AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

IV Year B. Tech, CSE - IISem

BASICS OF POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Course Objectives: To provide an overview of power plants and the associated energy
conversion issues
Course Outcomes: Upon completion of the course, the students can understand the principles
of operation for different power plants and their economics
UNIT - I Coal Based Thermal Power Plants: Basic Rankine cycle and its modifications,
layout of modern coal power plant, super critical boilers, FBC boilers, turbines, condensers,
steam and heating rates, subsystems of thermal power plants, fuel and ash handling, draught
system, feed water treatment, binary cycles and cogeneration systems.
UNIT - II Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power Plants: Brayton cycle analysis and
optimization, components of gas turbine power plants, combined cycle power plants,
Integrated Gasifier based Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems.
UNIT - III Basics of Nuclear Energy Conversion: Layout and subsystems of nuclear power
plants, Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), CANDU Reactor,
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR), Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR), gas cooled and
liquid metal cooled reactors, safety measures for nuclear power plants.
UNIT - IV Hydroelectric Power Plants: Classification, typical layout and components,
principles of wind, tidal, solar PV and solar thermal, geothermal, biogas and fuel cell power
systems
UNIT - V Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues: Power tariffs, load distribution
parameters, load curve, capital and operating cost of different power plants, pollution control
technologies including waste disposal options for coal and nuclear plants.
TEXT BOOKS: 1. Nag P.K., Power Plant Engineering, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.
2. El Wakil M.M., Power Plant Technology, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010. REFERENCE BOOK:
1. Elliot T.C., Chen K and Swanekamp R.C.,
Power Plant Engineering, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill, 1998.
Course Outcomes:
 Enable students to understand about the coal handling and ash handling systems in
thermal powerplants
 To understand various gas power cycles and combined power cycles
 TointerpretNuclearpowerstationandvarioussafetymeasurestobefollowed
 Toillustratethestudentstogettheexposureofdifferentrenewableenergyresources
 To execute and exemplify economics of power plants and waste disposal methods in
nuclear power plants
UNIT 1

COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS

 Introduction to power plant engineering

A power plant is an industrial facility used to generate electric power with the help of one or more
generators which converts different energy sources into electric power.

A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the
generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order of several 1000 Watts.
These are generally located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometers away from the cities or the
load centers, because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along with several operating
constraints like the waste disposal etc.

Electricity is produced at an electric power plant. Some fuel source, such as coal, oil, natural gas, or
nuclear energy produces heat. The heat is used to boil water to create steam. The steam under high
pressure is used to spin a turbine.

For this reason, a power generating station has to not only take care of efficient generation but also the
fact that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance and that’s why, the transformer
switch yard to regulate transmission voltage also becomes an integral part of the power plant.

At the center of it, however, nearly all power generating stations has an AC generator or an alternator,
which is basically a rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the mechanical domain
(rotating turbine) into electrical domain by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the
conductors.

Thermal power plant

A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is the most conventional method of
generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the
water available to superheated steam for driving the steam turbine.

The steam turbine is then mechanically coupled to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in
the generation of electric power. Generally, in India, bituminous coal or brown coal are used as fuel
of boiler which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 16 %. To enhance the
thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its pulverized form.

Steam Power Station (Thermal Station): A generating station which converts heat energy of coal
combustion into electrical energy is known as a steam power station.

Advantages
(i) The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
(ii) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
(iii) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be transported
to the site of the plant by rail or road.
(iv) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station.
(v) The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power station.
Disadvantages
(i) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
(ii)It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.
Schematic Arrangement of Steam Power Station

The whole arrangement can be divided into the following stages for the sake of simplicity :
1. Coal and ash handling arrangement 2. Steam generating plant
3. Steam turbine 4. Alternator
5. Feed water 6. Cooling arrangement
1. Coal and ash handling plant. The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and is
stored in the coal storage plant. Storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against coal strikes,
failure of transportation system and general coal shortages. From the coal storage plant, coal is
delivered to the coal handling plant where it is pulverised (i.e., crushed into small pieces) in order to
increase its surface exposure, thus promoting rapid combustion without using large quantity of excess
air. The pulverised coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors. The coal is burnt in the boiler
and the ash produced after the complete combustion of coal is removed to the ash handling plant and
then delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal. The removal of the ash from the boiler furnace is
necessary for proper burning of coal.
2. Steam generating plant. The steam generating plant consists of a boiler for the production of
steam and other auxiliary equipment for the utilisation of flue gases.
(i) Boiler. The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilised to convert water into steam at
high temperature and pressure. The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through superheater,
economiser, air pre-heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.
(ii) Superheater. The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through a superheater
where it is dried and superheated (i.e., steam temperature increased above that of boiling point of
water) by the flue gases on their way to chimney. Superheating provides two principal benefits.
Firstly, the overall efficiency is increased. Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of
turbine (which would cause blade corrosion) is avoided. The superheated steam from the superheater
is fed to steam turbine through the main valve.
(iii) Economiser. An economiser is essentially a feed water heater and derives heat from the flue
gases for this purpose. The feed water is fed to the economiser before supplying to the boiler. The
economiser extracts a part of heat of flue gases to increase the feed water temperature.
(iv) Air preheater. An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal burning
by deriving heat from flue gases. Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and
is passed through air preheater before supplying to the boiler furnace. The air preheater extracts heat
from flue gases and increases the temperature of air used for coal combustion. The principal benefits
of preheating the air are : increased thermal efficiency and increased steam capacity per square metre
of boiler surface.
3. Steam turbine. The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to the steam
turbine through main valve. The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of turbine is
converted into mechanical energy. After giving heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted to
the condenser which condenses the exhausted steam by means of cold water circulation.
4. Alternator. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. The alternator converts mechanical
energy of turbine into electrical energy. The electrical output from the alternator is delivered to the
bus bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.
5. Feed water. The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to the boiler. Some
water may be lost in the cycle which is suitably made up from external source. The feed water on its
way to the boiler is heated by water heaters and economiser. This helps in raising the overall efficiency
of the plant.
6. Cooling arrangement. In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam exhausted
from the turbine is condensed* by means of a condenser. Water is drawn from a natural source of
supply such as a river, canal or lake and is circulated through the condenser. The circulating water
takes up the heat of the exhausted steam and itself becomes hot. This hot water coming out from the
condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the river. In case the availability of water from
the source of supply is not assured throughout the year, cooling towers are used. During the scarcity
of water in the river, hot water from the condenser is passed on to the cooling towers where it is
cooled. The cold water from the cooling tower is reused in the condenser.
Equipment of Steam Power Station
A modern steam power station is highly complex and has numerous equipment and auxiliaries.
However,
the most important constituents of a steam power station are :
1. Steam generating equipment 2. Condenser 3. Prime mover
4. Water treatment plant 5. Electrical equipment.
1. Steam generating equipment. This is an important part of steam power station. It is concerned
with the generation of superheated steam and includes such items as boiler, boiler furnace,
superheater, economiser, air pre-heater and other heat reclaiming devices.
(i) Boiler. A boiler is closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by utilising the heat
of coal combustion. Steam boilers are broadly classified into the following two types :
(a) Water tube boilers (b) Fire tube boilers
In a water tube boiler, water flows through the tubes and the hot gases of combustion flow over
these tubes. On the other hand, in a fire tube boiler, the hot products of combustion pass through the
tubes surrounded by water. Water tube boilers have a number of advantages over fire tube boilers
viz., require less space, smaller size of tubes and drum, high working pressure due to small drum, less
liable to explosion etc. Therefore, the use of water tube boilers has become universal in large capacity
steam power stations.
(ii) Boiler furnace. A boiler furnace is a chamber in which fuel is burnt to liberate the heat
energy. In addition, it provides support and enclosure for the combustion equipment i.e., burners.
The boiler furnace walls are made of refractory materials such as fire clay, silica, kaolin etc. These
materials have the property to resist change of shape, weight or physical properties at high
temperatures.
There are following three types of construction of furnace walls :
(a) Plain refractory walls
(b) Hollow refractory walls with an arrangement for air cooling
(c) Water walls.
The plain refractory walls are suitable for small plants where the furnace temperature may not be
high. However, in large plants, the furnace temperature is quite high* and consequently, the refractory
material may get damaged. In such cases, refractory walls are made hollow and air is circulated
through hollow space to keep the temperature of the furnace walls low. The recent development is to
use water walls. These consist of plain tubes arranged side by side and on the inner face of the
refractory walls. The tubes are connected to the upper and lower headers of the boiler. The boiler
water is made to circulate through these tubes. The water walls absorb the radiant heat in the furnace
which would otherwise heat up the furnace walls.
(iii) Superheater. A superheater is a device which superheats the steam i.e., it raises the temperature
of steam above boiling point of water. This increases the overall efficiency of the plant. A superheater
consists of a group of tubes made of special alloy steels such as chromium-molybdenum. These tubes
are heated by the heat of flue gases during their journey from the furnace to the chimney. The steam
produced in the boiler is led through the superheater where it is superheated by the heat of flue gases.
Superheaters are mainly classified into two types according to the system of heat transfer from flue
gases to steam viz.
(a) Radiant superheater (b) Convection superheater
The radiant superheater is placed in the furnace between the water walls and receives heat from
the burning fuel through radiation process. It has two main disadvantages. Firstly, due to high furnace
temperature, it may get overheated and, therefore, requires a careful design. Secondly, the temperature
of superheater falls with increase in steam output. Due to these limitations, radiant superheater is not
finding favour these days. On the other hand, a convection superheater is placed in the boiler tube bank
and receives heat from flue gases entirely through the convection process. It has the advantage that
temperature of superheater increases with the increase in steam output. For this reason, this type of
superheater is commonly used these days.
(iv) Economiser. It is a device which heats the feed water on its way to boiler by deriving heat from the
flue gases. This results in raising boiler efficiency, saving in fuel and reduced stresses in the boiler due
to higher temperature of feed water. An economiser consists of a large number of closely spaced
parallel steel tubes connected by headers of drums. The feed water flows through these tubes and the
flue gases flow outside. A part of the heat of flue gases is transferred to feed water, thus raising the
temperature of the latter.
(v) Air Pre-heater. Superheaters and economisers generally cannot fully extract the heat from flue
gases. Therefore, pre-heaters are employed which recover some of the heat in the escaping gases. The
function of an air pre-heater is to extract heat from the flue gases and give it to the air being supplied to
furnace for coal combustion. This raises the furnace temperature and increases the thermal efficiency
of the plant. Depending upon the method of transfer of heat from flue gases to air, air pre-heaters are
divided into the following two classes :
(a) Recuperative type (b) Regenerative type
The recuperative type air-heater consists of a group of steel tubes. The flue gases are passed through
the tubes while the air flows externally to the tubes. Thus heat of flue gases is transferred to air. The
regenerative type air pre-heater consists of slowly moving drum made of corrugated metal plates. The
flue gases flow continuously on one side of the drum and air on the other side. This action permits the
transference of heat of flue gases to the air being supplied to the furnace for coal combustion.
2. Condensers. A condenser is a device which condenses the steam at the exhaust of turbine. It serves
two important functions. Firstly, it creates a very low *pressure at the exhaust of turbine, thus
permitting expansion of the steam in the prime mover to a very low pressure. This helps in converting
heat energy of steam into mechanical energy in the prime mover. Secondly, the condensed steam can
be used as feed water to the boiler. There are two types of condensers, namely :
(i) Jet condenser (ii) Surface condenser
In a jet condenser, cooling water and exhausted steam are mixed together. Therefore, the temperature
of cooling water and condensate is the same when leaving the condenser. Advantages of this type of
condenser are : low initial cost, less floor area required, less cooling water required and low
maintenance charges. However, its disadvantages are : condensate is wasted and high power is
required for pumping water. In a surface condenser, there is no direct contact between cooling water
and exhausted steam. It consists of a bank of horizontal tubes enclosed in a cast iron shell. The cooling
water flows through the tubes and exhausted steam over the surface of the tubes. The steam gives up
its heat to water and is itself condensed. Advantages of this type of condenser are : condensate can be
used as feed water, less pumping power required and creation of better vacuum at the turbine exhaust.
However, disad-vantages of this type of condenser are : high initial cost, requires large floor area and
high maintenance charges.
3. Prime movers. The prime mover converts steam energy into mechanical energy. There are two
types of steam prime movers viz., steam engines and steam turbines. A steam turbine has several
advantages over a steam engine as a prime mover viz., high efficiency, simple construction, higher
speed, less floor area requirement and low maintenance cost. Therefore, all modern steam power
stations employ steam turbines as prime movers. Steam turbines are generally classified into two types
according to the action of steam on moving
blades viz.
(i) Impulse turbines (ii) Reactions turbines
In an impulse turbine, the steam expands completely in the stationary nozzles (or fixed blades), the
pressure over the moving blades remaining constant. In doing so, the steam attains a high velocity and
impinges against the moving blades. This results in the impulsive force on the moving blades which
sets the rotor rotating. In a reaction turbine, the steam is partially expanded in the stationary nozzles,
the remaining expansion takes place during its flow over the moving blades. The result is that the
momentum of the steam causes a reaction force on the moving blades which sets the rotor in motion.
4. Water treatment plant. Boilers require clean and soft water for longer life and better efficiency.
However, the source of boiler feed water is generally a river or lake which may contain suspended and
dissolved impurities, dissolved gases etc. Therefore, it is very important that water is first purified and
softened by chemical treatment and then delivered to the boiler. The water from the source of supply is
stored in storage tanks. The suspended impurities are removed through sedimentation, coagulation and
filtration. Dissolved gases are removed by aeration and degasification. The water is then ‘softened’ by
removing temporary and permanent hardness through different chemical processes. The pure and soft
water thus available is fed to the boiler for steam generation.
5. Electrical equipment. A modern power station contains numerous electrical equipment.
However, the most important items are :
(i) Alternators. Each alternator is coupled to a steam turbine and converts mechanical energy of the
turbine into electrical energy. The alternator may be hydrogen or air cooled. The necessary excitation
is provided by means of main and pilot exciters directly coupled to the alternator shaft.
(ii) Transformers. A generating station has different types of transformers, viz.,
(a) main step-up transformers which step-up the generation voltage for transmission of power.
(b) station transformers which are used for general service (e.g., lighting) in the power station.
(c) auxiliary transformers which supply to individual unit-auxiliaries.
(iii) Switchgear. It houses such equipment which locates the fault on the system and isolate the faulty
part from the healthy section. It contains circuit breakers, relays, switches and other control devices.

Rankine cycle

The Rankine cycle is a model used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems. It was also
used to study the performance of reciprocating steam engines. The Rankine cycle is an idealized
thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing
phase change.
Thermodynamic analysis:

1-2: Isentropic compression process in the pump

2-3: Isobaric heat absorption process in the evaporator. 3-4: Isentropic expansion process in the
expander.

1-1 : Isobaric heat rejection process in the condenser.

 The Rankine cycle is a model used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems. The Rankine
cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work
while undergoing phase change.

Rankine cycle is a reversible cycle which has two constant pressure and two constant temperature
processes. Working fluid in Rankine cycle undergoes 4 processes, expansion in turbine, heat
addition in Boiler, heat rejection in Condenser and compression in pump.

The thermal efficiency improvement techniques of Rankine cycle are:

i) By decreasing average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid (steam)
in the condenser. (Lowering condenser Pressure)
ii) By increasing steam temperature entering the turbine.
Super critical boilers
A supercritical steam generator is a type of boiler that operates at supercritical pressure, frequently
used in the production of electric power. In contrast to a subcritical boiler in which bubbles can
form, a supercritical steam generator operates at pressures above the critical pressure

Advantages of SC Technology

I) Higher cycle efficiency means Primarily – less fuel consumption – less per MW infrastructure
investments – less emission – less auxiliary power consumption – less water consumption

II) Operational flexibility – Better temp. control and load change flexibility – Shorter start-up time –
More suitable for widely variable pressure operation.

Economy

Higher Efficiency (η%)

 Less fuel input.

 Low capacity fuel handling system
 Low capacity ash handling system.
 Less Emissions.

Specific advantages include:

 For a given output, lower fuel consumption, and thus lower carbon emissions, than other
less efficient systems
 The load change rate capability of the system is not restricted by the turbine
 Steam temperature at the inlet and outlet of the re heater is nearly constant over a wide
load range
 The boiler feed water pump power is significantly reduced at lower loads
 Short start up times
 Higher plant efficiency over the entire load range

Supercritical boilers have a working range of pressure and temperature above 220.64 bars and
374°C (Critical pressure and temperature of water). There is no bubbles formation in this type of
boiler. Subcritical boilers work below critical pressure and temperature.

Supercritical Pressure:

Critical point in water vapor cycle is a thermodynamic state where there is no clear distinction
between liquid and gaseous state of water. Water reaches this state at a critical pressure above 22.1
MPa and 374oC.
Binary Cycle Power Plant

 Low to moderately heated (below 400°F) geothermal fluid and a secondary (hence, "binary")
fluid with a much lower boiling point that water pass through a heat exchanger. Binary cycle
power plants are closed-loop systems, and virtually nothing (except water vapor) is emitted to
the atmosphere.
 A binary cycle power plant is a type of geothermal power plant that allows cooler geothermal
reservoirs to be used than is necessary for dry steam and flash steam plants
 Binary Power Plants. Binary plants, like dry-steam and flash- steam plants, make use of
naturally sourced hot steam generated by activity from within the Earth's core. All geothermal
plants convert thermal energy to mechanical energy, then finally to electrical energy.
 The vapor exiting the turbine is then condensed by cold air radiators or cold water and cycled
back through the heat exchanger. A binary vapor cycle is defined in thermodynamics as a
power cycle that is a combination of two cycles, one in a high temperature region and the
other in a lower temperature region

Cogeneration
• Cogeneration—also known as combined heat and power, distributed generation, or recycled
energy—is the simultaneous production of two or more forms of energy from a single fuel
source. Cogeneration power plants often operate at 50 to 70 percent higher efficiency rates
than single-generation facilities
• A conventional power plant makes electricity by a fairly inefficient process. A fossil fuel such
as oil, coal, or natural gas is burned in a giant furnace to release heat energy. ... Cogeneration
(the alternative name for CHP) simply means that the electricity and heat are made at the same
time.
• Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel because otherwise- wasted heat from electricity
generation is put to some productive use.This is also called combined heat and power district
heating. Small CHP plants are an example of decentralized energy.
• Cogeneration is the process of producing electricity from steam (or other hot gases) and using
the waste heat as steam in chemical processes. In contrast, a stand-alone power-producing plant
typically converts less than 40% of the heat energy of fuel (coal, natural gas, nuclear, etc.) into
electricity.
 UNIT-2
Brayton cycle

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton that describes the
workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston
compressor and piston expander, but more modern gas turbine engines and air breathing jet
engines also follow the Brayton cycle.

 Compression:
Air or gas is compressed, increasing its pressure and temperature (isentropic process).
 Heat Addition:
Heat is added to the compressed gas, typically by combustion, at constant pressure (isobaric process).
 Expansion:
The hot, high-pressure gas is expanded through a turbine, generating work (isentropic process).
  Heat Rejection:
Heat is removed from the gas at constant pressure (isobaric process), returning it to its initial state.
Applications:
 Gas Turbine Engines:
The Brayton cycle is the foundation of most gas turbine engines, including those used in jet
propulsion and power generation.
 Jet Engines:
Jet engines use the Brayton cycle to generate thrust by compressing air, adding heat from
combustion, expanding the hot gases through a turbine, and then expelling the gases to create thrust.
 Power Plants:
Brayton cycles can be used in power plants, particularly with nuclear power plants, to generate
electricity.
Gas turbine power plant
A generating station which employs gas turbine as the prime mover for the
generation of electrical energy is known as a gas turbine power plant
In a gas turbine power plant, air is used as the working fluid. The air is compressed
by the compressor and is led to the combustion chamber where heat is added to air,
thus raising its tempera- ture. Heat is added to the compressed air either by burning
fuel in the chamber or by the use of air heaters. The hot and high pressure air from
the combustion chamber is then passed to the gas turbine where it expands and does
the mechanical work. The gas turbine drives the alternator which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It may be mentioned here that compressor, gas turbine and the alternator are mounted
on the same shaft so that a part of mechanical power of the turbine can be utilised for
the operation of the compressor. Gas turbine power plants are being used as standby
plants for hydro-electric stations, as a starting plant for driving auxiliaries in power
plants etc.

1.It is simple in design as compared to steam power station since no boilers and their
auxilia- ries are required.
2.It is much smaller in size as compared to steam power station of the same capacity.
This is expected since gas turbine power plant does not require boiler, feed water
arrangement etc.
3. The initial and operating costs are much lower than that of equivalent steam power station.
4.It requires comparatively less water as no condenser is used.
5.The maintenance charges are quite small.
6.Gas turbines are much simpler in construction and operation than steam turbines.
7.It can be started quickly form cold conditions.
8.There are no standby losses. However, in a steam power station, these losses occur
because boiler is kept in operation even when the steam turbine is supplying no load.
1.There is a problem for starting the unit. It is because before starting the turbine, the
com- pressor has to be operated for which power is required from some external
source. How- ever, once the unit starts, the external power is not needed as the
turbine itself supplies the necessary power to the compressor.
2.Since a greater part of power developed by the turbine is used in driving the
compressor, the net output is low.
3.The overall efficiency of such plants is low (about 20%) because the exhaust gases
from the turbine contain sufficient heat.
4.The temperature of combustion chamber is quite high (3000oF) so that its life is
compara- tively reduced.
Schematic Arrangement of Gas Turbine Power Plant
The schematic arrangement of a gas turbine power plant is shown in

The main components of the plant are :

1.Compressor (ii) Regenerator (iii) Combustion chamber (iv) Gas turbine (v) Alternator
(vi) Starting motor
1. Compressor. The compressor used in the plant is generally of rotatory type. The
air at atmospheric pressure is drawn by the compressor via the filter which removes
the dust from air. The rotatory blades of the compressor push the air between
stationary blades to raise its pressure. Thus air at high pressure is available at the
output of the compressor.
2.Regenerator. A regenerator is a device which recovers heat from the exhaust gases
of the turbine. The exhaust is passed through the regenerator before wasting to
atmosphere. A regenerator consists of a nest of tubes contained in a shell. The
compressed air from the compressor passes through the tubes on its way to the
combustion chamber. In this way, compressed air is heated by the hot exhaust gases.
3.Combustion chamber. The air at high pressure from the compressor is led to the
combustion chamber via the regenerator. In the combustion chamber, heat* is added
to the air by burning oil. The oil is injected through the burner into the chamber at
high pressure to ensure atomization of oil and its thorough mixing with air. The
result is that the chamber attains a very high temperature (about 3000oF). The
combustion gases are suitably cooled to 1300oF to 1500oF and then delivered to the
gas turbine.
4.Gas turbine. The products of combustion consisting of a mixture of gases at high
temperature and pressure are passed to the gas turbine. These gases in passing over
the turbine blades expand and thus do the mechanical work. The temperature of the
exhaust gases from the turbine is about 900oF.
5.Alternator. The gas turbine is coupled to the alternator. The alternator converts
mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy. The output from the alternator
is given to the bus-bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.
6. Starting motor. Before starting the turbine, the compressor has to be started. For
this purpose, an electric motor is mounted on the same shaft as that of the turbine. The
motor is energized by the batteries. Once the unit starts, a part of mechanical power
of the turbine drives the compressor and there is no need of motor now.

Combined cycle power plants

A combined cycle power plant is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the same
source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy. On land, when used to make electricity the most
common type is called a combined cycle gas turbine plant.

A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together to produce up to 50
percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant. The waste heat
from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power

A Combined Cycle Power Plant produces high power outputs at high efficiencies (up to 55%) and
with low emissions. In a Conventional power plant, we are getting 33% electricity only and
remaining 67% as waste.

The major components of a combined cycle plant are a gas turbine, a heat recovery steam generator,
a steam turbine, and balance of plant systems.
A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together to produce up to 50
percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant. The waste heat from
the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power.

Co-generations uses waste heat for many different processes, such as space heating or drying.
Combined-cycle power generation is a two- cycle electricity generation process that uses the heat
from the first cycle to run a second cycle.

Integrated Gasifier based Combined Cycle systems

An integrated gasification combined cycle is a technology that uses a high-pressure gasifier to turn
coal and other carbon-based fuels into pressurized gas synthesis gas. It can then remove impurities
from the syngas prior to the power generation cycle.

Integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants are a next-generation thermal
power system with significantly enhanced power generation efficiency and environmental
performance due to its combination with coal gasification and the Gas Turbine Combined Cycle
(GTCC) system.
A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together to produce up to 50
percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant. The waste heat
from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGT) are a form of highly efficient energy generation technology
that combines a gas-fired turbine with a steam turbine
 Introduction to nuclear power

Nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling water to make steam, which turns turbines to
produce electricity. Nuclear power plants use low- enriched uranium fuel to produce electricity
through a process called fission— the splitting of uranium atoms in a nuclear reactor.

Nuclear Power Station

A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is
known as a nuclear power station.
In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U 235) or Thorium (Th232)
are subjected to nuclear fission* in a special apparatus known as a reactor. The heat
energy released is utilized in raising steam at high temperature and pressure. The
steam runs the steam turbine which converts steam energy into mechanical energy.
The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Advantages
1) The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore, there is a considerable
saving in the cost of fuel transportation.
2) A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other type of the same size.
3) It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for producing bulk
electrical energy.
4)This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.
5)It can be located near the load centres because it does not require large quantities of
water and need not be near coal mines. Therefore, the cost of primary distribution is
reduced.
6)There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the world. Therefore, such
plants can ensure continued supply of electrical energy for thousands of years.
7)It ensures reliability of operation.
Disadvantages
1) The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
2)The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other types of plants.
3)The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical know-how.
4)The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous
amount of radioactive pollution.

Components of a nuclear reactor

 Fuel. Uranium is the basic fuel.

 Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that
they cause more fission.
 Control rods.
 Coolant.
 Pressure vessel or pressure tubes.
 Steam generator.
 Containment.
 Nuclear power plants in commercial operation or operable.

Fuel
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to form fuel
rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.* In a 1000 MWe class PWR
there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.
Moderator
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more
fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

Control rods

These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are
inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it.* In some PWR
reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level of power efficiently.
(Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually boron in the coolant – its
concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns up.) PWR control rods are inserted from the
top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of the core.

Coolant
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the water
moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is secondary coolant circuit
where the water becomes steam. (See also later section on primary coolant characteristics.) A PWR
has two to four primary coolant loops with pumps, driven either by steam or electricity – China’s
Hualong One design has three, each driven by a 6.6 MW electric motor, with each pump set
weighing 110 tonnes.

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a
series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.

Steam generator

Part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-pressure
primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine, in a secondary
circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator.* Reactors have up to six 'loops', each
with a steam generator.

Containment
The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is designed to protect it
from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from
the effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a meter-thick concrete
and steel structure.

Newer Russian and some other reactors install core melt localization devices or 'core catchers' under
the pressure vessel to catch any melted core material in the event of a major accident.

Types of Reactors

Pressurized Water Reactor

More than 65% of the commercial reactors in the United States are pressurized- water reactors or
PWRs. These reactors pump water into the reactor core under high pressure to prevent the water from
boiling.
 The water in the core is heated by nuclear fission and then pumped into tubes inside a heat
exchanger. Those tubes heat a separate water source to create steam. The steam then turns an electric
generator to produce electricity.

The core water cycles back to the reactor to be reheated, and the process is repeated.

 Fuel:
PHWRs use natural uranium, which is significantly cheaper and easier to obtain than enriched uranium
used in other reactor types.
 Coolant and Moderator:
Heavy water is used to cool the reactor core and slow down neutrons, facilitating the fission reaction.
 Pressure Tubes:
PHWRs use thin-walled pressure tubes instead of a large pressure vessel to contain the high-pressure,
high-temperature heavy water coolant.
 Safety:
The use of heavy water and the pressure tube design contribute to the overall safety of
PHWRs, according to BARC.
 Operation:
The high-pressure heavy water coolant circulates through the pressure tubes, carrying heat away from
the fuel bundles. This heat is then used to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.

Boiling Water Reactor

A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) is a type of nuclear reactor that generates electricity by boiling water
directly inside the reactor vessel and using the resulting steam to drive a turbine. This differs from
pressurized water reactors (PWRs) which use a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the reactor core to
a separate steam generation loop.
 Reactor Core: Contains fuel rods where nuclear fission occurs, producing heat.
 Coolant Water: Light water is used as both the coolant and moderator, helping control the
chain reaction of fission.
 Reactor Vessel: A steel pressure vessel that contains the reactor core and the boiling water.
 Steam Separators and Dryers: Remove moisture from the steam-water mixture before it's
routed to the turbine.
 Turbine: Rotates due to the force of the steam, driving a generator to produce electricity.
 Condenser: Condenses the steam back into liquid water, which is then recycled back to the
 reactor.
 Recirculation System: Pumps water back into the reactor core to continue the cooling process.

BWR Works:
1. Water is pumped into the reactor core and heated by the nuclear fission reaction.
2. The heated water boils, producing steam directly within the reactor vessel.
3. The steam is then routed through steam separators and dryers to remove any remaining water
droplets.
4. The dried steam is directed to the turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity.
5. The spent steam is cooled in the condenser and converted back to liquid water, which is then
recycled back to the reactor.

CANDU Reactor

A CANDU reactor is a type of pressurized heavy-water reactor developed in Canada. It uses heavy
water (deuterium oxide) as both the moderator and coolant, and natural uranium as fuel, differentiating
it from other reactors that use enriched uranium. The name "CANDU" stands for CANada Deuterium
Uranium. operation is similar to
 Liquid metal cooled reactor

A liquid metal cooled reactor (LMCR) is a type of nuclear reactor that uses a liquid metal, such as
sodium or lead, as the primary coolant instead of water. This allows for higher operating temperatures
and improved thermal efficiency, while also offering inherent safety features due to the coolant's inert
nature. LMCRs are often used in fast breeder reactors and nuclear submarines.
Types of Liquid Metals Used:
 Sodium:
Sodium is a common coolant in fast breeder reactors due to its excellent heat transfer properties and
ability to remain liquid over a wide temperature range.
 Lead:
Lead and lead-bismuth alloys are also used as coolants, offering advantages such as low neutron
capture and better compatibility with certain fuels.

Gas cooled reactor

A gas-cooled reactor uses a gas, like carbon dioxide or helium, as the coolant, and graphite as a
moderator, to generate electricity. These reactors can be divided into two main types: Gas-Cooled
Reactors (GCRs) and High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors (HTGRs). GCRs typically use natural
uranium fuel and CO2 as coolant, while HTGRs use enriched uranium and can achieve higher core
temperatures with helium as a coolant.

 Coolant: Primarily uses carbon dioxide (CO2).

 Moderator: Graphite.

 Fuel: Typically uses natural uranium

Fast breeder reactor

A Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is a type of nuclear reactor that generates more nuclear fuel than it
consumes. It achieves this by using fast neutrons to convert non-fissile uranium-238 into fissile
plutonium-239. This process significantly enhances the efficiency of nuclear fuel utilization.
 Fast Neutrons:
FBRs use unmoderated, high-energy neutrons (fast neutrons) to sustain the chain reaction.
 Fuel Breeding:
Instead of simply using fissile material, FBRs breed new fissile material (like plutonium) from fertile
materials like uranium-238.
 Efficiency:
FBRs can extract more energy from uranium resources than traditional reactors, making them
attractive for long-term energy sustainability.
 Coolant:
Some FBRs, like the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) in India, use liquid sodium as a coolant.
 Fuel:
FBRs can utilize a mixture of uranium oxide and plutonium oxide fuel.

Safety measures for Nuclear Power plants

Nuclear power plants employ numerous safety measures, including redundant systems, containment
structures, and robust regulations, to prevent accidents and mitigate their consequences. These
measures aim to shut down reactors, maintain them in a safe state, and prevent the release of
radioactive materials.
Key Safety Measures:
 Redundant Systems:
Nuclear power plants have multiple backup systems, including emergency power, cooling systems, and
safety rod systems, to ensure reliability and prevent catastrophic failures.
 Containment Structures:
These structures, often made of reinforced concrete, are designed to contain radioactive materials and
prevent their release into the environment in the event of an accident.
 Safety Rods:
These rods are designed to quickly shut down the reactor by absorbing neutrons and stopping the
nuclear chain reaction, preventing a supercritical accident.
 Emergency Shutdown:
Plants have systems in place to rapidly and automatically shut down the reactor in the event of an
emergency, often using safety rods or safety injection systems.
 Radiation Monitoring:
Continuous monitoring of both the work environment and individual radiation exposure ensures that
workers are protected from harmful radiation levels.
 Emergency Preparedness:
Nuclear power plants have detailed emergency plans and regular exercises to prepare for potential
incidents, ensuring that workers are trained to handle emergencies effectively.
 Physical Barriers:
Fuel is designed to be encased in sealed zirconium alloy tubes, and the reactor core is housed within a
strong concrete building to prevent the escape of radioactive materials.
 Ventilation and Filtration:
Systems are in place to remove radioactivity from the air in case of a release, protecting plant workers
and the surrounding environment.
 Regulatory Oversight:
Nuclear power plants are subject to rigorous regulatory oversight by government agencies, such as the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, to ensure compliance with safety standards.
These safety measures, combined with rigorous training, monitoring, and inspection, contribute to the
overall safety and reliability of nuclear power plants.
 UNIT 4

What is Hydropower Plant?

The hydropower plant or hydroelectric power plant is used to convert the kinetic energy of water
into electrical energy. The kinetic energy developed in the water flow due to the gravity of falling
water from higher to lower head.
The kinetic energy is used to rotate the turbine and the turbine is connected with an alternator to
generate electrical energy. A hydroelectric power plant is a non-convention power plant and widely
used to generate electricity from a renewable source of energy.
To achieve kinetic energy from water, the reservoir or dam is constructed at a high head from the
ground level. The initial cost of a hydroelectric power plant is very high. But the running cost is very
low. In the world, 16% of total power is generated from the hydroelectric power plant.

Layout and Components of Hydropower Plant

Generally, the hydroelectric power plant is constructed in a hilly area. The typical layout of a
hydroelectric power plant is as shown in the figure below

The major components of the hydroelectric power plant are listed below.
 Forebay
 Intake structure
 Penstock
 Surge tank
 Turbines
 Powerhouse
 Draft tube
 Tailrace
 Forebay
 The forebay is used to store water temporarily before passes to the intake structure. The forebay
is an optional component of a hydroelectric power plant.
 The reservoir is used to store water across the river. In some hydroelectric power plants, the
reservoir behaves as a forebay. And the water from the reservoir leads to the turbine.
 The amount of water stored in the forebay is decided based on the demand of required water
and load in that area.
 Intake Structure
 The intake structure is a chain between the penstock and forebay. It collects water from the
forebay and passes to the penstock.
 It plays an important role in power plants. The water comes in reservoir or forebay from the
river. Therefore, the water contains much trash like trees and debris. The intake structure
contains trash racks and placed trash racks at the entrance of the penstock.
 The trash racks are made of steel rods. It prevents severe damage to the turbine blades and
nozzle. In trash racks, steel rods are placed with a gap of 10 to 30 cm apart.
 Trash racks are heated in cols season to avoid ice rocks collision with turbine blade. Due to
heat in trash racks, the ice rocks melted at the entrance of the penstock. The trash racks must be
clean after a regular time period. And racks and trolly arrangements are used to clean the trash
racks.
 Penstock
 Penstocks are used to increase the velocity of the water. It is large pipes laid on the slope. It
carries water from the reservoir or intake structure to the turbine.
 The penstocks are open and close with the gate. So, at the time of opening and closing of gates,
the pressure of water is very high. Therefore, the penstocks are designed to sustain the hammer
of water.
 Short length penstock has heavy wall and long length penstock has surge tank is used to
overcome the pressure of water. The penstock is made of steel and reinforced concrete.
 If the length of penstock is small, separate penstock is used for the turbine. If the length of
penstock is large, a single penstock is used and at the end, it divides into branches.
 Surge tank
 A surge tank is a cylindrical tank or chamber placed near the powerhouse and it is connected
with the penstock. The surge tank is also known as the surge chamber. It is used to control the
pressure of water in the penstock.
 The water level of the surge tank increases when the powerhouse rejects the water due to low
power demand. So, the surge tank controls the pressure in the penstock.
 When the power demand is high, a surge tank is used to accelerate the water flow. And in this
condition, the water level of the surge tank is reduced. During steady load conditions, the water
level becomes constant.
 Turbine
 The turbine is used to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy. When the
high-pressure water coming from the penstock strikes the turbine blade, the turbine starts
rotating.
 The shaft is placed at the centre of the turbine. And a generator is also connected with the same
shaft and it further converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 There are mail two types of the turbine;
 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
 The impulse turbine is also known as a velocity turbine and the reaction turbine is also known
as a pressure turbine.
 Powerhouse
 The powerhouse is used to provide support and housing to the hydraulic and electrical
equipment. It is divided into two parts; substructure and superstructure.
 The substructure can be an integral part of the hydraulic system or it can be placed away from
the hydraulic system. It is used to provide support to the equipment and provide necessary
ways to the water.
 The superstructure contains the main unit and electrical accessories. The generators are placed
on the ground floor with the turbine. Generally, for better visibility, the control room is placed
on the first or second floor.
 Draft tube
 A draft tube connects the turbine outlet (turbine discharge) to the tailrace. To decrease the
velocity of water, the width of the draft tube is gradually increased. The gates are provided at
the end of a draft tube which is closed at the time of maintenance. In the case of the reaction
turbine, the draft tube is a necessary component.
 Tailrace
 The tailrace is a flow of water from the draft tube or turbine outlet. The powerhouse must be
located near to the stream. If the powerhouse is placed far from the stream, it is compulsory to
build a way or channel to flow the water into a stream.
It will decrease the efficiency, cavitation, damage the turbine by silting caused unnecessary flow of
water. Therefore, while designing a hydroelectric power plant, place the powerhouse near the
stream.
Working of Hydropower Plant
The hydroelectric power plant utilizes the energy stored in water to rotate a hydraulic turbine. The
turbine is used to runs an electric generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The rainwater saves by constructing dams across the river. The stored water on dams has potential
energy which is used to generate electric power.
The electric power generated by hydroelectric power plants depends on the quantity of water
available and the head of water.
A dam was constructed in a hilly area. So, the head of water available naturally. From the dam,
waterfalls towards the blade of the turbine and turbine rotate with the force of water. Turbine and
electrical generator connected on the same shaft.
Therefore, the generator generates electric power. The power generated from the powerhouse can
be controlled by controlling the flow of water.
The advantage of this power plant is that it does not require any fuel. Therefore, the running cost of
this plant is very less. It only requires the water head which is available naturally.
The formula for power generation in a hydroelectric power plant is given by;
Where,
 ρ = density of water = 9.81 kg/m3
 Q = discharge of water (m3/s)
 H = available head (m)
 n = system efficiency
Types of Hydropower Plant
The hydroelectric power plants are classified into different types as follows.
Based on the availability of water head
 Low head plant
 Medium head plant
 High head plant
Based on the nature of the load
 Base load plant
 Peak load plant
Based on the quantity of water available
 Run-off river plants without pondage
 Run-off river plant with pondage
 Storage type plant
 Pumped storage peak load plant
 Mini and micro hydel plant
Site Selection of Hydropower Plant
The location of a hydroelectric power plant is the most important factor. Because to construct a
hydropower plant, the capital cost to very high. Here, we discuss which factor must be considered
while selecting a site for the hydroelectric power plant.
 Availability of water
 Storage capacity of water
 Water head
 Transportation facility
 Cost of land
 Water pollution
 Geological data
Availability of water
Water is the main requirement of a hydropower plant. Without water, this plant cannot operate. So,
the plant must be constructed on land where the water is available throughout the year. In most
cases, the hydropower plant is constructed over a river or canal to meet the high water demand.
And check the previous years’ data of rainfall to confirm the availability of water.
Storage capacity of water
The natural main source of water is rainfall or melting of the ice mountain. In some countries, the
rainfall is seasonal. So, to use plants throughout the year, we need to store a bulk amount of water.
For that, a dam or pondage is constructed near the powerhouse. The capacity of water storage will
decide the capacity of power generation and how much time it can operate without rainfall.
Water head
The hydropower plant uses the kinetic energy of water. If we have a high water head naturally, we
can use the kinetic energy to rotate the turbine. In most cases, the dam is constructed in hilly areas
where the water head is available naturally. So, it is necessary to select a site with a high head
available naturally.
Transportation Facility
The hydropower plant requires heavy machinery to operate the plant as well as while constructing
a dam, powerhouse, etc. Therefore, the selected site has an adequate transportation facility to
transport machinery. Also, at the time of construction, it requires huge manpower. So, the place
selected for the power plant has a good transportation facility. The power plant site must be
accessible with rail or road transport.
Cost of land
The initial cost of this plant is very high. So, the land that is used to build dams and powerhouses
must available at a reasonable price.
Water pollution
Water is the main fuel of the power plant. If the polluted water is supplied to the turbine blade, it
may damage the turbine blade. And that will reduce the life of the turbine. Therefore, the supplied
water must be free from pollution.
Geological data
The place chosen for a plant is capable to withstand the trust of water and other stress. There is no
chance of land sliding. Otherwise, there are chances to fall dam and it creates flood situation in
nearby areas. Before constructing a dam, we need to check the previous year’s data of earthquakes,
thunderstorms, etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower Plant
Advantages:
The advantages of hydropower plants are listed below.
 It is an environmentally friendly power plant and a non-polluting clean source of electrical
energy.
 The operating cost of this plant is very less compared to other power plants like steam and
nuclear power plant.
 It takes a very short time to start and stop the plant.
 The life of this plant is very high. The approximate life of a hydropower plant is more than 50
years.
 This plant can be operating as a base load plant as well as a peak load plant.
 Only water is required to operate this plant. So, we can say no fuel is used to run this plant and
this will reduce the operating cost of a plant.
 The water released from the plant can be used for irrigation and flood control purposes.
 Compared to a steam power plant, less staff is required in a hydroelectric power plant.
 The plant is not using any fossil fuels. So, there are no byproducts like ash.
 These plants are more reliable and it has high efficiency over a wide range of load compared to
other power plants.
Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of hydroelectric power plants are as listed below.
 The power developed from the hydroelectric plant depends on the quantity of water and water
head. To create a water head, a dam is needed, and to store water, a reservoir is needed. So, the
capital cost to build a dam and reservoir is very high.
 These plants are located in hilly areas. And in most cases, these areas are far from the load
center. So, we need to transmit power via the transmission line. Which creates more
transmission loss and increases the capital cost to connect the load center and powerhouse via a
transmission line.
 It takes more time required to build a dam and reservoir.
 In most places, the water is available in some seasons only. And this plant is depending on the
availability of water. This plant cannot operate in the dry season. So, the hydroelectric plant
depends on natural rainfall.
wind energy electricity generation
Principle of wind energy electricity generation It is defined as the system in which the kinetic
energy of the wind is converted to mechanical energy which in turn is used to generate electrical
energy. The machines which are used to convert the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical
energy usually consist of sails, vanes or blades radiating from the hub or the central axis. The axis
can be horizontal in most of the cases or vertical in some cases. When the wind hits the blade, it
rotates around the axis and the motion of the blades can be put to useful work. The devices which
are used in wind conversion system are known as wind turbines because they convert the kinetic
energy of the wind into the rotational energy and the device used for this is known as rotor. These
wind turbines are connected to electrical generator to the required electrical energy and the
connection of these two devices is known as aero generator. A transmission system is usually used
to increase the speed of the rotor with the help of gear system. One single wind turbine may not be
able to produce the desired level of electricity. Hence, numbers of wind turbines are connected
together to obtain the desired output. This assembly of wind turbines together is called a wind
farm. We must choose the place for constructing a wind farm where the wind speed is sufficient to
move the blade of the turbine. When the wind blows through the blades of a turbine, the turbine
rotates to run a generator to produce electricity. This electricity flows down through the cable
attached to the turbine tower. This cable is also interconnected with cables from other wind
turbines in the wind farm. Hence, electricity from all wind turbines comes to a common node from
where it is taken for further ends. After all, this electricity is used directly for domestic or industrial
load or is drawn by any grid to fulfil the requirement of electricity.
 Working principle of Tidal power plants
 Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction
of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy which is used for
power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide. When the
water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide. Working The arrangement of this
system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall and water can be stored during the rise
period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is constructed separating the tidal basin from
the sea and a difference in water level is obtained between the basin and sea.

During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water turbine.
The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and generates
power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.

During low
tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is more than that of the
tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the turbine and generator power. The
generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal. For the
generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some minimum tide height and
suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia and Rance power plant in France are
the only examples of this type of power plant
Advantages of tidal power plants.
1. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
2. It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.
3. It improves the possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins and it can provide recreation to visitors
and holiday makers. Disadvantages
1.Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the bay.
2.As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load centres, the power
generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This increases the transmission cost and transmission
losses.
Solar Thermal Technology

The solar thermal technology is broadly classified into

Non-concentrated solar thermal technologies Eg: Water heater (Non concentrated)

Solar Dryers (Non Concentrated)

Concentrated solar thermal technologies

Concentrated Collectors use optics to absorb sunlight and concentrate it to a receiver for energy
conversion. In general the energy generated from the solar thermal technologies are used for
heating application, solar cooking solar drying, process heating, cooling and also electricity
generation using solar steam.
 Parabolic trough collectors (Concentrated)
 Scheffler collectors (Concentrated with fixed focus)
 Parabloid collectors (Concentrated with moving focus)
 Linear Fresnel Collectors(Concentrated with fixed focus)
 Fresnel Reflectors (Concentrated with moving focus)
 Sterling Engine.(Concentrated with moving focus) Solar Cookers (Both Concentrated and non
concentrated)
Principles of Solar Thermal Technology

The heat is an energy form produced by the movement of molecules. The heat transfer occurs
between higher and lower temperatures and is proportional to difference in temperatures. The three
basic means of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.

Convection and conduction plays important role in the heat transfer mechanism in a solar system.
But radiation heat transfer facilitates the bringing of the solar energy to the earth in the form of
electromagnetic spectrum.
 Radiation: The heat transfer phenomenon through longer wavelength infrared rays often
transmitted across the space as a consequence of thermal agitation of composing molecules.
Radiative heat transfer does not require a medium for energy transfer. The radiative flux is
often quantified as the emission per unit time per unit surface area (W/m2). The usual way to
compare the energy emitted or absorbed by an object is to compare it with a black body. A
black body is equally a good emitter and an absorber. The solar collectors like aluminum/glass
reflective collectors absorb the sun’s radiative energy from the space. The theoretical
abstraction of energy emitted from a black body is defined using Planck’s Law. The total
energy between any two wavelengths can be conveniently expressed using Stefan –Boltzmann
law of radiation.
 Conduction: The heat transfer happening between two surfaces, which are in direct contact
with each other. The receivers in a solar thermal system, absorb the solar energy and conducts
the same to another medium for utilization.
 Convection: The heat transfer happening in between two mediums. Like for example, liquid
 converting to gas using heat gain or gas conversion to liquid by release of heat.
Working Principle of a solar collector
In a solar collector, the solar energy passes through a glazed glass layer and is absorbed. The solar
energy excites the molecules produces heat and gets trapped by the glass layer.
Reflectors/Absorbers: The main types of reflectors used in the solar thermal systems are
aluminum or glass reflectors. The reflectivity of these collectors needs to be a high as possible. The
glass type reflectors have higher reflectivity and life compared to aluminum type reflectors. In case
of water heaters and solar cookers, there are absorbers which are black coated metal sheets.
Receivers: The receivers are used to collect the concentrated energy from the Sun from the
reflectors to a common point/area, so as to magnify the energy in it. The ratio of the area of the
Reflector to the area of the receiver is often termed as Concentration Ratio (C.R). CR signifies the
strength of the systems for higher energy conversion possibilities.
The solar collectors can be classified based on the movement of absorber as
 Fixed Focus System
 Moving Focus system
Fixed Focus System: In a fixed focus system, the energy is focused at the absorber which is fixed
at a definite focal axis. The reflectors are rotating so as to focus the sun energy at fixed point
continuously throughout the day.
Moving Focus system: In a moving focus system, the energy from the sun is focused at the
absorber which keeps moving along with the reflectors. The moving focus is characterized by
higher throughput and hence, higher efficiency.

Geothermal Energy
Heat emanating from the Earth’s interior and crust generates magma (molten
rock).Because magma is less dense than surrounding rock, it rises but generally does
not reach the surface, heating the water contained in rock pores and fractures. Wells
are drilled into this natural collection of hot water or steam, called a geothermal
reservoir, in order to bring it to the surface and use it for electricity production.

The three basic types of geothermal electrical generation facilities are binary,
dry steam (referred to as .steam.),and flash steam (referred to as .flash.). Electricity
production from each type depends on reservoir temperatures and pressures, and each
type produces somewhat different environmental impacts. In addition, the choice of
using water or air cooling technology in the power plants has economic and
environmental trade-offs.

The most common type of power plant to date is a flash power plant with a
water cooling system, where a mixture of water and steam is produced from the wells.
The steam is separated in a surface vessel (steam separator) and delivered to the
turbine, and the turbine powers a generator. In a dry steam plant like those at The
Geysers in California, steam directly from the geothermal reservoir runs the turbines
that power the generator, and no separation is necessary because wells only produce
steam. Figure 2 shows a flash steam plant.
Dry steam plant

Binary Power Plant

 A cooling system is essential for the operation of any modern geothermal
power plant. Cooling towers prevent turbines from overheating and prolong facility
life. Most power plants, including most geothermal plants, use water cooling systems.
Figure 4 below shows a more complex diagram of a geothermal power plant, complete
with a water(evaporative) cooling system. Figures 2 and 3 simplify the process of
electricity production, while figure 4 shows greater detail and accuracy. Water cooled
systems generally require less land than air cooled systems, and are considered overall
to be effective and efficient cooling systems.

The evaporative cooling used in water cooled systems, however, requires a

continuous supply of cooling water and creates vapor plumes. Usually, some of the
spent steam from the turbine (for flash- and steam-type plants) can be condensed for
this purpose. Air cooled systems, in contrast to the relative stability of water cooled
systems, can be extremely efficient in the winter months, but are less efficient in
hotter seasons when the contrast between air and water temperature is reduced, so that
air does not effectively cool the organic fluid. Air cooled systems are beneficial in
areas where extremely low emissions are desired, or in arid regions where water
resources are limited, since no fluid needs to be evaporated for the cooling process.

Air cooled systems are preferred in areas where the view shed is particularly
sensitive to the effects of vapor plumes, as vapor plumes are only emitted into the air
by wet cooling towers and not air cooling towers. Most geothermal air cooling is used
in binary facilities.
A combination of flash and binary technology, known as the flash/binary
combined cycle, has been used effectively to take advantage of the benefits of both
technologies. In this type of plant, the flashed steam is first converted to electricity
with a back pressure steam turbine, and the low-pressure steam exiting the
backpressure turbine is condensed in a binary system. This allows for the effective use
of air-cooling towers with flash applications and takes advantage of the binary
process. The flash/binary system has higher efficiency where the well-field produces
high pressure steam, while the elimination of vacuum pumping of non-condensable
gases allows for 100 percent injection.

FUEL CELLS A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical potential energy (energy stored in
molecular bonds) into electrical energy. Unlike a generator, a fuel cell directly “converts” an energy
source into electricity through a chemical reaction. This involves one step rather than multiple steps.
This allows a fuel cell to remain efficient, quiet and clean. Difference between fuel cell and battery:
The biggest difference between the two is that a battery stores energy, while a fuel cell generates
energy by converting available fuel. A fuel cell can have a battery as a system component to store the
electricity it’s generating.
Types of Fuel Cells Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. The
electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the anode and
cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt
the chemical reaction. Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form
water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will
generate electricity.
1. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.
2. Direct methanol fuel cells.
3. Alkaline fuel cells.
4. Phosphoric acid fuel cells.
5. Molten carbonate fuel cells.
6.Solid oxide fuel cells.
7.Reversible fuel cells.
How do fuel cells work?
There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in general terms,
hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their
electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and carry a positive electrical charge. The
negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to do work. If alternating
current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion
device called an inverter.
Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types (like the one illustrated
above), it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions
that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the oxygen picks
up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte to the anode, where it combines with
hydrogen ions.

The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the
anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel through the electrolyte,
they would disrupt the chemical reaction.

Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water, which
 drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will
generate electricity.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Hydrogen + Oxygen = Electricity + Water Vapor

A PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) cell uses hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) as
fuel. The products of the reaction in the cell are water, electricity, and heat.

There are four basic elements of a PEM Fuel Cell:

 How does it work?
Pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas is forced
through the catalyst by the pressure. When an
H2 molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and
two electrons (e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way
through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to the
cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through the
catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge.
This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with
an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to form a water molecule
(H2O).

Due to the high energetic content of hydrogen and high efficiency of fuel cells (55%), this
great technology can be used in many applications like transport (cars, buses, forklifts, etc)
and backup power to produce electricity during a failure of the electricity grid.

UNIT V
Tariff
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.
Types of Tariff
There are several types of tariff. However, the following are the commonly used types of tariff :
1. Simple tariff. When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a simple
tariff or uniform rate tariff.
In this type of tariff, the price charged per unit is constant i.e., it does not vary with increase or
decrease in number of units consumed. The consumption of electrical energy at the consumer’s
terminals is recorded by means of an energy meter. This is the simplest of all tariffs and is readily
understood by the consumers.
Disadvantages
(i) There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every consumer has to pay
equitably for the fixed* charges.
(ii) The cost per unit delivered is high.
(iii) It does not encourage the use of electricity.
2. Flat rate tariff. When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates, it
is called a flat rate tariff.
In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each class of consumers is
charged at a different uniform rate. For instance, the flat rate per kWh for lighting load may be 60
paise, whereas it may be slightly less† (say 55 paise per kWh) for power load. The different classes of
consumers are made taking into account their diversity and load factors. The advantage of such a tariff
is that it is more fair to different types of consumers and is quite simple in calculations.
Disadvantages
(i) Since the flat rate tariff varies according to the way the supply is used, separate meters are required
for lighting load, power load etc. This makes the application of such a tariff expensive and
complicated.
(ii) A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the magnitude of energy
consumed. However, a big consumer should be charged at a lower rate as in his case the fixed charges
per unit are reduced.
3. Block rate tariff. When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the
succeeding blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, it is called a block rate tariff.
In block rate tariff, the energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per unit is fixed in each
block. The price per unit in the first block is the highest** and it is progressively reduced for the
succeeding blocks of energy. For example, the first 30 units may be charged at the rate of 60 paise per
unit ; the next 25 units at the rate of 55 paise per unit and the remaining additional units may be
charged at the rate of 30 paise per unit.
The advantage of such a tariff is that the consumer gets an incentive to consume more electrical
energy. This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation is reduced.
However, its principal defect is that it lacks a measure of the consumer’s demand. This type of tariff is
being used for majority of residential and small commercial consumers.
4. Two-part tariff. When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of
the consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part tariff.
In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components viz.,
fixed charges and running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the
consumer while the running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer.
Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum†† demand plus a certain
amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e.,
Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)
where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable maximum
demand.
Advantages
(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.
(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer but are
independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages
(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or not
consumed the electrical energy.
(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.
5. Maximum demand tariff. It is similar to two-part tariff with the only difference that the maximum
demand is actually measured by installing maximum demand meter in the premises of the consumer.
This removes the objection of two-part tariff where the maximum demand is assessed merely on the
basis of the rateable value. This type of tariff is mostly applied to big consumers. However, it is not
suitable for a small consumer (e.g., residential consumer) as a separate maximum demand meter is
required.
6. Power factor tariff. The tariff in which power factor of the consumer’s load is taken into
consideration is known as power factor tariff.
In an a.c. system, power factor plays an important role. A low* power factor increases the rating of
station equipment and line losses. Therefore, a consumer having low power factor must be penalised.
The following are the important types of power factor tariff :
(i) k VA maximum demand tariff : It is a modified form of two-part tariff. In this case, the fixed
charges are made on the basis of maximum demand in kVA and not in kW. As kVA is inversely
proportional to power factor, therefore, a consumer having low power factor has to contribute more
towards the fixed charges. This type of tariff has the advantage that it encourages the consumers to
operate their appliances and machinery at improved power factor.
(ii) Sliding scale tariff : This is also know as average power factor tariff. In this case, an average power
factor, say 0·8 lagging, is taken as the reference. If the power factor of the consumer falls below this
factor, suitable additional charges are made. On the other hand, if the power factor is above the
reference, a discount is allowed to the consumer.
(iii) kW and kVAR tariff : In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) supplied
are charged separately. A consumer having low power factor will draw more reactive power and hence
shall have to pay more charges.
7. Three-part tariff. When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into three parts viz.,
fixed charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it is known as a three-part tariff. i.e.,
Total charge = Rs (a + b × kW + c × kWh)
where a = fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes
interest and depreciation on the cost of secondary distribution
and labour cost of collecting revenues,
b = charge per kW of maximum demand,
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
It may be seen that by adding fixed charge or consumer’s charge (i.e., a) to two-part tariff, it becomes
three-part tariff. The principal objection of this type of tariff is that the charges are split into three
components. This type of tariff is generally applied to big consumers.
LOAD DISTRIBUTION PARAMETERS (Types of load)
A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system is called a load on the system.
The load may be resistive (e.g., electric lamp), inductive (e.g., induction motor), capacitive or some
combination of them.
The various types of load on the power system are:
(i) Domestic load
(ii) Commercial load
(iii) Industrial load
(iv) Municipal load
(v) Irrigation load
(vi) Traction load
Domestic load. Domestic load consists of lights, fans, refrigerator, heaters, television, small motors for
pumping water etc. Most of the residential load occurs only for some hours during the day (i.e., 24
hours) e.g., lighting load occurs during night time and domestic appliance load occurs for only a few
hours. For this reason, the load factor is low (10% to 12%). Commercial load. Commercial load
consists of lighting for shops, fans and electric appliances used in restaurants etc. This class of load
occurs for more hours during the day as compared to the domestic load.
The commercial load has seasonal variations due to the extensive use of air conditioners and space
heaters.
Industrial Load. Industrial load consists of load demand by industries. The magnitude of industrial
load depends upon the type of industry. Thus small scale industry requires load up to 25kW, medium
scale industry between 25kW and 100kW and large-scale industry requires load above 500kW.
Industrial loads are generally not weather dependent.
Municipal Load. Municipal load consists of street lighting, power required for water supply and
drainage purposes. Street lighting load is practically constant throughout the hours of the night. For
water supply, water is pumped to overhead tanks by pumps driven by electric motors. Pumping is
carried out during the off-peak period, usually occurring during the night. This helps to improve the
load factor of the power system. Irrigation load. This type of load is the electric power needed for
pumps driven by motors to supply water to fields. Generally this type of load is supplied for 12 hours
during night.
Traction load. This type of load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways etc. This class of load
has wide variation. During the morning hour, it reaches peak value because people have to go to their
work place. After morning hours, the load starts decreasing and again rises during evening since the
people start coming to their homes.
LOADCURVE The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time is
known as a load curve. The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time.
These load variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are
plotted against time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is known as daily load curve as it shows the
variations of load w.r.t time during day. Fig 5.6 shows a typical daily load curve of a power station.
Load on the power station is varying, being maximum at 6 P.M in this case. It may be seen that load
curve indicates briefly the general character of the load that is being imposed on the plant. Such a clear
representation cannot be obtained from tabulated figures.
The monthly load curve can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. For this purpose,
average * values of power over a month at different times of the day are calculated and then plotted on
the graph. The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy. The yearly load curve is
obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular year. The yearly load curve is
generally used to determine the annual load factor.
Importance of load curve
The daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation as they supply the following
information readily: (i) The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during
different hours of the day.
(ii) The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day. Units
generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve.
(iii) The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the station on that
day.
(iv) The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on
the station in the day.
(v) The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units
(vi)The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
CAPITAL AND OPERATING COST OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS (COST ANALYSIS) The
cost of a power system depends upon whether:
5.1 CAPITAL AND OPERATING COST OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS
(COST ANALYSIS)

The cost of a power system depends upon whether:

(i) An entirely new power system has to be set up, or

(ii) An existing system has to be replaced, or
(iii) An extension has to be provided to the existing system. includes:
1. Capital or Fixed cost. It includes the following:
(i) Initial cost
(ii) Interest
(iii) Depreciation cost
(iv) Taxes
(v) Insurance
2. Operational cost. It includes the following:
(i) Fuel cost
(ii) Operating labour cost
(iii) Maintenance cost
(iv) Supplies
(v) Supervision
(vi) Operating taxes.

CAPITAL COST OR FIXED COST

Initial cost

Some of the several factors on which cost of a generating station or a power plant
depends on

(i) Location of the plant

(ii) Time of construction
(iii) Size of units
(iv) Number of main generating units
(v) Overhead charges which will include the transportation cost, stores
and storekeeping charges, interest during construction etc.
 To reduce the cost of building, it is desirable to eliminate the
superstructure over the boiler house and as far as possible on turbine
house also.
 The cost on equipment can be reduced by adopting a unit system where
one boiler is used for one turbo-generator. Also, by simplifying the
piping system, and elimination of duplicate system such as steam
headers and boiler feed headers. The cost can be further reduced by
eliminating duplicate or stand-by auxiliaries.
 When the power plant is not situated in proximity to the load served, the
cost of a primary distribution system will be a part of the initial
investment.

Interest

All enterprises need investment of money, and this money may be obtained as loan,
through bonds and shares or from owners of personal funds. Interest is the difference between
money borrowed and money returned. It may be charged at a simple rate expressed as % per
annum or may be compounded, in which case the interest is reinvested and adds to the principal,
thereby earning more interest in subsequent years.

Even if the owner invests his own capital the charge of interest is necessary to cover the
income that he would have derived from it through an alternative investment or fixed deposit
with a bank. Amortization in the periodic repayment of the principal as a uniform annual
expense.

Depreciation Depreciation accounts for the deterioration of the equipment and decrease in its value
due to corrosion, weathering and wear and tear with use. It also covers the decrease in the value of
equipment due to obsolescence. With rapid improvements in design and construction of plants,
obsolescence factor is of enormous importance. The availability of better models with lesser overall
cost of generation makes it imperative to replace the old equipment earlier than its useful life is
spent. The actual life span of the plant has, therefore, to be taken as shorter than what would be
normally expected out of it.

OPERATING COST

The elements that make up the operating expenditure of power plant include the
following costs:

(i) Cost of fuels

(ii) Labour cost
(iii) Cost of maintenance and repairs
(iv) Cost of stores (other than fuel)
(v) Supervision
 (vi) Taxes
Cost of fuels. In a thermal station fuel is the heaviest item of operating cost. The selection of the fuel
and the maximum economy in its use are, therefore, very important considerations in thermal plant
design. It is desirable to achieve the highest thermal efficiency for the plant so that fuel charges are
reduced. The cost of the fuel includes not only its price at the sire of purchase but its transportation and
handling costs also In the hydroplants the absence of fuel factor in cost is responsible for lowering the
operating cost. Plant heat rate can be improved by the use of better quality of fuel or by employing
better thermodynamic conditions in the plant design.

The cost of fuel varies with the following:

(i) Unit price of the fuel

(ii) Amount of energy produced.
(iii) Efficiency of the plant

Labour cost. For plant operation labour cost is another item of operating cost. Maximum
labour is needed in a thermal power plant using coal as a fuel. A hydraulic power plant or
a diesel power plant of equal capacity requires a lesser number of persons. In case of
automatic power station the cost of labour is reduced to a great extent. However labour
cost cannot be completely eliminated even with fully automatic station as they will still
require some manpower for periodic inspection etc.

Cost of maintenance and repairs. In order to avoid plant breakdown maintenance is

necessary. Maintenance includes periodic cleaning, greasing, adjustments and
overhauling of equipment. The material used for maintenance is also charged under this
head. Sometimes an arbitrary percentage is assumed as maintenance cost. A good plan of
maintenance would keep the sets in dependable condition and avoid the necessity of too
many stand-by-plants.

Repairs are necessitated when the plant breaks down or stops due to faults developing
in the mechanism. The repairs may be minor, major or periodic overhauls and are charged
to the depreciation fund of the equipment. This item of cost is higher for thermal plants
than for hydro-plants due to complex nature of principal equipment and auxiliaries in the
former.

Cost of stores. The items of consumable stores other than fuel include such articles as
lubricating oil and greases, cotton waste, small tools, chemicals, paints and such other
things. The incidence of this cost is also higher in thermal stations than in hydro-electric
power stations.

Supervision. In this head the salary of supervising staff is included. Good supervision is
reflected in lesser breakdowns and extended plant life. The supervising staff includes the
station superintendent, chief engineer, chemist, engineers, supervisors, store in-charges,
purchase officer and other establishment. Again, thermal stations, particularly coal-fed,
have a greater incidence of this cost than the hydro-electric power stations.

Taxes. The taxes under operating head include the following:

(i) Income tax

(ii) Sales tax
 (iii) Social security and employee‟s security.

POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES INCLUDING WASTE DISPOSAL

OPTIONS FOR COAL AND NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS. (POLLUTION AND ITS
CONTROL)

INTRODUCTION

All power production plants, invariably, pollute the atmosphere and the resulting
imbalance on ecology has a bad effect. The pollution is inevitable in some cases and has to be
minimized to the extent possible. This is being achieved by effective legislations all over the
world.

The power plant pollutants of major concern are:

A. From fossil power plants:

(i) Sulphur oxide.
(ii)Nitrogen oxide
(iii)Carbon oxide
(iv)Thermal pollution
(v) Particulate matter
B. From nuclear power plants
(i)Radioactivity release
(ii)Radioactivity wastes
(iii)Thermal pollution
Besides this, pollutants such as lead and hydrocarbons are contributed by automobiles.

POLLUTION FROM THERMAL-POWER PLANTS

The environment is polluted to a great extent by thermal power plants. The emission
from the chimney throws unwanted gases and particles into the atmosphere while the heat is
thrown into the atmosphere and rivers. Both these aspects pollute the environment beyond
tolerable limits and now are being controlled by appropriate regulations. The types of
emissions, effects and methods of minimizing these pollutions are discussed below.

The air pollution in a large measure is caused by the thermal-power plants burning
conventional fuels (coal, oil or gas). The combustible elements of the fuel are converted to
gaseous products and non-combustible elements to ash. Thus, the emission can be classified as
follow:

(1) Gaseous emission

(2) Particulate emission
(3) Solid waste emission
(4) Thermal pollution (or waste heat)

Gaseous emission and its control

The various gaseous pollutants are:

(i) Sulphur di-oxide

(ii) Hydrogen sulphide
 (iii) Oxides of nitrogen
(iv) Carbon monoxide etc.
(5) Thermal pollution (or waste heat)

Gaseous emission and its control

The various gaseous pollutants are:

(i) Sulphur di-oxide

(ii) Hydrogen sulphide
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen
(iv) Carbon monoxide etc.
1.Removal of Sulphur dioxide (SO2): SO2 is removed by wet scrubbers
2.Emission of NOx:
Nitrogen oxides are compounds of the elements nitrogen and oxygen, both of which are present in air.
The combustion of fossil fuels in air is accompanied by the formation of nitric oxide (NO) which is
subsequently partly oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
The following methods are commonly used to reduce the emission of NOX from
thermal (and gas turbine) power plants:

1. Reduction of temperature in combustion zone.

2. Reduction of residence period in combustion zone.
3. Increase in equivalence ratio in the combustion zone.
How to reduce thermal pollution?

While considering the efficiency of the thermal plant, it is desirable that the water from a
river or lake is pumped through the condenser and fed back to the source. The rise of
temperature will be about 10 C which is highly objectionable from the pollution point of
view. Hence, this waste heat which is removed from the condenser will have to be thrown
into the atmosphere and not into the water source; in this direction following methods can
be adopted:

1. Construction of a separate lake

2. Cooling pond
3. Cooling towers

Construction of a separate lake

Sufficiently large water storage in the form of a lake can be built and once-through
cooling the condenser can be adopted. If the natural cooling of water from the lake is not
sufficient, floating spray pumps can be employed.

This method improves the thermal efficiency of the plant but can prove expensive.
Also, it may not always be possible to have a large enough lake artificially built.

Cooling pond

A cooling pond with continuously operating fountains can be adopted for smaller
power plants. This will also serve as a beautifying feature of the power plant side.

Cooling towers
 In order to throw heat into the atmosphere most power stations adopt cooling towers.
The hyperbolic shape given to the tower automatically induces air from the bottom to flow
upwards and the water is cooled by coming in direct contact with the air. This is a natural
convection cooling and is also called „wet-cooling tower‟.

The overall efficiency of such plants will be lower than those of the plants adopting a
once- through cooling system. There will be considerable vapor flumes escaping from the
cooling towers. Sometime, make-up cooling water may be scarce. In such cases, a dry
cooling tower can be adopted. Dry cooling towers are much more expensive than wet
cooling towers.

All cooling towers, whether dry or wet, are expensive and add to the initial investment
of the plant. Small plants can adopt mechanical-draft systems using induced or forced draft
systems. This helps in avoiding height to the cooling towers. Thus, the initial cost is
reduced but the maintenance costs of mechanical-draft systems are high.

POLLUTION FROM NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The various types of pollution from nuclear power plants are:

1. Radioactive pollution
2. Waste from reactor (solid, liquid, gases)
3. Thermal pollution

Radioactive pollution. This is the most dangerous and serious type of pollution. This is
due to radioactive elements and fissionable products in reactor. The best way to abate is
the radioactive shield around the reactor.

Waste from reactor. Due to nuclear reactor reaction nuclear wastes (mixtures of various
Beta and Gamma emitting radioactive isotopes with various half-lives) are produced
which cannot be neutralized by any chemical method.

If the waste is discharged in the atmosphere, air and water will be contaminated
beyond the tolerable limits. Some methods of storage or disposal of radioactive waste
materials are discussed below:

1. Storage tanks. The radioactive wastes can be buried underground (very deep below
the surface) in corrosion resistance tanks located in isolated areas. With the passage of
time these will become stable isotopes.
2. Dilution. After storing for a short time, low energy wastes are diluted either in liquid
or gaseous materials. After dilution, they are disposed off in sewer without causing
hazard.
3. Sea disposal. This dilution can be used be adequately diluting the wastes and this
method is being used by the British. Atmospheric dilution. This method can be used
for gaseous radioactive wastes. But solid particles from the gaseous wastes must be
filtered out thoroughly since they are the most dangerous with higher half-life.
4. Absorption by the soil. Fission products are disposed of by this method. The
radioactive particles are absorbed by soil particles. But this is expensive.
5. Burying in sea. Solid nuclear wastes can be stored in concrete blocks which are buried
in the sea. This method is expensive, but no further care is needed.