetand offsethigh is
❖ DWORD
❖ WORD

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❖ INT
❖ BOOL
117. EOF is short form of _____
❖ Erase of file
❖ End of file
❖ End of folder
❖ Erase of folder
118. Return types of getfilesizeEx() is _____
❖ Bool
❖ Char
❖ Int
❖ DWORD
119. To reduce the filesize we use _____ windows API.
❖ Setfilesize()
❖ Changefilesize()
❖ SetendoffileEx()
❖ setfileEx()
120. File size cn be obtained using the ____ windows API.
❖ GetFileSizwEx()
❖ FileSizeExGet()
❖ GetFileSize()
❖ FileSize()
121. In the RECORD structure, datatype of numRecord is _____
❖ DWORD omponents of a LARG
❖ BOOL
❖ Double
❖ Int
122. In the RECORD structure, datatype of numNonemptyRecord is _____
❖ DWORD
❖ BOOL
❖ Double
❖ Int
123. What will be next code statement, if the following if statement id true? If
(!setFilePointer Ex(nfilecurrentptr, NULL,FILE_BEGIN))
❖ RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: writeFile header”.)4,TRUE);
❖ RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: writeFile header”.)6,TRUE);

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❖ RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: setpointer”.)4,TRUE);
❖ RepotError(_T(“RecordAccessError: set End of File”.)5,TRUE);
124. What will be next code statement, if the following if statement is true? If
(!readFile(hFile& header, size of(Header),&nXfer,&ovzero))
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set End of File.”),5,TRUE);
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set pointer.”),4,TRUE);
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:write File header.”),4,TRUE);
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:readFile header.”),6,TRUE);

125. During searching files/folders, a data structure ______ is used to store the
information about a found file or directory
❖ Directory -64
❖ Attribute
❖ Directory -32
❖ WIN32_FIND DATA
126. What will be next code statement, if the following if statement is true? If
(!writeFile(hFile& header, size of(Header),&nXfer,&ovzero))
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set End of header.”),6,TRUE);
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:set pointer.”),4,TRUE);
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:write File header.”),5,TRUE);
❖ ReportError (_T(“RecordAccessError:readFile header.”),4,TRUE);
127. The number of arguments required for Findclose()API is ____
❖ 3
❖ 1
❖ 2
❖ 0
128. The field flastAccessTime in a WIN32-FIND-DATA structure is used to represent
a time when a file was ______ time accessed
❖ Closing
❖ Last
❖ First
❖ Second ;last
129. Using GetFileTime() API argument(s) is/are provided.
❖ Both creation and last access time
❖ Only last access time
❖ Creation, last access and last write time

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❖ Only creation time
130. GetFileAttribute() API need ____ argument(s) to return the attributes of a file or
directory
❖ 1
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 0
131. compareFileTime() API returns _____ if both the file time are equal
❖ 0
❖ 2
❖ 1
❖ -1
132. The ____________ exceptions are enabled with the help of controlfp function.
 Floating point
133. To start the mapping from the start of a file, set both dwFileOffsetHigh and
dwFileOf
 0
 1
 Nill
 -1
134. Which option is incorrect when the traverseDirectory() API is required to be use?
❖ It allow non-recursive traversal
❖ Recursive and non-recursive traversal option is irrelevant
❖ It allows recursive traversal
❖ It allows both non- recursive and recursive traversal
135. Which of the following is not an argument of the traverse Directory() API
❖ Option for simple listing or recursive processing
❖ Search pattern
❖ Parent path
❖ File creation time
136. In order to deallocate a block of heap,_______is used.
 HeapDelete()
 HeapFree()
 HeapTruncate()
 HeapDestroy()
137. For sequential files, file mapping may reduce the processing time
by________folds as compared to conventional file operations.

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 Nine
 Three
 Six
 Ten
138. Serialization is necessary when concurrent threads use____resource(s).
 Different
 A common
 The remaining
 Extra
139. SEH is Not supporting through__________________
 Windows Registry
 Run-time Support
 Windows function
 Compiler supported languages extensions
140. Which of the following are the number of parameters taken by
OPENFILEMAPPING ()?
 1
 2
 3
 4
141. Console control handlers are similar to__________
 Exception handlers
 Parameters
 Interrupts
 Functions
142. In comparison DLL executable library files are linked at____times.
 Compile
 Load
 Link
 Run
143. Temporary files are assigned an extension ____ and they are used to store ____
❖ .temp,final result
❖ .tmpe,intermediate result
❖ .tmp,intermediate result
❖ .com,intermediate result
144. ______ is not a value argument for setFiletime() function
❖ pModifyTime
❖ NULL

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❖ _T(ame)
❖ _P(accesstime)
145. SetFileTime() function takes a total of________arguments.
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4
❖ 2
146. GetsystemTimeAsFiletime() function receive _____ as an argument.
❖ File array
❖ File pointer
❖ File handle
❖ File objects
147. Which of the following is not a correct argument of options() function
❖ Argc
❖ Argv
❖ _T(amg)
❖ _T(amc)
148. The fseek() C library function uses _____ bit file position
❖ 8
❖ 16
❖ 32
❖ 64
149. For file processing windows provides a propriating function called______
❖ Pseek64()
❖ Fseek()
❖ Fseek64()
❖ Pseek()
150. In MicrosoftUNIX library, all I/O function are named with _____ prefix.
❖ Semicolon
❖ Dot
❖ Underscore
❖ Colon
151. In lockFileEx() function, the OVERLAPPED data structure contains ______ data
members.
❖ 3
❖ 5

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❖ 2
❖ 4
152. File lock can be _____ or ____
❖ Read-only, write-only
❖ Read-only, write-only
❖ Read-locked, write only
❖ Read-only, read-write
153. The read operation does not conflict with the _____
❖ Existing shared lock
❖ Remove operation
❖ Write operation
❖ Existing exclusive lock
154. Before encountering a/an _____ lock, the read or write operation can complete its
request partially
❖ Exclusive lock
❖ Shared lock
❖ Mutually exclusive lock
❖ Conflicting lock
155. If process-A has a shared lock on a file, and process-B tries to read without a
shared lock then the read attempt will _____
❖ Return exception
❖ Succeed
❖ Return a shared lock
❖ Fail
156. UNIX system stores information in _____ directory similar to the registry entry
❖ /etc
❖ /reg
❖ /key
❖ /root
157. Programmers usually access windows build number through _____
❖ Web sockets
❖ Web API
❖ RESI API
❖ Windows API
158. Information about _____ is not present in the registry file.
❖ Power supply

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❖ Chipset
❖ Memory
❖ Processor
159. ______information is present in the registry HKEY_CURRENT_CINFIG.
❖ Display resolution
❖ Process make
❖ Display size
❖ Memory amount
160. The registry HKEY_CURRENT_USER does not contain ____ information.
❖ System fonts
❖ Printers
❖ Environment variable
❖ Application preferences
161. The registry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHNE stores _____ information about the
machine
❖ Physical
❖ Private
❖ Protected
❖ Logical
162. ______function enumerates subkey names of an open registry key.
❖ RegEnumKey()
❖ RegOpenKey()
❖ RegOpenKeyEx()
❖ RegENUMKeyEx()
163. The RegOpenKeyEx() function opens a named____
❖ Instance
❖ Sub key
❖ Key
❖ List
164. The function RegCreateKeyEx() ha ____ parameters.
❖ 8
❖ 7
❖ 9
❖ 6
165. Is Reg() function processes registry keys rather than ____ and ____
❖ Key-value pairs, files

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❖ Key-value pairs, properties
❖ Directories, key-value pairs
❖ Directories, files
166. RegSetvalueEx() function is used to set the data of a ____ value.
❖ Final
❖ Fixed
❖ Named
❖ Static
167. The exception could occur within a _____ embedded in the try block.
❖ List
❖ Function
❖ Constructor
❖ Block
168. If filter_expression returns _____ then windows ignores the exception handler and
searches for an exception handler in the enclosing block.
❖ EXCEPTION_SKIP_EXECUTION
❖ EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_SEARCH
❖ EXCEPTION_CONTINUE_EXECUTION
❖ EXCEPTION_SKIP_SEARCH
169. If the filter-expression was set to continue the execution but it is not possible to
continue, then ______ exception code will be returned.
❖ EXECUTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXCEPTION
❖ EXECUTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXECUTION
❖ EXECPTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXCEPTION
❖ EXECPTION-NONCONTINUABLE-EXCUTION
170. _____ exception code is returned if the process attempts to read or write a virtual
address for which it has no access rights
❖ EXCEPTION-INTEGERS-VOILATION
❖ EXCEPTION-INTEGERS-BREACH
❖ EXCEPTION-ACCESS-VOILATION
❖ EXCEPTION-INTEGERS-BREACH
171. SHE is not supported through_______
❖ Run time support
❖ Windows function
❖ Compiler supported language extensions
❖ Windows registry

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172. The filter-expression in the _____ clause is evaluated immediately after the
exception occurs.
❖ -try
❖ -catch
❖ -except
❖ -finaly
173. The value of the ____ determine actions that follow
❖ Filter-except
❖ Filter-expression
❖ Filter-try
❖ Filter-search
174. ______ function is used to clear clearfp().
❖ _clear()
❖ _clearfp()
❖ _clean()
❖ _cls()
175. Programs can raise their own exception using the____ function
❖ BuildException
❖ RaiseException
❖ Createexception
❖ GenException
176. RaiseException has _____ parameters.
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 5
❖ 3
177. The exception handler is actually a code portion associated with _____ block.
❖ -finally
❖ -try
❖ -except
❖ -catch
178. The new value of floating point mask is determined by its value _____ and its two
arguments.
❖ Current-value
❖ C-value
❖ Current-mask

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❖ Current-val
179. The ______ function terminates the process if the program indicates that the error
is fatal.
❖ Report handle()
❖ Terminate handle()
❖ Terminate process()
❖ Report error()
180. SIGSEGV error can only be generated bt ____ but not by ____
❖ Windows, Raise
❖ Linux, macos
❖ Windows, linux
❖ Raise windows
181. A single try block must have a single ____ or _____ block
❖ Terminate, Except
❖ Finally, Except
❖ Finally, continue
❖ Terminate, finally
182. ____ function is used within the termination handle to check how the try block is
terminated
❖ Check termination()
❖ Check handle()
❖ Check termination
❖ Abnormal termination
183. ReportException() function have _____ arguments.
❖ 3
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 5
184. Second arguments of ReportException()function is _____
❖ Exception code
❖ Exception handle
❖ Exception address
❖ Exception name
185. The process or thread can terminate itself using ____ or ___ functions.
❖ Terminate process(), Exist thread()
❖ Terminate process(), Terminate thread()

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❖ Exist process(), Exist thread()
❖ Exist thread(), Terminate thread()
186. The termination handler cannot axecute the____ statement
❖ Break
❖ Report
❖ Continue
❖ Retur
187. C ++ execution handling is implemented using____
❖ SCH
❖ ECH
❖ ESH
❖ SEH
188. A filter function ____ the type of n exception.
❖ Restrick
❖ Evaluates
❖ Exclude
❖ Identifies
189. The _____ exception are enabled with the help of controlfp() function
❖ Floating point
❖ String
❖ Mutex
❖ Integer
190. ecategory is a/an _____
❖ Reference variable
❖ Simple variable
❖ Class
❖ Pointer
191. Which of the following in the number of parameters takes by controlpf() function
❖ 3
❖ 4
❖ 1
❖ 2
192. Which of the following in the number of parameters takes by filter function
❖ 1
❖ 2
❖ 3

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❖ 4
193. Which of the following instruction is used to suspend the execution of a program
for 5 milliseconds?
❖ Sleep(500)
❖ Sleep(5000)
❖ Sleep(5)
❖ Sleep(0.5)
194. Which of the following functions is used to generate a sound beep for 0.7 seconds
with the frequency if 750?
❖ Beep (750,800)
❖ Beep(700,750)
❖ Beep(750,700)
❖ Beep(750,0.7)
195. A program can be terminated by passing____ from keyboard
❖ Ctrl +p
❖ Ctrl +N
❖ Ctrl +C
❖ Ctrl +Z
196. The return type of WINAPI Handler() function if _____
❖ Void
❖ Static integer
❖ Static bool
❖ Static float
197. #include<io.h> is used for ______
❖ Input output operation
❖ Working in CLI
❖ Memory allocation
❖ Multitasking
198. Windows OS keeps____ version of each API.
❖ One
❖ Interpreted
❖ Two
❖ Complier
199. The options function have ______ arguments
❖ 5
❖ 4

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❖ 7
❖ 6
200. If invalid file handle is passed as a parameter to the closeFile API, then it will
return_______
❖ Empty string
❖ 1
❖ File handle
❖ False value
201. _tcscmp() is ______ function to compare the strings.
❖ A generic
❖ An ASCII
❖ Not a generic
❖ A Unicode
202. There are ______ number of standard input out devices.
❖ 3
❖ 5
❖ 4
❖ 2
203. Every lockfileEx() function that is successful must be followed by a call to
______
❖ DeletelockEx()
❖ RemovelockEx()
❖ UnlatchlockEx()
❖ UnclockfileEx()
204. Try and catch keywords _____ required for vectored exception handlers.
❖ Are not
❖ Are
❖ Must be
❖ Are accasionally
205. In the context of vectored exception handling the zero value of firsthandler
parameters shows that the handler being used wil be the _____ one to execute.
❖ Third
❖ Last
❖ Second
❖ First

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206. In the vectored exception handler, the value of firsthandler parameter specific the
_____ in which the handler will execute.
❖ Order
❖ Speed
❖ Allocation of stack
❖ Accuracy
207. Windows checks for a vectored exception handler at the _____ place when a
vectored is set up followed by unwinding the stack.
❖ Second
❖ Third
❖ First
❖ Fourth
208. In the context of vectored exception handling the non-zero value of firsthandler
parameters shows that the handler being used wil be the _____ one to execute.
❖ Third
❖ Last
❖ Second
❖ First
209. Which of the following is a Static data structure?
❖ Circular array
❖ Array
❖ Tree
❖ Union
210. Identify the advantages provided by memory mapped files.
❖ Convenience, collision, octection and memory sharing
❖ Exception handling, speed and memory sharing
❖ Convenience, speed and usability
❖ Convenience, speed and memory sharing
211. Windows mainly uses _____ API.
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 3
❖ 1
212. In win32_____ of the virtual space is accessible to a process and the remaining
space is utilize by the system for other tasks
❖ One quarter

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❖ Half
❖ Two third
❖ Three quarter
213. The virtual space of process ____ be larger than the physical memory space.
❖ Should always
❖ Cannot
❖ Must
❖ May
214. Which of the following occurs as a result of excessive page fault in
❖ Decreased system performance
❖ Increased utilization of I/O ports
❖ Decreased utilization of I/O ports
❖ Increased system performance
215. When the required page is not in the memory then a _______ occurs.
❖ Page fault
❖ Dirty frame
❖ Page error
❖ Frame fault
216. The translation of a virtual address int physical address is managed by the ______
❖ Offset addressing
❖ Operating system
❖ Device driver
❖ Transport layers
217. Pages are swapped in and out when a_____ occurs.
❖ Page fault
❖ Frame fault
❖ Page error
❖ Dirty frame
218. Which of the following is a dynamic data structure.
❖ Circular array
❖ Tree
❖ Union
❖ Array
219. A process can have _____ heap(s).
❖ Only once
❖ Only two

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❖ Many
❖ At the most two
220. When a fixed size data structure is allocated from a single heap, it reduces_____
❖ Fragmentation
❖ Errors
❖ Memory density
❖ Throughput
221. The heapReAlloc() API has _____ parameter(s).
❖ 4
❖ 1
❖ 3
❖ 2
222. The heapAlloc() API has _____ parameter(s).
❖ 3
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 1
223. When a heap (logical structure) is created the memory is _____ allocated at the
program.
❖ Partially
❖ Completely
❖ Not directly
❖ Directly
224. ______ are the APIs for heap memory allocation.
❖ Heapcreate ()and HeapRealloc()
❖ Allocheap () and HeapRealloc()
❖ HeapAlloc() and HeapRealloc()
❖ HeapAlloc() and HeapRealloc()
225. For a non growable heap, the value of dwbytes in heap memory alloction is
_______
❖ 0*7FEE8
❖ 0*7FDD8
❖ 0*AAAA8
❖ 0*7FFF8
226. _____ is the first step to allocate heap in a program.
❖ HeapDestroy()

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❖ HeapFree()
❖ Release and handle
❖ Get heap handle
227. The function heapSize() returns the size of a block, or ______ in case failure.
❖ NULL
❖ 1
❖ -1
❖ 0
228. _____ is used to deallocate the entire heap.
❖ HeapDestroy()
❖ HeapFree()
❖ HeapTruncate()
❖ HeapDelete()
229. Sorting is performed in the _____
❖ RootHeap
❖ RecHeap
❖ ProcHeap
❖ NodeHeap
230. _______ stores the root address.
❖ RootHeap
❖ RecHeap
❖ ProcHeap
❖ NodHeap
231. The NodeHeap maintains a ______
❖ Data
❖ Data structure
❖ Record
❖ Root
232. There are _____ parameters taken by the HeapCreate() API.
❖ 3
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 1
233. Which of the following is the correct windows API for accessing heap?
❖ INT GetProcessHeap(VOID)
❖ VOID GetProcessHeap(HANDLE)

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❖ HANDLE GetProcessHeap(VOID)
❖ INT*GetProcessHeap(VOID)
234. When a fixed size data structure is allocated from a single heap, it reduces ______
❖ Memory density
❖ Errors
❖ Throughput
❖ Fragmentation
235. The parameters “flOption” in the HeapCreate() API is a combination of ______
flafs.
❖ 1
❖ 2
❖ 4
❖ 3
236. While using CreateFileMapping(), ______ allow the mapping object to be
secured.
❖ INVALID_VALUES
❖ PSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES
❖ LPSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES
❖ INVALID_HANDLE_VALUES
237. While using CreateFileMapping(),setting lpMapName to _____ disables the map
sharing.
❖ -1
❖ NULL
❖ 0
❖ 1
238. ______ is the API for file mapping objects.
❖ Create_File_Mapping()
❖ CreateFileMapping()
❖ FileCreateMapping()
❖ MakeFileMapping()
239. Which of the following are the number of parameters taken by
CreateFileMapping()?
❖ 7
❖ 6
❖ 5
❖ 4

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240. The _______-- flag is set to be______ in the CreateProcess() function, which will
determine whether child process will inherit copies of parent open handles.
❖ blanheritFlag, TRUE
❖ blnheritHandles, FALSE
❖ blanheritFlag,FALSE
❖ bInheritHandles, TRUE
241. IPC stands for__________.
❖ Information and privacy communication
❖ Inter privacy communication
❖ Information process communication
❖ Inter Process Communication
242. Inherited handles are ________ copies that a parent and child might be accessing.
❖ Connected
❖ Similar
❖ related
❖ Distinct
243. Process IDs are always _______.
❖ Frequent
❖ Repeated
❖ Constant
❖ Unique
244. The process obtains environment and other information from_______ call.
❖ CreateThread()
❖ GetEnvironmentinfo()
❖ Getinfo()
❖ CreateProcess()
245. lpApplicationName handle’s value_____ be NULL.
❖ May not
❖ May
❖ should
❖ Should not
246. In windows there are __________ ways to get command line parameters for a
process.
❖ Five
❖ Four
❖ Two

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❖ Three
247. Windows OS does not have structure that keeps track record of the ______
processes.
❖ Child
❖ Grand –child
❖ Parent
❖ Parent_Child
248. The most fundamental process management function in windows is
CreateProcess() that has_____--- parameters.
❖ 12
❖ 6
❖ 4
❖ 10
249. The process can share memory and files but the process itself lie an individual
____________ memory space .
❖ Non_volatile
❖ Physical
❖ permanent
❖ Virtual
250. Thread Local Storage (TLS) is an array of collection of pointers enabling a thread
to _____ storage to create its unique data environment.
❖ De-allocate
❖ Clear
❖ Re-allocate
❖ Allocate
251. Each thread has its own__________.
❖ TLS
❖ Environment Block
❖ Stack
❖ TLS and Stack
252. The process of DLL detachment in explicit linking is invoke by___________
function call.
❖ Free()
❖ freeLib()
❖ Flibra
❖ FreeLibrary()

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253. Information regarding DLLs is placed in the _________data structure.
❖ dwBuilderNumber
❖ dwPlatform
❖ MAJORVERSION
❖ DLLVERSION
254. LoadLibrary() and LoadLibraryEx() should never be called from_____ as it will
create more DLL entry Points.
❖ ThreadLibrarycalls()
❖ DllMinFunc()
❖ DisableThreadLibraryCalls()
❖ DllMain()
255. LoadLibraryEx() can suppress the execution of entry point, in _____-- linking of
DLL.
❖ Implicit
❖ Static
❖ Dynamic
❖ Explicit
256. “Application that require newer updated functionality may sometime link with
older DLL version”. This statement refers to ______ of DLL versioning
❖ Strength
❖ Advantages
❖ Caution
❖ Problem
257. If entry point of DLL is not specified, then it is an example of ______-- linking.\
❖ Explicit
❖ Dynamic
❖ Hard
❖ Implicit
258. In case of____________ linking the DLL attaches at the time of process start and
detaches when process ends
❖ Explicit
❖ Dynamic
❖ Hard
❖ Implicit
259. Explicit linking requires the program to explicitly specify the DLL to be
________________.

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❖ Freed
❖ Loaded
❖ Loaded and freed
❖ Ans: Loaded or freed
260. In a pointer function declaration for DLL explicit linking, HMODULE is NULL
in case of_________.
❖ Execution
❖ Waiting
❖ success
❖ Failure
261. Once the DLL is loaded, the programmer needs to obtain _________ into the
DLL for an entry point.
❖ Dynamic address
❖ Physical address
❖ Bus address
❖ Procedure Address
262. We write and ____________ function in DLL and invoke them explicitly
❖ Compile
❖ Encrypt
❖ decrypt
❖ Encapsulate
263. In DLLs the executable library files are linked at___________ time
❖ . Ans: Compile
264. Each DLL program will have its own copy of _______ variables.
❖ Ans: Globle
265. In________ operating system DLLs are used to invoke all kernel services.
❖ Ans: Windows
266. Dynamic memory is allocated from the
❖ Cache
❖ Paging file
❖ Stack
❖ Static memory
267. Which of the following is recommended to use while dealing with memory
mapped file to look for EXCEPTION_IN_PAGE_ERROR exception?
❖ ESH exception handling
❖ SHE exception handling

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❖ HE exception handling
❖ HES exception handling
268. To create a file mapping object, we have to declare _________ maximum
parameters>
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 6
❖ 8
269. It is not possible for a system to map a file greater than __________ Into virtual
memory space, while using Win32 OS.
❖ 2GB
❖ 3MB
❖ 3GB
❖ 2MB
270. It is much_______- to sort large data available in memory rather than in files.
❖ Harder
❖ Costly
❖ Unyielding
❖ Easier
271. qsort() is a _________ function.
❖ Standard library
❖ EXE
❖ Windows DLL
❖ User defined
272. When we create a file mapped object for sorting 1000 numbers in a file recorder
will be saved in a/an______________-.
❖ Heap
❖ Stack
❖ Queue
❖ Array
273. Which of the following are the number of parameters taken by MapViewFile()?
❖ 2
❖ 4
❖ 3
❖ 5

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274. While using MapViewOfFile(), which of the following are the three commonly
used flags?
❖ FILE_WRITE, FILE_READ, AND FILE_ALL_ACCESS
❖ FILE_MAP_WRITE, FILE_MAP_READ,AND FILE_MAP_ALL_ACCESS
❖ MAP_WRITE,MAP_READ, AND MAP_AL_ACCESS
❖ WRITE, READ, AND ALL_ACCESS
275. _______ and _____ specify the starting address of the file from where the
mapping starts.
❖ High, low
❖ dwFileHigh,dwFileLow
❖ dwFileOffsetHigh, dwFileOffsetLow
❖ dbFileOffsetHigh, dbFileOffsetLow
276. unmapViewOfFile() takes _______argument(s)
❖ 2
❖ 0
❖ 4
❖ 3
277. ______ Is the API for file mapping objects.
❖ MakeFileMapping()
❖ CreateFileMapping()
❖ FilecreateMapping()
❖ Create_file_Mapping()
278. While using CreateFileMapping(),_________ refers to the paging file.
❖ LPSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES
❖ PSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES
❖ INVALID_HANDLE_VALUES
❖ INVALID_VALUES
279. While using CreatFileMapping(),________ allows the mapping object to be
secured.
❖ LPSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES
❖ PSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES
❖ INVALID_HANDLE_VALUES
❖ INVALID_VALUES
280. While using CreateFileMapping(), setting IpMapName to________ disables the
map sharing.
❖ 0

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❖ 1
❖ -1
❖ NULL
281. DLL stand for
❖ Direct layout library
❖ Dynamic link library
❖ Dynamic layout library
❖ Direct link library
282. The approach to gather all the source code and library functions after
encapsulation into a single executable file, is called as _____
❖ Process linking
❖ Static linking
❖ Dynamic linking
❖ Thread linking
283. Each DLL program will have its own copy of ____ variables.
❖ Global
❖ Local
❖ Dynamic
❖ Static
284. In _____ operating system DLLs are used to invoke all kernel services.
❖ Windows
❖ Unix
❖ Linux
❖ Solaris
285. In DDLs the executable library files are linked at ____ time.
❖ Link
❖ Run
❖ Compile
❖ Load
286. The entry point in DLL defined structure (DWORD) ____ values.
❖ 8
❖ 4
❖ 2
❖ 16
287. ReadFile() and writeFile() functions perform much _____ than memory mapped
file processing

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❖ Slower
❖ Faster
❖ Convenient
❖ Nimble
288. Which of the following controls the paging file?
❖ The pager
❖ Direct memory access
❖ Memory mapped I/o
❖ Virtual memory management system
289. While using memory mapped I/O there is/are ______ to manage buffers for
repetitive operation on the file operations.
❖ Needed
❖ Not needed
❖ Useful
❖ Mandatory
290. In order to make a program more efficient, _____ heap(s) may be required.
❖ partial
❖ only one
❖ several
❖ Minimum number of
291. There are ______ parameters taken by the HeapCreate() API.
❖ 3
❖ 2
❖ 1
❖ 4
292. The parameter “flOptions” in the HeapCreate() API is a combination of ______
flags.
❖ 2
❖ 4
❖ 3
❖ 1
293. A process can have _____ heap(s).
❖ Only two
❖ At the most one
❖ only one
❖ Many

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294. _____ API is used to create a new heap.
❖ createHeap()
❖ HeapCreate()
❖ BuildHeap()
❖ NewHeap()
295. If threads have separate memory space, then it will reduce_____
❖ Memory contention
❖ Access speed
❖ Direct memory access
❖ Memory density
296. _____ is an appropriate API to dispose-off a heap handle.
❖ shudderHandle()
❖ DestroyHandle()
❖ DeleteHeap()
❖ HeapDestroy()

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 Cs-609 Important Mid Term
Mcq’s Solution 100% Correct :
Solve By Vu-Topper RM!!
Question No:1 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
Bit no. ___ of EFLAG is used for alignment check
12
18

Question No:2 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In ___ each byte is needed to be encapsulated in start and end
Synchronous Communication
Asynchronous Communication

Question No:3 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Base address of LPT1 port in BIOS Data Area is ___
08:40
40:08

Question No:4 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

An I/O device cannot be directly connected to the buses so they generally require
a ___ to be placed between the CPU and I/O device
Controller
Pipeline

Question No:5 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

To set the Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) means that to change the ___ sized
interrupt vector within the IVT
Quad Word
Double Word

Question No:6 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

DB25 connector is used to connect ___
Address Bus
PPI

Question No:7 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In self-test mode the output of UART is routed to its input
True
False

Question No:8 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Bit number ___ of port 64H Status register used for input buffer full
0
1

Question No:9 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The device which requires timing signal is called ___
Synchronous
Asynchronous

Question No:11 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The ___ register of Real Time Clock is used to enable interrupt on various events
like alarm time and time-up duration
Status Register A
Status Register B

Question No:12 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

DTE is ___
Data Terminal Equipment
Data Transmitting Equipment

Question No:13 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

First two bytes of any Far address contains ___ address
Segment
Offset

Question No:14 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In the context of Keyboard Interface, ___ means Typematic rate will be sent in
next byte
0xFF
0xF3

Question No:15 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

A software interrupt does not require ___
Memory
EOI(End of Interrupt)

Question No:16 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Keyboard buffer is ___ bytes in size
8
32

Question No:17 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The address of partition block on hard disk is ___
head # = 1, track# = 0 and sector # = 1
head # = 0, track# = 0 and sector # = 0

Question No:18 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

There are ___ main types of serial communication
2
3
Question No:19 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
A code 0xFA on the port 60H (Keyboard Interface) indicates that the byte has
been received ___
Properly
With Errors

Question No:20 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Bit number ___ of port 64H Keyboard Status Register indicate status of Time-Out
error during output
4
6

Question No:21 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Clock status register ___ is main control register
A
B

Question No:22 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

There are differences in mechanism of invocation of interrupt and event driven
procedures
Yes
No

Question No:23 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

A compiled TSR program has ___ extension
.XLS
.C

Question No:24 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

___ interrupt is used to read time from Real Time Clock
1A/02H
1A/03H

Question No:25 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

If UART is running in Self-Test Mode, then all the input from the UART is
directed to the ___
Upper part of the screen
Lower part of the screen

Question No:26 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

We have set the bit No. 7 of IMR (Interrupt Mask Register) to unmask the
Interrupt so that interrupt ___ can occur at ___ line
0xf, IRQ 7
0xa, IRQ 6
Question No:27 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
keep() function has ___ parameters while exit() function has ___ parameters
0, 2
2, 1

Question No:28 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In Keyboard Status Byte, bit no. 2 and 3 are used for CTRL and ALT keys
respectively. Which of the following condition is used to check that CTRL + ALT
keys are pressed Where:
unsigned char far * scr = (unsigned char far *)(0x00400017)
if(((*scr) & 12) == 12)
if(((*scr) & 8) == 8)

Question No:29 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The BIOS data area in memory starts at the address of ___
0020:0000
0040:0000

Question No:30 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Select the correct option that does NOT belong to the uses of I/O Controller
Listen sound tracks from PC headphones
Applying security options on storage media

Question No:31 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The amount of memory above conventional memory can be determined using the
service
15H/88H
13H/88H

Question No:32 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

DMA stands for ___
Direct Memory Access

Question No:33 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Standard PC operates in two modes in terms of memory which are
Real mode and protected mode

Question No:34 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

UART stands for ___
Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

Question No:35 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Usually interrupt procedures are reentrant procedures especially those interrupt
procedure compiled using C language compiler are reentrant
True
Question No:36 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) in short is a ___ bytes sized table
1024

Question No:37 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Hardware Interrupts are ___
Preemptive
Non-Preemptive

Question No:38 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Timer interrupt is a ___
Hardware Interrupt
Software Interrupt

Question No:39 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Int 14H ___ can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM port
Service # 0

Question No:40 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The keyboard makes use of interrupt number ___ for its input operations
9
10

Question No:41 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In case of synchronous communication, a timing signal is required to identify the
start and end of a bit
True
False

Question No:42 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Register can be used to divide frequency is ___
Counter Register
Accumulator Register

Question No:43 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Only ___ ports are important from programming point of view
70 and 71H

Question No:44 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Which port is known as Data Port ___
60H
61H
Question No:45 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
LPTs can be swapped
True
False

Question No:46 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

PPI is used to perform parallel communication
True
False

Question No:47 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

___ is used to control the printer via the BIOS
Int 16H
Int 17H

Question No:48 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

___ bit is cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent
D1
D4

Question No:49 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

DSR stands for ___
Data set ready

Question No:50 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

There are two main types of interrupts namely ___
Hardware interrupts and Software interrupts

Question No:51 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

To set the interrupt vector means to change the double word sized interrupt vector
within IVT
True
False

Question No:52 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The service number is usually placed in the ___ register
AL
AH

Question No:53 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The BIOS interrupt ___ can be used to configure RTC
1AH
2AH

Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM

Question No:54 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
The interval timer can operate in ___ modes
Five
Six

Question No:55 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

___ is Disk interrupt
10H
13H

Question No:56 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

PPI stands for
Peripheral Programmable interface

Question No:57 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Int ___ is used to control the printer via the BIOS
17H
18H

Question No:58 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Counter register can be used to divide clock signal
True
False

Question No:59 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

DCE stands for ___
Data communication equipment

Question No:60 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The bit number ___ of the coprocessor control word is the interrupt enable flag
7
8

Question No:61 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The output on the monitor is controlled by a controller called ___
Video controller
Bus controller

Question No:62 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The keyboard input character scan code is received at ___ port
60H
62H

Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM

Question No:63 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
___ is LED control byte
0xFD
0xED

Question No:64 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

BPB stands for ___
BIOS parameter block

Question No:65 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The function of I/O controller is to provide ___
I/O control signals
All of the given

Question No:66 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

IVT is a table containing ___ byte entries each of which is a far address of an
interrupt service routine
2
4

Question No:67 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Each paragraph in keep function is ___ bytes in size
4
16

Question No:68 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Interrupt 9 usually reads the ___ from keyboard
ASCII code
Scan code

Question No:69 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The _________ function uses the COM port number to receive a byte from the
COM port using BIOS services.
Select correct option:
initialize()
recievechar()

Question No:70 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Int _______ service 0 can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM
port.
Select correct option:
14H
15H

Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM

Question No:71 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
DSR stands for __________
Data set ready
Data service ready

Question No:72 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Int 14H __________ can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM
port.
Service # 0
Service # 1

Question No:73 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

If printer is _____ then printer sends back the ACK signal to the printer interface
idle
busy

Question No:74 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

How many interrupts can be addressed via interrupt vector table?
256

Question No:75 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The speed of Microprocessor depends upon _______.
Frequency of clock signal.

Question No:76 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The UART device uses ______ for error detection.
Parity Bit

Question No:77 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Interrupt _____ is empty; we can use its vector as a flag.
65 H

Question No:78 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

BIOS supports __________ UARTS as COM Ports.
4The Interrupt no. 65H is used ________________.?
Neither by DOS nor by BIOS

Question No:79 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Interrupt 9 is used to read scan code from _________ .
Keyboard

Question No:80 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In interrupt 17H, if DX register contains 2, then I/O will be performed on _____.
LPT1
Question No:81 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
Systems programming is the study of techniques that facilitates the acquisition of
______ from input devices.
Data
Information

Question No:82 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

f we are at address F000:0000H, then we are supposed to invoke interrupt(s) for;
BIOS
COM4

Question No:83 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

NMI (Non maskable Interrupt) is used by ______ .
ALU circuitry which performs division
COM ports

Question No:84 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Select correct Top-down approach sequence of layered approach followed for
system programming.
Hardware -> Bios -> DOS
DOS -> Bios -> Hardware

Question No:85 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In text mode, screen has limit to print ________ alphabets shown on screen
simultaneously.
2000
2200

Question No:86 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

To change the behavior of an interrupt, we have to use function;
Setvect()
Getvect()

Question No:87 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

There are differences in mechanism of invocation of interrupt and event driven
procedures.
Yes
No

Question No:88 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

To access disk interrupt ______ and its service _______ are used.
13H , 3H
13H , 12H

Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM

Question No:89 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
The bit ______ of Line control register in UART, if set, indicates that the DLL
and DLM will act as the divisor register.
7

Question No:90 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

We have set the bit No. 7 of IMR(Interrupt Mask Register) to unmask the
Interrupt so that interrupt _____ can occur at ____ line.
0xf ,IRQ 7
0xa, IRQ 6

Question No:91 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Interrupt ______ is used to get or set the time.
0AH
1AH

Question No:92 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

__________ is used to identify the cause of interrupt.
Interrupt Enable register
Interrupt ID register

Question No:93 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

If we want to produce the shrill voice from the speaker phone then we have to
load the ___ divisor value at Port ___.
High 0x42
High0x22

Question No:94 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

If we want to produce the grave voice from speaker phone then we have to load
the ____ divisor values at Port ___.
High 0x42
Low 0x42

Question No:95 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Every ISR (Interrupt Service Routine) should check service number in _____
register and then perform the function accordingly?
AH

Question No:96 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Total No. of bytes that can be stored in Keyboard Buffer is____.
32

Question No:97 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

_______ is used to program various common parameters of transfer for all the
channels.
DMA Command Register

Question No:98 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In _______ each byte is needed to be encapsulated in start and end.
Asynchronous communication

Question No:99 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

________ No. of bytes are used to store the character in the key board buffer.
2

Question No:100 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

There are two types of communication; synchronous and anti-synchronous
False

Question No:101 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Which of the following register is used, if you want to block access of any
Hardware?
ISR

Question No:102 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

LSN of FS Info block is available at _____.
FAT

Question No:103 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The amount of memory above conventional memory (extended memory) can be
determined using the service _______.
15H/88H

Question No:104 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

_______ is a collection of contagious blocks.
Cluster

Question No:105 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The ______ service # is not used in any interrupt.
FF

Question No:106 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

_______ is used to identify the cause of interrupt.
Interrupt ID register

Question No:107 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In NTFS, FAT and root directory has been replaced by ________.
MFT

Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM

Question No:108 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
Boot sector is the ________ logical sector of NTFS partition.
First

Question No:109 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

A cluster is same as block
Logically

Question No:110 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

DOS has a built-in limit of ________ blocks per cluster.
128

Question No:111 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Total number of clusters of FAT12 are ________.
FEE H

Question No:112 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

BPB stands for ________.
BIOS parameter block

Question No:113 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Drive parameter block is derived from ________.
BPB

Question No:114 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Control information about files is maintained using ______.
FCB

Question No:115 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

n FAT32, lower _______ bits are used.
28 bits

Question No:116 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The service _________ is called the keyboard hook service.
15H/FFH

Question No:117 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

To store a cluster in FAT32 ________ is/are needed.
4 Bytes

Question No:118 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

______ structure is a tree like structure.
DOS Directory

Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM Vu-Topper RM

Question No:119 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM
File can be _______ viewed as organization of data.
Logically

Question No:120 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Control word controls the ________ rate of keyboard.
Type matric

Question No:121 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Size of FS Info block is _______
512 bytes

Question No:122 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

The accumulative time that is required to access the selected block is called
________.
Access time

Question No:123 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

At IRQ7 Interrupt # __________ is used.
x0F

Question No:124 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

______ is the first block on disk
LBA=0 block

Question No:125 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

RESG is a__________.
Union

Question No:126 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

Operating system information is in a special block on disk which is called______
Boot block

Question No:127 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

In the context of COM ports. AH register is treated as a________.
Line status register

Question No:128 (Marks:1) Vu-Topper RM

______register is used to store interrupt service number.
AL
 CS609- System Programming
Solved MCQS May – 19 - 2013
From Midterm Papers

MC100401285 [email protected] [email protected] PSMD01

MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2012
CS609- System Programming

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

DMA stands for_________

►Direct Memory Access (Page 4)

►Distinct Memory Access
►Direct Module Access
►Direct Memory Allocation

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Standard PC operates in two modes in terms of memory which are

►Real mode and Extended Mode

►Base mode and Memory Mode
►None of the given
►Real mode and protected mode (Page 6)

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

UART stands for_______

►Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (Page 107)

►Universal Adjustment and Realigning Tool
►Unconventional Assisted Recovery Team
►None of these

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Usually interrupt procedures are reentrant procedures especially those interrupt procedure compiled using C
language compiler are reentrant.
►True (Page 38)
►False

1
Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
DTE is ____________.

►Data terminal equipment (Page 109)

►Data transmitting equipment
►Dual terminal equipment
►None of the given.

Question No: 6 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) in short is a _______ bytes sized table.

►1024 (Page 10)

►2048
►3072
►4096

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Hardware Interrupts are __________.

►Preemptive
►Non-Preemptive (Page 48)
►Both Preemptive and Non-Preemptive
►None of Given

Question No: 8 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

Timer interrupt is a _________.

►Hardware Interrupt (Page 28)

►Software Interrupt
►Both of these
►None of These

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int 14H __________ can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM port.

►Service # 0 (Page 119)

► Service # 1
►Service # 2
►None of the given options

2
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The keyboard makes use of interrupt number _______ for its input operations.
►9 (Page 34)
►10
►11
►12

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In self test mode the output of the UART is routed to its input.

►True (Page 117)

►False

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In case of synchronous communication a timing signal is required to identify the start and end of a bit.

►True (Page 105)

►False

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Register can be used to divide frequency is _________

►Counter Register (Page 69)

►Accumulator Register
►None of these

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Only ________ ports are important from programming point of view.

► 70 and 71H (Page 141)

►71 and 72H
►70 and 72H
►72 and 73H

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which port is known as Data Port______
►60H (Page 177)
►61H
►64H
►69H

3
Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
LPTs can be swapped.
►True (Page 92)
►False

Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

PPI is used to perform parallel communication
►True (Page 81)
►False

Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

__________is used to control the printer via the BIOS

►Int 16H
►Int 17H (Page 84)
►Int 18H
►Int 19H

Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_____ bit is cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent.

►D1
►D2
►D3
►D4 (Page 104)

Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

DSR stands for __________ .

►Data set ready (Page 111)

►Data service ready
►Data stock ready
►None of the given

4
 MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2010
CS609- System Programming

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

There are two main types of interrupts namely _________________.

►PC based and Window based

►Hardware based and Kernal based
►Hardware interrupts and Software interrupts (Page 10)
►None of the given

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

To set the interrupt vector means is to change the double word sized interrupt vector within the IVT.

►True (Page 22)

►False

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The service number is usually placed in the ________ register.
►AL
►CL
►AH (Page 26)
►AX

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The keyboard makes use of interrupt number _______ for its input operations.
► 9 (Page 34)
►10
►11
►12

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The service _________ is called the keyboard hook service.

►15H/2FH
►15H/4FH (Page 44)
►15H/FFH

5
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The BIOS interrupt ________ can be used to configure RTC.

►1AH (Page 136)

►2AH
►3AH
►4AH

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The interval timer can operate in _______ modes.

►Five
►Seven
►Four
►Six (Page 72)

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

______ is Disk interrupt.
►10H
►11H
►13H (Page 42)
►14H

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

PPI stands for
►Parallel Programmable interface
►Peripheral Programmable interface (Page 76)
►Port Programmable interface
►None of the given

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int ________ is used to control the printer via the BIOS.
►17H (Page 84)
►18H
►20H
►21H

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Counter register can be used to divide clock signal.
►True (Page 69)
►False

6
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
DCE stands for __________.

►Data communication equipment (Page 109)

►Distributed Computing Environment
►Data Communications Equipment
►Data Carrier Equipment

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_________ is used to identify the cause of interrupt.

►Interrupt ID Register (Page 116)

►PC Register
►AC Register
►None of All These

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The bit number _______ of the coprocessor control word is the interrupt enable flag.

►7 (Page 168)
►8
►9
►6

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

There are __________ kinds of serial communication.

►2 (Page 105)
►3
►4
►5

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

________ store the base address for LPT1.

►40:00H
►40:02H
►40:08H (Page 92)
►40:1AH

7
Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The amount of memory above conventional memory (extended memory) can be determined using the service
_______.

►15H/88H (Page 162)

►16H/88H
►17H/88H
►21H/88H

Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The output on the monitor is controlled by a controller called __________within the PC.

►Video controller (Page 30)

►Bus controller
►Ram controller
►None of the given

Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The keyboard input character scan code is received at ___ port.

►60H (Page 179)

►61H
►62H
►63H

Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_______ is LED control byte.

►0xFD
►0xED (Page 181)
►0xFF
►0xEE

8
 MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
CS609- System Programming (Session - 1)

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

There are two main types of interrupts, namely

►PC based and Window based

►Hardware based and Kernal based
►Hardware interrupts and Software interrupts (Page 10) rep
►None of the given

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Standard PC operates in two modes in terms of memory which are

►Real mode and Extended Mode

►Base mode and Memory Mode
►None of the given
►Real mode and protected mode (Page 6) rep

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

BPB stands for _________.
►BIOS parameter block (Page 243)
►BIOS processing block
►Base processing block
►BIOS partition block

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The Function of I/O controller is to provide ____________.

►I/O control signals

►Buffering
►Error Correction and Detection
►All of given (Page 5)

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

IVT is a table containing ______ byte entries each of which is a far address of an interrupt service routine.
►2
►4 (Page 20)
►8
►16

9
Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Each paragraph in keep function is ____ bytes in size.

►4
►8
►16 (Page 24)
►32

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Interrupt 9 usually reads the _________ from keyboard.
►ASCII code
►Scan code (Page 34)
►Both ASCII and Scan code
►None of the above

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A software interrupt does not require EOI (End of interrupt).
►True (Page 49)
►False

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

To store each character in keyboard buffer ____ bytes are required.
►2 (Page 54)
►4
►6
►8

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Interrupt _____ is empty; we can use its vector as a flag.

►9H
►13H
►15H
►65H (Page 65)

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Command register is an _____ bit register

►4
►8 (Page 71)
►16
►32

10
Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The interval timer can operate in ____modes.

►Three
►Four
►Five
►Six (Page 72) rep

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The following command “outportb (0x61,inportb(0x61) | 3);” will ________ .
►Turn on the speaker (Page 74)
►Turn off the speaker
►Toggle the speaker
►None of the above

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The PPI acts as an interface between the CPU and a parallel ________ .
►I/O device (Page 83)
►CPU
►BUS
►None of Given

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

DTE is ____________.
►Data terminal equipment (Page 109) rep
►Data transmitting equipment
►Dual terminal equipment
►None of the given.

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

DSR stands for __________ .

►Data set ready (Page 111) rep

►Data service ready
►Data stock ready
►None of the given

Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In self test mode the output of the UART is routed to its input.

►True (Page 117) rep

►False

11
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Interrupt ______ is used to get or set the time.

►0AH
►1AH (Page 136)
►2AH
►3AH

Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

______ is used to set time.

►1A/02H
►1A/03H (Page 138)
►1A/04H
►1A/05H

Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Communication between keyboard and keyboard controller is __________.

►Asynchronous serial
►Synchronous serial (not sure)
►Parallel communication
►None of the given

MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
CS609- System Programming (Session - 1)

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Following is not a method of I/O

►Programmed I/O
► Interrupt driven I/O
►Hardware Based I/O (Page 4)
►None of given

12
Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The Function of I/O controller is to provide ____________.
►I/O control signals
►Buffering
►Error Correction and Detection
►All of given (Page 5) rep

Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Which of the following are types of ISR __________.

►BIOS (Basic I/O service ) ISR

►DOS ISR
►ISR provided by third party device drivers
►All of the given (Page 13)

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Interrupt service number is usually placed in ____________ register.
►CH
►CL
►AH (Page 26) rep
►AL

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

NMI Stand for

►Non Maskable Interrupt (Page 46)

►Non Multitude Interrupt
►Non Maskable Instruction
►None of Given

Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

A single interrupt controller can arbitrate among ____ different devices.
►4
►6
►8 (Page 47)
►10

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Hardware Interrupts are __________.
►Preemptive
►Non-Preemptive (Page 48) rep
►Both Preemptive and Non-Preemptive
►None of Given

13
Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The microprocessor package has many signals for data. Below are some in Correct priority order (Higher to
Lower).

►Reset,Hold,NMI,INTR (Page 46)

►NMI, INTR,Hold,Reset
►INTR,NMI,Reset,Hold
►None of the Given

Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The interval timer can operate in ____modes.

►Three
►Four
►Five
►Six (Page 72) rep

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

PPI stands for _____________.

►Parallel Programmable interface

►Peripheral Programmable interface (Page 76) rep
►Port Programmable interface
►None of the given

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The following command “outportb (0x61,inportb(0x61) & 0xFC);” will

►Turn on the speaker (Page 74)

►Turn off the speaker
►Toggle the speaker
►None of the given

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The PPI acts as an interface between the CPU and a parallel ________ .

►I/O device (Page 83) rep

►CPU
►BUS
►None of Given

14
Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
BIOS DO NOT support ______.

►LPT1
►LPT2
►LPT3
►LPT4 (Page 91)

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_____ bit is cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent.

►D1
►D2
►D3
►D4 (Page 101)

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The bit ______ of Line control register in UART, if cleared will indicate that DLL is the data register.

►1
►3
►5
►7 (Page 114)

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int 14H __________ can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM port.

►Service # 0 (Page 119) rep

►Service # 1
►Service # 2
►Service # 3

Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

_________ used to determine the amount of conventional memory interfaced with the processor in kilobytes.

►INT 10 H
►INT 11 H
►INT 12 H (Page 162)
►INT 13 H

15
Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Bit number _______ of coprocessor control word is the Interrupt Enable Flag.

►7 (Page 168)
►8
►9
►10

Question No: 19 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

To distinguish 486 with Pentium CPUID Test is used.

►True (Page 166)

►False

Question No: 20 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

______ is LED control byte.

►0xF3
►0xED (Page 181) rep
►0xE5
►0xFF

MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
CS609- System Programming (Session - 1)

Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The memory addresses of COM ports remain same for all computers

►True
►False

Question No: 2 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int_____________ service 0 can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM port.

►14H (Page 119)

►15H
►13H
►None of the given option

16
Question No: 3 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
In case of synchronous communication a timing signal is required to identify the start and end of a bit.

►True (Page 105) rep

►False

Question No: 4 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

BIOS support _____________UARTS as COM ports.
►6
►4 (Page 113)
►3
►2

Question No: 5 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The________ function uses the COM port number to receive a byte from the COM port using BIOS services.
►recievebyte()
►initialize ()
►receive()
►recievechar() (Page 125)

Question No: 6 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

DTE is ___________
►Data terminal equipment (Page 109) rep
►Data transmitting equipment
►Dual terminal equipment
►None of above

Question No: 7 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int 14H____________ can be used to send a byte

►Service#0
►Service#1 (Page 121)
►Service#2
►None of the given option.

Question No: 8 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int 14H______ can be used to set the line parameter of the UART or COM port

►Service#0 (Page 119) rep

►Service#1
►Service#2
►None of the given option

17
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
The ________function initialize the COM port whose number is passed as parameter using BIOS services.

►Initializecom()
►Initialize() (Page 125)
►Recievechar()
►None of these option

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

____whenever received indicates the start of communication and ______ whenever received indicates a
temporary pause in the communication.

►XON & XOFF (Page 135)

►XOFF & XON
►XON & YOFF
►YON & XOFF

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

___________ is used to identify cause of interrupt.

►Interrupt enable register

►Interrupt ID register (Page 116) rep
►Interrupt Status register
►None of the above

Question No: 12 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In ____________each byte is needed to be encapsulated in start and end.

►Synchronous communication
►Asynchronous communication (Page 106)
►Both
►None of given

Question No: 13 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

________ is a device incorporated into the PC to update time even if the computer is off.

►Clock counter
►ROM
►Clock
►Real time clock (Page 136)

18
Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
There are two type of communication synchronous and Anti Synchronous
►True
►False (Page 105)

Question No: 15 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The ____________ function simply enables the self test facility within the modem control register

►STOn()
►SelfTest()
►SelfTestOn() (Page 127)
►Non of these

Question No: 16 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

DCE is _____________

►Data communication equipment (Page 109) rep

►Dual communication equipment
►Data clearing equipment
► None of given

Question No: 17 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

REGS is a Union

►True
►False

Question No: 18 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In self test mode the output of the UART is routed to its input

►True (Page 117) rep

►False

19
 CS609 System Programming
Mid Term Examination – Spring 2006

Question No. 1 Marks : 2

If CPUID instruction is not present then the processor can be a

► 486 processor (Page 166)

► 386 processor
► 286 processor
► All of the above

Question No. 2 Marks : 2

On the execution of IRET instruction, number of bytes popped from stack is

► 4 bytes
► 6 bytes
► 8 bytes Click here for detail
► 10 bytes

Question No. 3 Marks : 2

Keyboard Status Byte is located at the address

► 0040:0000H
► 0040:0013H
► 0040:0015H
► 0040:0017H (Page 29)
Question No. 4 Marks : 2
If we use keep (0, 1000) in a TSR program, the memory allocated to it is

► 64000 bytes
► 32000 bytes
► 16000 bytes
► 80000 bytes

Question No. 5 Marks : 2

Maximum number of interrupts in a standard PC is

► 64
► 128
► 256 (Page 10)
► 512

20
 CS609 – Solved Quizzes (1 & 2)
Quiz No.1
Question : 1 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Total No. of bytes that can be stored in Keyboard Buffer is____.

►16
►32 (Page 54)
►64
►128

Question : 2 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

If printer is _____ then printer sends back the ACK signal to the printer interface

►idle (Page 97)

►busy
►Out of paper
►None of the given

Question : 3 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The baud rate is set in accordance with the divisor value loaded within the UART internal registers base +0 and
base +1.

►TRUE (Page 114)

►FALSE

Question : 4 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Int 14H __________ can be used to receive a byte.

►Service # 0
►Service # 1
► Service # 2 (Page 121)
►None of the given options

Question : 5 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The BIOS interrupt 0x1AH can be used to configure real time clock

►True (Page 136)

►False

21
Question : 6 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
------------ is used to read date from RTC

►1A\02H
►1A\03H
►1A\04H (Page 138)
►1A\05H

Question : 7 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The -------- function receive a byte and COM port number is passed as parameter using BIOS service

►Receivebyte ();
►Receive ();
►Receivechar (); (Page 125)
►None of the given option

Question : 8 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

------------ whenever receive indicates the start of communication ……….. whenever receive indicates the end
of communication

►XON\XOFF (Page 135)

►XOFF\XON
►XON\YOFF
►YON\XOFF

Question : 9 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

------------ is used to read time from RTC
►1A\02H (Page 137)
►1A\03H
►1A\04H
►1A\05H

Question : 10 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

------------ is used to set time from RTC

►1A\02H
►1A\03H (Page 138)
►1A\04H
►1A\05H

22
 Quiz No.2
Question : 1 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Software based flow control make use of -------- control characters

►Xon
►XOFF
►Both (Page 135)
►None

Question : 2 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

What will be the value of DL register when we are accessing C drive using undocumented service 21H/32H?

►0
►1
►2
►3 (Page 249)

Question : 3 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Set the Interrupt vector means to change the double word sized interrupt vector within IVT.
►True (Page 22)
►False

Question : 4 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

If keyboard buffer is empty the head and tail points at the same location.
►True (Page 55)
►False

Question : 5 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Standard PC can have _____ PPI.
►1
►4 (Page 84)
►8
►16

Question : 6 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

By cascading two DMAs ____ bits can be transferred.
►4
►8
►16 (Page 186)
►32

23
Question : 7 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
PPI interconnection _______ bits is cleared to indicate low nibble is being sent.

►D1
►D2
► D3
► D4 (Page 101)

Question : 8 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

File can be______ viewed as collection of clusters or blocks.

►Physically (Page 256)

►Logically
►Both physically and logically
►None

Question : 9 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Operating system name contains ____ bytes in boot block.

►3
►5
►8 (Page 257)
►11

Question : 10 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

File system used in CD’s is_______ file system

►Contiguous http://www.pgallert.de/english/SysAdmin/OS/file.htm
►Chained
►Indexed
►None

Question : 1 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

________means typematic rate will be sent in next byte.

►0xF3 (Page 180)

►0xF4
►0xF5
►0xF6

24
Question : 2 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
To access the block within cluster using BIOS services the cluster number should be converted into _____.

►CHS
►LBA
►LSN (Page 258)
►None of the given

Question : 3 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Display device (Monitor) performs _________ I/O.

►memory mapped (Page 30)

►Isolated
►Both of above
►None of these

Question : 4 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Timer interrupt occurs _______ times every second by means of hardware.

►18.2 (Page 28)

►16.2
►15.2
►14.2

Question : 5 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

An I/O device cannot be directly connected to the busses so controller is placed between CPU and I/O.

►True (Page 83)

►False

Question : 6 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Keyboard uses port ____ as status port.
►64H (Page 177)
►66H
►67H
►69H

Question : 7 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Tail of keyboard should get to get the start of buffer.
►True (Page 55)
►False

25
Question : 4 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
Control information in files is maintained using

►BPB
►DPB
►FCB (Page 256)
►FPB

Question : 5 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

____ No. of bytes are used to store the character in the keyboard buffer.

►1
►2 (Page 54)
►4
►8

Question : 6 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

The ______ service # is not used in any interrupt.

►01
►02
►03
►FF

Question : 7 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

At IRQ 7 Interrupt # ___ is used.

► 0x0A
►0x0B
► 0x0C
►0x0F (Page 95)

Question : 8 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

We have set the bit No. 7 of IMR(Interrupt Mask Register) to unmask the Interrupt so that interrupt _____ can
occur at ____ line.

►0xf ,IRQ 7
► 0xa, IRQ 6
► 0x8, IRQ 5
►0x6, IRQ 2

26
Question : 9 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one
If we want to produce the grave voice from speaker phone then we have to load the ____ divisor values at Port
____.
►high, 0x42
►low, 0x22
►high, 0x22
►low, 0x42

Question : 10 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In order to produce the sound from PC internal Speaker we have to load the___bit divisor value at the ___port.
►8, 0x21
►16, 0x42
►32, 0x22
►64, 0x32

Question : 1 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In counter register bit no. 3 changes its value between 0 and 1 with in ____clock cycles
►1
►2
►4
► 16 (Page 69)

Question : 2 of 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

In keyboard status byte bit no. 2 and 3 are used for ctrl and alt keys respectively. which of the following
condition is used to check that Ctrl + Alt keys are pressed. Where: unsigned char far * scr = (unsigned char far
*)(0x00400017);

►if (((*scr)&12)==12)
►if (((*scr)&8)==8)
►if (((*scr)&4)==4)
►if (((*scr)&2)==2)

27
 CS609 Midterm Subjective Solved with References

Year: 2013 By: Sahar

Subjective (Year : 2013)

Q:1

((( inport((*lpt) +1)) & 0x80) == 0x80) which condition is checked? 2 marks

Answer:- page #97

Condition will check whether the printing port is idle or not.

Q:2

Which command used before changing the typematic and LEDS? 3 marks.

Answer: Page no: 181

0xF3 used for type matic rate

oxED used for LEDS

Explain null modem? 5 marks

Answer: Page no: 122

If data is to be transferred from one computer to another through some media which can carry
digital data then the modem can be eliminated and the UART on both computers can be
interconnected. Such arrangement is called a NULL modem.

Keyboard writing protocol? 5 marks

Answer: Page no: 180

• Wait till input buffer is full

• Write on buffer

• Wait till output buffer is full

• Check the acknowledgement byte

• Repeat the process if it was previously unsuccessful.

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Q.1: write down the purpose of interrupt 11H.

Answer: Page no: 161

Interrupt 11H is used to determine the systems information. On return this service returns the
systems info in AX register.

Q.2: When we discuss flow control using RS232C. Which line is used for data transmission and
reception?

Answer: Page no:110

RS232C is a standard for physical dimension of the connector interconnecting a DTE(Data

terminal equipment) and DCE (Data communication equipment). Data is received through the
RxD line. Data is send through the TxD line.

Q.3: What the usage of coprocessor control word while testing for coprocessor?

Answer: Page no:16

The coprocessor control word contains some control information about the coprocessor. The
bit number 7 of coprocessor control word is the Interrupt Enable Flag and bit number 8 & 9
should contain 11on initialization. The coprocessor status register stores the status of the
coprocessor. Very much like the flags register in the microprocessor the Coprocessor status
word can be used to determine the result of a comparison as shown in the slide.

Q.4: Suppose we have got the status byte of LPT1 port usig BIOS function int 17H.Write the
condition

Answer:

17H/00H Write a character on entry

AH=00

AL=ASCII code

DX=Interface#

On exit

AH=Status Byte

in C language that can check the time out, transfer error and out of paper error.

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Q.5: Draw the status of Clock Status C register.

Answer: Page no: 146

Q.6: Explain the purpose of UART.

Answer: Page no:107

The UART is a device used for asynchronous communications. UART is capable of encapsulating
a byte that might be 5, 6, 7 or 8 bits wide in start and stop bits. Moreover it can attach an extra
parity bit with the data for error detection. The width of stop bits may also vary.

Write Keyboard writing protocol?

Answer: Page no: 182

Keyboard writing Protocol

• Wait till input buffer is full

• Write on buffer

• Wait till output buffer is full

• Check the acknowledgement byte

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• Repeat the process if it was previously unsuccessful.

Steps involve in LPT1 and LPT2 ?

Answer: Page no:

unsigned int far * lpt = (unsigned int far *) 0x00400008 ;

unsigned int temp;

temp=*(lpt);

*lpt=*(lpt + 1);

*(lpt + 1)=temp;

3) How to send data to keyboard?

Answer:

Similarly some data (as control information) can be send to the keyboard. The processor will
write on the port 60H. The device driver will check the OBF( output buffer full bit of port 64H
which remains set as long as the byte is not received by the keyboard. On receipt of the byte
from the port 60H the keyboard device write a code 0xFA on the port 60H to indicate that the
byte has been received properly.

Describe the purpose of 12h interrupt and 88h? 3Marks

Answer:

Int 12H is used to determine the amount of conventional memory interfaced with the processor
in kilobytes. The amount of memory above conventional memory (extended memory) can be
determined using the service 15H/88H.

In flow control what is the working of D4?

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Answer:

First the low nibble of the byte is sent from the sender in bit D0 to D3 of the data port. D4 bit is
cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent. The receiver will know the arrival of the low
nibble when its checks BUSY bit which should be set (by the interface) on arrival.

STATUS REGISTER C of RTC. MARKS 5

Answer:

The lower 4 bits of this register stores a code indicating the frequency with which the RTC
hardware interrupt can interrupt the processor. The next field is used to specify the time
frequency i.e. the frequency with the time is sampled and hence updated. The most significant
bit indicates that after time sampling if the time has been updated in to the 64 byte RAM or
not.

What is the purpose of Interrupt ID register in UART? 3 marks

Answer:

Once an interrupt occurs it may be required to identify the case of the interrupt. This register is
used to identify the cause of the interrupt.

What are the usages of coprocessor control word in coprocessor while testing for
coprocessor? 3 marks

Answer:

The coprocessor control word contains some control information about the coprocessor. The
bit number 7 of coprocessor control word is the Interrupt Enable Flag and bit number 8 & 9
should contain 11 on initialization.

In LPT1 BIOS what is the meaning of " inportb*(base +1)& 0x80);?

Answer:

In direct parallel port programming it indicate to print a file. While loop terminate when the file
ends.

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In case of printer the (base +1) is the printer status port. it will tell if its busy or not...

Unsigned int far * lpt = (unsigned int far *)0x00400008 Direct parallel port programming LPTs
swapping

Answer:

Here we are accessing the base register address of LPT1 that is on the 40 segment 08 offset

for more info check page # 91,92 of handbook

In flow control what is the working of D4?

Answer:

First the low nibble of the byte is sent from the sender in bit D0 to D3 of the data port. D4 bit is
cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent. The receiver will know the arrival of the low
nibble when its checks BUSY bit which should be set (by the interface) on arrival.

What is the purpose of service 1 and 2 of 14h 2marks

Answer:

BIOS support for COM ports

SERVICE#1 = output characters

SERVICE#2 = read in characters

WHAT are DTE AND DCE MARKS 2

Answer:

RS232C is a standard for physical dimension of the connector interconnecting a DTE(Data

terminal equipment) and DCE (Data communication equipment).

HOW DONE DATA RECEPTION AND DATA RETRIEVAL IN RS232C MARKS 3

Answer:

Data is received through the RxD line. Data is send through the TxD line. DTR (data terminal

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ready) indicates that the data terminal is live and kicking. DSR(data set ready) indicates that the
data set is live. Whenever the sender can send data it sends the signal RTS( Request to send) if
as a result the receiver is free and can receive data it send the sender an acknowledge through
CTS( clear to send) indicating that its clear to send now.

What is the RTC? 3 marks

Answer:

Real time clock is a device incorporated into the PC to update time even if the computer is off.
It has the characteristics shown in the slide above which enables it to update time even if the
computer is off.

Step to access battery powered ram. (5 Marks)

Answer:

Battery Powered RAM is accessed in two steps

• Specify the Byte no. in 70H port.

• Read/write port 71H to get/set the value of specified byte.

What is the purpose of self-test mode in UART? 2 Marks

Answer:

UART contains a self test mode which can be used by the programmer to self test the software.
In self test mode the output of the UART is routed to its input. So you receive what you send.

What is Self-test mode of UART?. 3 Marks

Answer:

Moreover if a single computer is available to a developer the UART contains a self-test mode
which can be used by the programmer to self-test the software. In self-test mode the output of
the UART is routed to its input. So you receive what you send.

DDL STANDS FOR?

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RBR STANDS FOR?

THR STANDS FOR?

DLM STANDS FOR?

Answer:

In flow control what is the working of D4?

Answer:

First the low nibble of the byte is sent from the sender in bit D0 to D3 of the data port. D4 bit is
cleared to indicate the low nibble is being sent. The receiver will know the arrival of the low
nibble when its checks BUSY bit which should be set (by the interface) on arrival.

A function that will send com port. com port number will be accessed as parameter ?

Answer:

The initialize () function initializes the COM port whose number is passed as parameter using
BIOS services.

About STATUS REGISTER C of RTC.

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Answer: Page no: 146

Status register is used to identify the reason of interrupt generation

Code of caps lock

Answer:

Status byte of caps lock is 2

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