LECTURE NOTE

NASPW
PROJECT MANAGEMENT &
EVALUATION

Dr. Nganje Sophie esp Tambi

National Advanced School of Public Work (NASPW)
E-mail: [email protected]
Course Description
The course is designed to enable students to broaden their
understanding of project management and evaluation as it applies to different types
of projects. This will facilitate an excellent successful academic journey and
enhance their personal development and increase their knowledge base in the area
of project management and evaluation especially as many more organizations are
beginning to appreciate the role of the project management approach in executing
tasks in organizational success. It is also hoped that this course will give students
the basic insight and knowledge they need to function on projects.

Course Objectives
By the end of this course you will be able to:
• Define a project, project management, and evaluation as well as its scope.
• Understand different types of projects, their characteristics, and their objectives.
• Understand projects in organization structure
• Appreciate the project management process
• Understand who a project manager is, types of project managers, selection,
roles, and responsibilities of a project manager.
• Examine more closely project evaluation and post-project evaluation
Understand some issues that are associated with project management

Further Studies
Harrison, F. L. & Lock, D. (2004). Advanced Project Management: A
Structured Approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd
Basics, (n.d.). “Basics of Project Management.”
https://www.manage.gov.in/studymaterial/PM.pdf
Meredith, J. R. & Mantel, S. J. (2010). Project Management: a managerial approach,
(7th ed.). Asia: John Wiley.
Najaragan, K. (2012). Project Management. New Age International (P) Ltd. Nokes,
S. (2008). The Definitive Guide to Project Management, (2nd ed.),
London: Financial Times / Prentice Hall.
Olsson, E. & Samset, K. (2006). Front-end management, flexibility, and project
success. Paper presented at PMI® Research Conference: New
Directions in Project Management, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute
Pacific Invasive (n.d.). Pacific Invasive Initiative resource kit for rodent and cat
 eradication. Available at http://www.pacificinvasivesinitiative.org/
Project Management Institute (2021). What is project management? Available at
https://www.pmi.org/about/learn-about-pmi/what-is-project- management
Project Management Institute (2017). A Guide to the Project
Management
Body of Knowledge, (6th ed.), Pennsylvania: Project Management Institute

Mansinghka, A. & Mohan, N. (2021). 5 project selection criteria to structure

the PMO. Available at https://www.saviom/5-project-selection-
criteria- structure-project-management-office/
Robbins, S. P., DeCenzo, David A. and Coulter, M. (2012). Fundamentals of
Management, (7th ed.). Pearson
Shraddha, S. (n.d). Project: definition, characteristics and objectives. Available at
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/project-management/project-
definition- characteristics-and-objectives/94592
Simplilearn, (2021). “The project management principles.” Available at
https://www.simplilearn.com/project-management-basic-principles-
article
Sindjuha, S. (n.d.). Project: types, objectives and organisation/project
management.
Available at https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/project-
management/project-types-objectives-and-organisation-
project- management/9992
Turner, J. R. (2004) Five necessary conditions for project
success. International Journal of Project Management, 22, 349-350.
DOI:10.1016/j.ijproman.2004.02.001
Plan of Course
PART ONE

Lecture One: Project

• Concept of Project
• Concept of Project Management
• Project Initiation
• Project Planning
• Project Budgeting

Lecture Two: Project Organization

• Functional Organization Structure
• Pure Project Organization Structure
• Matrix Organization
• Organization Structure

Lecture Three: Resources in Project Management

• Definition of Project Resource
• Resource Management

PART TWO

Lecture Four: Project Evaluation

• Concept of Project Evaluation
• Concept of Post Project Evaluation (Post Audit)
*Project evaluation review technique (pert)
*Critical path method (cpm)
* PERT, CPM and GANTT

Lecture Five: Organizational Issues in Project Management

• Leadership in Project Management
• Interpersonal Aspects in Project Management
LECTURE ONE: PROJECTS

1.1 Definition of Project

A good place to begin in this module is to ask the question “what is a project?” The
definition of the concept of project may vary within the context of use. To
that extent, one can say that there is no universal definition of the concept.
However, in project management, project can simply be described as a series of tasks
that need to be completed to reach a specific outcome or goal within a specified time
frame. It is “a temporary endeavour with a defined beginning and end (usually
time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or deliverables), undertaken to
meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or
added value” (Nokes (2012). Bridge Group cited in Project Management Book of
Knowledge (Project Management Institute, 2017) says it is “a related set of activities
and milestones with a preset goal and time frame that is designed as a specific event
and not an ongoing process…a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique
product or service.”
The temporary nature of project proceeds from the fact that a project has a definite
start and end date. In the same vein, the uniqueness is because the product or service
is different from all similar products or services. A project can come either as a
unique product or service. In other words, there are different types of projects and
again even if you are carrying out two similar projects, each is distinct and by
implication unique. They are also temporary and time-bound, as a result, it is not
expected that a project should last forever.
In another definition, Turner(2004) sees project as an endeavour in which human (or
machine), materials, financial, and knowledge resources are organised in a
novel way, to undertake a unique scope of work of given specification, within
constraints of cost and time, so as to deliver quantitative, qualitative, and consumer-
oriented product and service. This definition makes us understand that a project must
have deliverables that meet the needs of the customer (s) i.e there is an outcome.
.
According to Harrison & Locke (2004), a project is a “non-routine, non-
repetitive, one-off undertaking, normally with discrete (individually separate and
distinct) time, financial and technical performance goals.” The point that is being
emphasised here is that projects are not undertaken just for the sake of it. Rather,
projects are initiated and executed to solve a problem or take advantage of an
opportunity. For example; the construction of a new library building is a project
which is aimed at providing a space to meet the informational, educational, and
recreational needs of members of a community of users, be it academic or what have
you.
It is also possible that a building can be built for financial gains as we have with
rented apartments. In either case, the construction of a library building or any
building for that matter is a one-time, non-routine, non-repetitive activity, and the
project will have a start date and a completion date. You should differentiate a
project such as that from the routine library operations that we carry out daily when
we report to work. Library operations or work operations in other organisations that
are routine and form part of their daily activities are not classified as projects.
Taking the example of a library building which is a construction project, we have to
understand that every construction project is unique by itself and will involve many
activities such as clearing the site, pegging and marking out the ground, construction
of foundations, etc. This is the case with all building construction projects. The
activities involved in constructing a building have to be broken down into a series of
tasks that on completion of the series of tasks, it will ultimately result in having a
physical building. That is why Najaragan (2012) adds that a project is accomplished
by performing a set of activities. In our example above, the final goal or outcome is
to have a library building that is built according to laid down specifications. Before
the project can be deemed successfully completed, therefore, the construction should
meet programmed specifications and should be completed on time and within
the budget allocated. If it does not meet the specifications, it cannot be deemed
successful. Be that as it may, projects come in different forms and sizes. They range
from the simple to the complex and can be managed by any number of persons-- one
person or a hundred persons as the case may be. The more complex a project is, the
more resources that will be required, be it human or material.

In the case of a building project, we can understand more clearly what is meant
by a series of activities that are involved from the table below
Table 1: Major Activities in Building A Custom Home
Event Description Time Preceding (weeks)
activity

A Approve design and get permits 3 None

B Perform excavation/lot clearing 1 A

C Pour footers 1 B

D Erect foundation walls 2 C

E Frame house 4 D

F Install windows 0.5 E

G Shingle roof 0.5 E

H Install brick front and siding 4 F, G

I Install electrical plumbing, and Heating 0.25 A/C

and rough-ins

J Install insulation

K Install Sheetrock 2 J

L Finish and sand Sheetrock 7 K

M Install interior trim 2 L

N Paint house (interior and exterior) H,M

O Install cabinets 0.5 N

P Install flooring 1 N

Q Final touch-up and turn house overto 1 O, P

home owner

Source: Robbins, Stephen P., DeCenzo, David A. and Coulter, Mary

A good look at Table 1 above shows that the project name is “Construction of
Custom Home.”
The hierarchy or series of tasks or activities that are involved are labeled A-Q, each
with its individual description. The time frame (in weeks) for performing each
activity is spelled out and the activities that can go on at the same time and those
that must be completed before the next one can begin are also labeled. A delay
in one task translates to a delay in the next task and will ultimately affect the
completion date of the project. In essence, when we are talking about a project it is
important that we know the specific goals of the project, the start date and the
conditions within which it will be executed. It is also important to define
responsibilities, plan the budget, fix the end date for the project, and identify the
parties that will be involved in executing each of the tasks or activities.
Another thing to note is that projects cost resources in the form of men,
material, money and time and it is expedient that these resources are available for a
project to be completed. It is equally important that all these resources are properly
allocated and managed to get the desired outcome or deliverable. Therefore, projects
are usually an organised unit with the aim of attaining a definite goal. There is
always time duration for any project as well specification according to the needs
of the end-user. Each project is executed within a budget that is reflective of the
specification and the expectation is that the project will be completed within the
projected time as well as meet specifications. Anything short of this is not desirable.
In summary, a project is the purposed outcome consisting of a series of
tasks/activities to be carried out within a specified time and financial constraints.
Therefore, there is recognition that projects are subject to constraints, especially
funds, and this can affect the completion time. Furthermore, projects vary in size and
scope, from the construction of a cathedral to an activity as seemingly mundane as
planning a wedding.
Let us consider another project, say a library project such as automation. This will
also involve a number of steps within which many activities will be involved.
So as soon as a decision is taken to automate, all the activities/steps from planning
to implementation will be outlined. This will also require that time and resources are
carefully planned and allocated. The project is expected to run within specifications
and there will be a need to monitor it as it goes on to ensure that it meets the
specifications. The project will not be considered successful unless the deliverables
are according to specifications and also meet performance standards and objectives
for embarking on it in the first place. This takes us to the objectives of projects.
1.1.1 Objectives of Projects
As observed, all projects have a set of objectives, goals or missions. It is only when
the objectives are achieved that the project can be said to be completed. As shown in
the Construction of a Custom Home diagram earlier, the objective of that project is
to construct a custom home. As soon as the custom home is completed and certified
alright in terms of functionality and performance, the project comes to an end. The
same thing goes with your educational pursuit. You complete it the day your graduate
because no one is expecting you to continue attending lectures after your successful
graduation from a course. The only way you can continue attending lectures is if you
gain admission into another programme or even the same programme. This time, it
is a different educational pursuit. That is why we say a project has a start date and
an end time. Therefore, the objective of a project depends on what it is meant to serve
and also the requirements of the client. Generally, however, Sindjuha (n.d.) has
outlined three project objectives as discussed below:
(i) To Ensure Function or Performance:
Every project has its objectives. The project objectives outline the project’s goals and
aims. The type and size of a project will determine the objectives therefore, one
project can have just one objective while another project has several objectives that
could be completed at various times in the course of executing the project.
Project objectives should be practical and implementable and limited within the scope
of the project.

As observed, every project has its end-user. The end-user makes his specification
according to what he wants. Therefore, the final result of any project must satisfy
the requirements of the end-user. If for instance, the end- user wants a block of offices
for leasing, the project has to produce a block of offices for leasing at the end of it
and nothing less. Not only that, the building must satisfy the specified standards for
performance, reliability, and safety. In other words, the block of offices for leasing
should not only be the final outcome, but at the end of the day, it is important that in
terms of function or performance, reliability and safety, the project is delivered to
satisfy the requirements of the end-user.
(ii) To Ensure Containment of Expenditure within Budget:
Project management aims at containing expenditure within budget because project
execution is costly in terms of resources. Ensuring containment of expenditure within
budget is a project objective.
At the planning stage, every effort is made to attach costs to activities. This gives an
idea of the entire cost of the project. Baring serious unforeseen circumstances, it is
expected that projects are carried out within the stipulated costs or something very close
to it. This is a very important criterion for project success. In our example of a block of
offices for leasing, it is obvious that this is a commercial venture. If the development
costs of the building exceed what has been planned, it means that the project owner
would have to lease his offices at a much higher cost than planned so that he can recoup
his extra expenditure. However, increasing the cost of leasing may not be favourable
because there are other competitors in the business. Therefore, if his block of flats is
charged far above the prices charged by his competitors for the same product, it will
affect his business. This is why it is important that projects are completed within their
budgeted costs. It is also why containment of expenditure within budget is one of the
objectives.
(iii) To Keep to Project Time Scale:
We have mentioned that projects are put on a time scale. The successful completion
of a project within the time scale is important. This is important to ensure not only that
the project does not overshoot its budget but also so that it can be put into use within the
time planned. Assuming the end-user or project owner was targeting a time within which
if he sells he will make the most gain, it is important that the project is fully developed
and ready for the market within the stipulated time scale. This is also true of other kinds
of projects be it products or services. This point is important if the project is one that has
a known peak period of the business. Therefore, a major objective of a project is to see
that it is executed within the stipulated time scale in order to remain
within budget as well as meet the needs for its execution.

Time Cost
End User
Fig. 1 Triangle of Project Objectives

1.1.2 Types of Projects

It is important to consider the different types of projects in existence because in many

cases when the word project comes up in a discussion, what normally comes to
peoples’ minds is construction work or construction site. However, that is only one
type of project in the classification of projects.

Projects can take any form or shape. For instance, the development of software for an
improved business process, the construction of a building, the relief effort after a
natural disaster, the expansion of sales into a new geographic market are all examples
of projects (Project Management Institute Book of Knowledge, 2021).

While appreciating that there are different types of projects according to their unique
classifications, the classifications outlined by Nagajaran (2012) and Sindhuja (n.d.)
will be discussed at length here. Nagarajan (2012:7-9) classifies projects under six
headings as follows: (i) based on the type of activity; (ii) based on the location of the
project; (iii) based on project completion time, (iv) based on ownership, (v) based on
size, and (vi) based on need. These are discussed below

i. Based on the Type of Activity

Under this classification, projects are further classified under two broad headings:
industrial projects and non-industrial or developmental projects. An example of an
industrial project is a manufacturing project set up for the production of some
goods. Under non-industrial projects, we talk about projects such as health
care projects, irrigation projects, water conservation projects, pest control projects,
preservation projects and so on. Non-industrial projects are usually executed by the
government and they are concerned with bettering the lives of the generality of people
in the society. Although the products of such non-industrial projects cannot be
quantified in terms of tangibles such as goods as we have in manufacturing projects,
they are very important for the welfare of people and the general development the
society. An electrification or water project will serve the purpose of providing light
and water respectively to the citizens. This in turn betters their living conditions
and enables them to be more productive in their individual pursuits.
 Table 2. Difference between Industrial and Developmental
Projects

Dimension Industrial Project Developmental Project

Scale of Project Limited Large

Promoters Entrepreneurs or Govt, Public sector,

Corporates NGOs

Investment …. High

Gestation Period …. High

Profitability High, Considered on Modest, Considered on

IRR ( Internal Rate of ERR (Economic Rate of
Return) Return)

Finance Stringent debt equity Operates on higher debt

norms equity norms

Source of Fund National stock markets International

and from domestic organizations like World
financial institutions Bank, IMF, ADB, DFID
and others mostly as
loan, yet times providing
for some grants.

Interest rates and Market rate and the Very low for borrowed
repayment period: repayment period is funds and the repayment
generally 7 to 10 years period extends up to 25
years and even beyond.

Source: https://www.manage.gov.in/studymaterial/PM.pdf

ii. Based on the Location of the Project

In this category are projects that can be classified as national projects and
international projects. As implied, national projects are set up within the
national boundaries of a country, while international projects are set up by one
country in other countries. Furthermore, international projects may be set up by the
government of a country or by the private sector of a particular country in another
country. Note that the handling of international projects requires more expertise and
greater efforts because they involve higher risks in terms of proportion and procedural
formalities that are involved since they are international in nature. Some examples of
international projects include:
 • Setting up fully-owned subsidiaries abroad
• Setting up joint ventures abroad
• Setting up of projects abroad by way of mergers and acquisitions

iii. Based on Project Completion

Projects can be classified based on constraints such as project completion time, and
based on that, they can be classified into two types: normal projects and crash
projects. Normal projects are projects in which there is no constraint of time. In other
words, they are not time-constrained or bound and so are not necessarily designed to
be completed within a specified time. That is to say that there is no compelling reason
to rush or complete the project on a given date.

On the other hand, crash projects are those that have to be completed within a
stipulated time, sometimes at the cost of incurring higher project costs. For example,
the Federal Government of Nigeria commissions a dam rehabilitation project which
has to be completed before the next rainy season. This is a crash project because it
must be completed before the coming rainy season to ensure that any envisaged
disaster in the rainy season is averted. The fact here is that the project was embarked
on to forestall an impending disaster during the next rainy season. So, the project has
to be completed and commissioned before the next rainy season. Therefore, if it is
not completed within the planned time, it has failed to achieve the expected end.

iv. Based on Ownership

Here, projects are categorised into three groups: private sector projects, public sector
projects, and joint sector projects. A private-sector project as the name implies is
completely owned by private promoters and investors. The major objective for
establishing a private sector project is profit maximisation given that they are funded
by private investors who are interested in recouping not only their investment but also
gaining some good financial returns.

Public sector projects are owned by the state or government (federal, state or local).
The major objective of executing public sector projects is the government’s
obligation to undertake development projects. Public sector projects vary from
country to country depending on the kind of economic system that is run in the
country. For instance, in a purely capitalist economy such as that of the United States
of America, there is hardly any public sector enterprise except those that concern
defence, public utility services etc. On the other hand, in mixed economies such
as the kind we have in developing countries, both private and public sector
enterprises exist.

In Cameroon, public sector enterprises include Cameroon Ports Authority and

Cameroon Broadcasting Corporation. In socialist economy, public enterprises
dominate the economy and are actually public property. Note that an enterprise is
considered a public enterprise when the state or any other national, regional or local
authority holds sole ownership or where the majority of its capital and the enterprise
are under the control of the government.

Joint sector enterprises are those in which the ownership is shared between the
government and private entrepreneurs. The overriding interest of the government in
venturing into joint sector projects is to make use of the managerial talents,
entrepreneurial capabilities, and marketing skills of the private enterprises.
Therefore, projects can be undertaken by these enterprises and are said to be owned
either by the government or private based on the ownership of the enterprise.

v. Based on Size

There are three types of projects under this category: small projects, medium- sized
projects, and large projects. Size in this sense is expressed in terms of the amount of
investment that is required to fund the project. The investment limit for the different
categories of projects is announced by the government, and the investment is subject
to periodic reviews keeping in mind such things as inflation, and the decision to
offer certain incentives to projects categorised as small, medium, or large.

vi. Based on Need

This categorises projects based on the need they are set up to meet. They include

New Project: This is a project that is conceived and implemented to satisfy customer
needs. This occurs when a company notices a gap in customer needs that should be
filled and appropriate steps are taken to fill that gap. For instance, a quantity of
a product or service that is being provided is no longer able to meet market demand,
the company goes ahead to increase the quantity that is supplied to close the gap.

Balancing Project: Generally, projects do not stand alone. They actually have many
product units that are linked with one another. In this case, all the projects are
able to service each other in one way or another in the sense that the output of one
production unit exactly matches the input required for the next production unit.
This ensures full utilisation and maximisation capacity of all the production units.

Diversification Project: This is a situation where an organisation initiates and

implements a project that will entail their adding new products or services to the
already existing ones. In this case, they are diversifying their products or services to
include new businesses. Let us say a company was producing cars and later realises
that adding a steel manufacturing plant will help them to save cost and increase the
number of cars they produce, they set up a steel manufacturing plant which is now
a subsidiary company. In this kind of project, subsidiary projects are implemented
to service a major project in order to maintain or balance the production capacity.

Expansion Project: This is a project that is implemented to increase the

production capacity of an organization. Let us say the current carrying capacity of a
company that produces cars is sixty vehicles per annum but they wish to increase to
one hundred vehicles per annum. The management will go ahead to enhance the
capacity of the plant so that it can produce the desired number of cars within the
same time.

Modernisation Project: This is a project that is implemented by a business to retool

or upgrade already owned production equipment in a production plant so as to meet
the technical standards. In this case, newer technologies are in existence and the
company decides to upgrade its equipment to meet the current standards. To do
this also, the job skills of the existing employees will also be improved through
training to ensure that they are in such a condition to operate upgraded equipment. In
this way, the plant is positioned for competitiveness and future growth. In other
words, there is recognition that technological innovation is a continuous process so
equipment and skills are upgraded to enhance productivity.

Replacement Project: In this situation, there is a noticeable underproduction as a

result of some old and aging equipment. Also, the repairs and maintenance cost of
machinery is rising and increasing the cost of production. At this stage, the company
realises that replacing the old and aging machinery would make more economic
sense and embarks on a replacement project. In this case, they old machineries are
replaced with new ones.

Backward Integration Project: In this case, a company expands its role so as to

acquire a company that it formerly depended on for some inputs. In other words, they
depended on the company they seek to acquire for supplies of the products and
services that they themselves need for their production. They buy up the company
and it becomes part of their own organization. Therefore, they will no longer require
to procure that item or supplies from outside their organisation.

Forward Integration Project: In this case, a company decides to own and control
business activities at the end of its production line. This is done after the
organisation is fully satisfied that including new business will be profitable.

For instance, a company that produces clothing and used to supply them to boutiques
for sales might decide to own a line of boutique outlets to which they supply their
products. In essence, rather than depend on other sales outlets, they now have their
own and deal directly with buyers. This is a value-adding service.

Types of projects as classified by Sindjuha (n.d.) is based on the content of the

project. Here four types of projects are distinctly identified (1) manufacturing
projects; (2) construction projects; (3) management projects, and (4) research
projects. They are explained below

Manufacturing Projects: The sole objective of many organisations is the

manufacturing of products. A manufacturing product is one where the end result
is the manufacture of products or goods. For instance, projects such as building a
ship, vehicle, computers, and so on are all manufacturing projects. Manufacturing
projects are often very demanding, costly, and time-sensitive. To succeed in this
type of project, it is important that there is close attention to detail as well as
experienced management to oversee the jobs that are being done.

Construction Projects: A construction project is one that results in the erection

of buildings, bridges, roads, tunnels, etc. Mining and petrochemical projects can also
be included in this group.

Management Projects: Management projects do not necessarily produce a visible

or tangible result as you would have in either a manufacturing or construction
project. By this, we mean that you do not necessarily see a physical product.
But the achievement of management projects also aims at an outcome and if such
projects are not successfully implemented, they can result in an operational
breakdown for the organisation. Management projects enable an organisation to
function more efficiently in the desired direction.

For instance, the development and introduction of a new classification scheme that
will make the library material easier and faster to classify can be considered
a library management project. Management projects can also be the design and testing
of a new computer package, and relocation of a company’s headquarters among
others. All of these projects involve the management coordination of a series
of activities before a successful outcome can be achieved.

Research Projects: Here a researcher proceeds on a scientific endeavour to answer

a research question(s). The objectives of research projects are often difficult to
establish, and the results are not always predictable. However, they seek to determine
some answers to the questions that bug the mind of the researcher. Research projects
include student projects and projects carried out in research laboratories and research
institutes.

1.1.3 Project Performance Dimensions

There are three major dimensions that define the performance of any project.
These are scope, time and resource or cost. These three parameters are both
interrelated and interactive as is depicted in the figure below

Time Cost

Scope
 Fig.2: Project Performance Dimensions (Source: https://www.academia.edu/)

From the figure below, it can be seen readily that the three dimensions are interrelated
and interactive to the extent that a change in one, will most definitely affect the other.
To illustrate this, assuming that there is a change in the project scope, it will require
that the project completion time be extended and this will invariably entail that the
project cost would go up.

On the other hand, if there is a reduction in time, the scope and cost would also have
to be reduced. In the same vein, if there is any change in cost, it will also reflect in
scope and time. The implication is that to successfully complete a project, there is a
requirement that specified goals be accomplished within the scheduled time and
budget. In essence, the performance of a project “is measured by the degree to which
these three parameters (scope, time, and cost) are achieved. Mathematically
Performance = f (Scope, Cost, Time). In management literature, this equilateral
triangle is also referred to as the
“Quality Triangle” of the project” (https://www.academia.edu/, n.d.).

1.1.4 Characteristics of Projects

Having defined the concept and types of projects, the next important thing is to look
at the characteristics of projects. Eighteen characteristics of a project have been
highlighted by Nagarajan (2012: 3-4) as discussed below

Project Life cycle

Every project has a life circle. The project life cycle includes the steps that the project
manager has to take to successfully execute a project from start to finish. The
life cycle comprises the following stages which include:

Conception stage : This is the conception of the project ideas

Design stage : Detailed design of different project areas are worked out.
Implementation stage : Project implemented in line with comissioning stage
: Project is commissioned after implementation.
Commissioning signals the end of its life cycle.

What is being explained here is that every project has a life cycle however, the life
cycle of a project does not start when the work begins. Rather, it starts from the time
the idea is conceived. As soon as the idea is conceived, the next thing is to begin to
design all the stages that are involved in the project in the manner they will follow.
Then the implementation starts using the design that had been outlined. This
continues until the project is completed. As soon as it is completed and certified to
have met all the requirements as outlined in the design, the project is commissioned.
The commissioning marks the end of the life of the project.
 A

B C D

Conception & Definition

ACTIVITY LEVELL

Commissioning
Implementation
Procurement
Design &

TIME

Fig. 3: Project Life Cycle adopted from Shraddha (n.d.)

Definite Time Limit: Every project has a definite time limit/line. Projects are not
meant to continue indefinitely but after they are completed, there can be
maintenance exercises as required. Note that maintenance work is not considered
a project because while maintenance is an ongoing process, the project itself
cannot continue forever.

Uniqueness: Every project is unique and no two projects are similar.

Let us say that two libraries are being constructed in cities A and B. Construction
of a library building in say city A is not the same as the construction of a library
building in city B even though the two projects are about building a library and so
similar. In fact, they are unique in themselves given the differences that exist in the
owner organisations, infrastructure, location, technical specifications and the people
that are behind the projects among other things. So, similarity does not imply that
the projects are the same.

Teamwork: Normally, a project consists of diverse areas of specialisation.

Each specialised area will have people that are specialised in it. For example, in a
building project, masons are specialised in their area and ironworkers (benders) are
specialised in theirs too. Even in the area of library automation, different expertise
will also be required including librarians, system programmers etc. depending on
the skills the project requires. Therefore, any given project calls for the
services of experts from a host of disciplines/expertise. Co-ordination of
the diverse areas calls for teamwork. Without teamwork, the project is bound to
suffer.

Complexity: Just as projects have diverse areas of expertise, so also, they have
complex sets of activities relating to each diverse area. Factors such as technology
survey, choosing the appropriate technology, procuring the appropriate machinery
and equipment, hiring the right kind of people, arranging for financial resource,
execution of the project in time by proper scheduling of the different activities, etc.
contribute to the complexity of a project.

Sub-contracting: The complex activities and functions of a project often

warrant that some activities are entrusted to sub-contractors. This is done to reduce
the complexity of the project. Sub-contracting some functions and activities
enables a project manager to co-ordinate the remaining activities of the project
more effectively than he would if he were to handle or manage every aspect.
Generally, the extent of the complexity of a project, determines the extent that is
sub-contracted. Sub-contracting is especially helpful if the sub-contractor is
specialised in the activity. This further helps to improve the quality of the project.
The sub-contracting is based on the fact that an organisation may not be involved in
all the activities that a project requires to be set up or it is more economical to sub
contract that aspect.

Risk and Uncertainty: There is no risk-free project even if in some cases, a

project appears risk-free. To that extent, risk and uncertainty go hand in hand with
projects. Some risks are not noticed immediately and so a project will appear easy
and risk-free but the risk may appear later. The project manager may have made some
good forecasts to avert risks but he does not have all the power to ensure that
everything stays on course according to the forecast. There could be unexpected
events such as a sudden change in government, change of policies, inflation etc.
which occurs and makes initial calculations wrong and make the forecasts/projections
meaningless demanding that he goes back to the drawing board.

Customer Specific Nature: A project is always customer-specific. This is in

consideration of the fact that products/services offered by an organisation are
customer-oriented. Therefore, the interests and choices of products/services offered
by an organisation are made to meet the needs of the customer(s) and any project
that is being carried out must be tailored appropriately.

Change: While it is customary to put a life span to a project, it should be noted

that the life span is not rigid. Changes occur throughout the life span of a project.
This can arise as a result of environmental factors. The change could be minor in
which case it may have very little impact. It may also be major; in which case, it will
have a big impact and may even change the very nature of the project.

To buttress the point above, it could be that certain technology or equipment had
been proposed to be used at the planning stage. But during implementation, better and
more efficient ones became available. The rational thing to do would be to switch to
the latest technology. This is informed by the need to keep the project up to date.
This can affect the life span of the project considering the lapse in the period between
procuring and installing the new equipment.
 Response to Environments: Projects take shape in response to environments.
For instance, countries set up projects in response to environmental needs. Projects
that do not take into consideration the need of the environment will most likely end
up as white elephant projects. We have a lot of abandoned white elephant projects
in Nigeria.

Forecasting: There is always competing interests and forecasting the demand

for any product/service is important in any decision to initiate a project. If the forecast
gives positive indications, the project is taken up for further study. In essence,
forecasts must be accurate and based on sound fundamentals.

Rational Choice: The decision to embark on a project among many other

competing interests must be based on rational choice. This is because a project is a
scheme for investing resources. So, in the midst of the available avenues, it is
important that a rational choice is made.

For instance, let us assume that there is a need for developing the health sector, and
also a need for building a recreational centre. Given that both projects will demand
huge resources, the most rational choice among the two should be made based on
the most compelling need at the time.

Principles of Succession: It is not possible to fully know beforehand how a

project is going to be implemented. More is known about the intricacies of a project
as it progresses. As a result, project components get modified and finalised
successively with the passage of time as the project progresses.

Optimality: Projects are aimed at developing the economy of organisations.

That is why they must ensure that rational choices are made in deciding what projects
to carry out. In all cases, resources are needed to execute a project and resources are
scarce and have a cost. It is important that there is optimal utilisation of available
resources as wastages can be costly.
Control Mechanism: All projects will have pre-designed control mechanisms to
ensure completion within the specified time schedule, within the estimated cost and
at the same time achieve the desired level of quality and reliability.

Multidisciplinary: Projects are multidisciplinary in nature. As a result, no

project can be executed without the use of the knowledge and expertise of different
kinds of people.

Conflicts: The multidisciplinary nature of projects also means that

multidisciplinary teams are used. Multidisciplinary teams are characterised by
conflicts. Conflicts may arise between members of the project team and those
members of the organisation who are connected with the project and even among
members of project teams. For instance, a project that has a project team from
within the project organisation and another team from the subcontracted specialist.
There may be tension between the two project teams. Moreover, projects constitute
a meeting place for different stakeholders such as project owners, financiers,
contractors, users, opponents and public authorities. These can have shared or
conflicting interests – often a combination of both (Olsen, 2006).

Part of a Larger Programme: Projects are part of a larger entity called

“programme.” Many projects put together constitute a programme. For instance,
building a steel plant is a programme that has many interrelated parts called projects.
The construction of many projects is also considered a programme with individual
projects. Take for example the construction of an estate. There are many buildings
involved. Each building is a project while the sum total of the projects is a
building programme. Care should also be exercised to differentiate projects from
operations. Operations are the ongoing repetitive activities that are carried out in an
organisation to keep the place running. In a library, you have operations such as
circulation, administration etc. They are repeated every day as part of the activities
that keep a library running.

1.1.5 Project Selection/Criteria of Choice

Oftentimes, an organisation is faced with the challenge of selecting a project to

execute out of the myriad of needs. Considering that projects require resources in
terms of money and men it becomes imperative that a choice has to be made between
the competing alternatives. This has to be understood from the perspective that
organisations are interested in projects that will align with their objectives, and if such
projects are for business, one that will increase their overall profitability. In order
words, no organisation will invest in any project that has the possibility of pushing
them into incurring a loss. This is why selection is an important element of project
management. Let us consider this with the example of a library. Assuming there a is
need to furnish a new library building and another need to install or build a library
annex. Both projects are capital intensive therefore; the library management must
make a choice between the two projects since resources are not inexhaustible.

Meredith and Mantel (2010) define project selection as “the process of evaluating
proposed projects or groups of projects, and then choosing to implement some out of
them so that the objectives of the parent organsiation will be achieved.” Another
definition says that project selection is a process to assess each project idea and select
the project with the highest priority (Pacific Invasive, n.d.). The definitions further
reinforce the point that the whole purpose of embarking on project selection is to
be able to choose the most important out of other competing interests. The decision
to choose one project or a number of projects out of many is not an easy one. As
a result, some criteria have to be borne in mind to do it objectively.

Some criteria that have been articulated by Mansinghka & Mohan (2021)
include:
 Strategic Alignment with Business Goals: There is no business that does not have
its set of strategic goals, a defined vision, and a mission. This is necessary to give
them a sense of direction toward the path to success. All projects that an organisation
seeks to embark on must be strategically aligned to its goals. This will ensure that
they stay on course and prevent any temptation to go into frivolous expenditure as
they allocate their resources judiciously. Having this in mind will also keep an
organisation from wasting time and effort on endeavours that steer them away from
the organisational objective.

Assessment of Resource Capabilities and Availability: This is yet another

consideration. Even where some projects have the potential of aligning to the
organisational goals or objectives in the future, there is a need to assess the
personnel on the ground to accomplish it. Projects require both man and
material for execution. It is, therefore, necessary to ensure that the personnel on the
ground have the capacity to deliver a quality project successfully. This is termed
assessing the resource capability matrix using an appropriate tool. Once the
assessment is done, they can make a decision on whether the project is feasible to
continue with or not.
Evaluation of Potential Risks: Risks and threats are associated with projects.
It is therefore the responsibility of the project manager(s) to decide if the risk and
threats can be mitigated or not. As soon as the project managers measure the
resources that are available to execute the project, the next step is to
diligently evaluate the potential risks they might face. An initial risk
assessment helps to first understand if it is a high-risk or low-risk project based on
pre-set risk appetite. In case it is a low-risk project, managers can even form a
contingency plan well ahead of the curve to prevent future bottlenecks.

The Impact on Customer Satisfaction and Brand Loyalty: Another

pertinent consideration is the impact that the project will have on customer
satisfaction and brand loyalty. Let us remember here that every organisation,
whether they are into manufacturing, construction, service etc. has a customer
base and brand to maintain. Because there are other competitors in the sector,
maintaining and staying relevant during the ongoing market uncertainties is of
utmost importance. That is only possible when the clients are happy with and stay
with an organisation for a long time. The questions that need to be addressed
are:

o How will the final output of the project solve the existing problems for the
client?

o Will the project improve the client’s perception of the firm’s products and
services?
 Once a consensus is reached and it is believed that the project can enhance
customer satisfaction and improve brand loyalty that might be a pointer to
the right direction to take up the project.

Data Availability and Expected Revenue: This is concerned with finding out
if there is enough data available on the project and, if not, is it possible to collect data
from varied sources? When working on a project and the essential data is in place,
implementing it at the right place and the task becomes easy. In the absence of
relevant data, the tendency is that resources will be spent over a long period in
gathering the right information, analyzing it, and then implementing it. Where there
is limited data available, the possibility of hindering a project’s progress is increased.

Along with this, there is a need to ensure that the ROI or Return on Investment is
calculated based on the approximated revenue that the project is expected to
generate. This is a very crucial activity since it is not wise to use resources, skills,
time and effort, and the company’s finances on a low-revenue generating project. If
this is not done properly, it will lower profitability and also keep the organisation
from taking up a higher revenue-generating project. Managers follow a benefit-
evaluation model to calculate this.

1.2: Concept of Project Management

1.2.1 Definition of Project Management
Simply put, project management is about using men and materials, to carry out
successfully, a series of tasks or activities that are associated with a product or
service, according to specifications, and within a specified time period. It is
“the task of getting the activities (project activities/tasks) done on time, within
budget, and according to specifications (Citeman, 2010).” It is “an organized venture
for managing projects…that involves the scientific application of modern tools and
produce desirable outputs in accordance with the predetermined objectives within the
constraints of time and cost techniques in planning, financing, implementing,
monitoring, controlling unique activities or tasks” (Aakanksha & Shah, 2010).
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, securing, managing,
leading, and controlling resources to achieve specific goals (Nokes, 2007).

It is “the application of a collection of tools and techniques…to direct the use of

diverse resources toward the accomplishment of a unique, complex, one- time task
within time, cost, and quality constraints (Olsen cited in Project Management
Institute, 2021). Each task requires a particular mix of these tools and techniques
structured to fit the task environment and life cycle (from conception to completion)
of the task."BridgeGroup (n.d.) further defines project management as the methods
and disciplines used to define goals, plan and monitor tasks and resources, identify
and resolve issues, and control costs and budgets for a specific project.

The concept is also defined as “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and
techniques to project activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholder needs and
expectations” (Darwish, 2017). From the definition by Darwish, we are made to
understand that project management requires some knowledge, skills, The purpose
of project management is to minimise, contain or counter the risks, and organise
and direct the resources so that the project is finished in time, within budgeted
costs, and with the functional or other design objectives fulfilled (Sindjuha, n.d.). In
another definition, Project Management Institute (2021) defines project management
as “the use of specific knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to deliver something
of value to people.

Furthermore, Project Management Institute defines project management as a

methodical approach to planning and guiding project processes from start to finish. It
is the method of planning the plan. It starts with project definition and ends with goal
achievement.

Going through the definitions carefully, you will notice that there cannot be any
project management without projects, and projects are executed using men and
materials such as finance and will also involve the use of knowledge, skills, and
tools to ensure that expectations are met. The project manager is responsible for
ensuring that all this is done successfully.

To further understand what project management is all about, it may be

necessary to use an illustration that is very familiar to us. Let us take the example of
schooling to drive it home. In this case, we see the pursuit of education as a project
even though it may not seem so obvious. The truth remains that every student
undergoing an academic programme can be deemed to be involved in project
management. Why you may ask? Your academic journey which can be termed a
project started at the time you first made up your mind about what course to study.
Thereafter, you began to plan/prepare and eventually sat for and passed the Joint
Admissions and Matriculation Board examinations to qualify for admission. The
date you begin your educational pursuit or project can be termed the start date of the
project. Once you have gained admission and completed your registration formalities,
you found out that there are expectations that are arranged in levels (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
or 6 as the case may be).

Your levels are arranged according to a series of tasks and activities (courses,
lectures, quizzes, seminars, projects, etc.) which must be completed and achieved to
qualify you for the next level. Your examinations are the project evaluation while
your graduation is the project completion/date. Any student who seeks to achieve the
desired outcome must work according to the specifications. Also, there has to be
funding for all that is concerned with schooling. Therefore, the whole process of you
managing all that goes into a successful educational outcome from start to end can
be deemed project management, and you, the project manager tools, and techniques
that must be brought to bear on a project for a successful outcome.

1.2.2 Importance of the Project Management Approach

We have established that the basic reason for initiating any project is to
accomplish some goals. Also, although there is no rule that says that project
management must be applied in executing a project, however, the need to focus the
responsibility for the project on an individual known as the project manager
and a small group also known as the project team makes it necessary to
organise the task as a project.

In essence, organising tasks as a project makes for accountability and efficiency

because the project manager and his team are now entrusted with the responsibility to
execute it. In support of this, Basics, (n.d.) has outlined some benefits of adopting
the project management approach in project execution including

1) Project management approach will help in handling complex, costly and risky
assignments by providing an interdisciplinary approach to handling the assignments.
This stems from the fact that projects usually require multidisciplinary expertise or
teams for their execution. This implies that not one single individual has all the
expertise needed to execute a project successfully;

2) Project management approach helps in handling assignments in a specified time

frame with definite start and completion points. This is possible because even before
implementation, all the stages that are associated with the project are carefully
planned with responsibilities and roles as well as the duration of each clearly
specified.

3) Project management approach provides task orientation to personnel in an

organization in handling assignments. As mentioned, because roles and
responsibilities are clearly defined according to the expertise of work teams, each
work team understands not only what they are expected to do, but also how they
are expected to do it.
1.2.3 Project Management Objectives
Like any other purposeful and productive engagement, project management has some
objectives that are derivable from it. Clarizen (2020) has outlined at least five of them
as follows:

• The successful development and implementation of all project procedures:

Irrespective of its size, there are at least five equally important stages in the project
life cycle: Initiation, Planning and Design, Construction and Execution, Monitoring
and Control, and Completion. A successful project is that in which all stages in the
project life cycle are successfully smoothly and uninterruptedly carried out.

• Productive guidance, efficient communication and apt supervision of the

project’s team: No project can be executed without a team(s) of workers. Also, in
many projects, there is a multi-disciplinary work team. The work team is a deciding
factor in the success or failure of a project. Therefore, good communication is an
important element in project management. It is the objective of project management
to ensure that there is good, smooth, clear, unambiguous, and complete
communication in a way that all concerned are able to understand. The ability of all
to listen and receive constructive feedback is also key in communication.

• The achievement of the project’s main goal within the given constraints:
The most important project constraints are, Scope in that the main goal of the
project is completed within the estimated time while being of the expected
quality and within the estimated budget. Staying within the agreed limitations always
feeds back into the measurement of a project’s performance and success.

• Optimisation of the allocated necessary inputs and their application to

meeting the project’s pre-defined objectives, is a matter where is always space for
improvement.

Project management aims to ensure that all resources that are provided for project
implementation are fully and beneficially allocated and that they are deployed in
such a way as to achieve pre-set goals. It is also the objective to ensure that the
human resources are fully utilized towards achieving project goals. That being the
case, it also aims to see that all impediments against the full actualization of a
successful project are addressed. According to Clarizen (2020), project
management ensures that “all processes and procedures can be reformed and
upgraded to enhance the sustainability of a project and to lead the team through the
strategic change process.”

• Production of a complete project which follows the client’s exclusive needs

and objectives: Projects are implemented to meet the needs of the end-user. At the
planning stage, the objectives of the project are presented. It is an objective of project
management to ensure that the project as implemented and completed meets the
needs of the end-user/shareholders. There may be a need to shape and reform the
client’s vision and possibly modify the project objectives, but this must be done with
the knowledge and consent of the end-user. The goal is to successfully complete and
deliver a project that meets the specifications and needs of the end-user or
stakeholders.

1.2.4 Project Management Process/Steps

Project management is not carried out without any thought to the process. This is
because the process helps to give order and guidance in the execution of any project.
To that extent, there are some steps that are important to project management.
Some processes/steps in project management as explained below include 1. Scoping,
2. Planning, 3. Estimating, 4. Scheduling, 5. Organising, 6. Directing, 7. Controlling,
and 8. Closing.

Scoping

Scoping in project management is concerned with setting boundaries for the project
by clearly defining the goals, deadlines, and project deliverables that one is working
to achieve. It is important that the project team works within the scope of the project
to manage funds appropriately and deliver within the timeline.

Project Planning
The saying “if one fails to plan, one plans to fail” is an axiom that is often used to
drive home the importance of planning in all life endeavours. This is also true of
project management. Planning is a very important aspect of project management
because good planning anticipates all the factors that are associated with the
project right before the project starts and puts them down in a document to serve as a
working guide. Simply put, a project plan or project management plan is a document
that describes the objectives of the project, and how the project will be executed,
monitored, controlled, and closed or finished. As Ahmad (2010) puts it, “the project
plan effectively outlines the objectives and scope of the project and serves as an
official point of reference for the project team, larger company, and stakeholders”.

Estimating

Estimating involves a quantitative estimate of project costs, resources, or duration.

This is concerned with attaching estimated financial implications to all the activities
and tasks and personnel and as such is a critical part of project planning. However,
often there are difficulties and confusion around estimating. This is most often
the case with the public sector projects where bidding for jobs is required. Often,
public sector job bidders sometimes underestimate in order to win the business.
Inaccurate estimates can affect project planning because accurate estimates are
the basis of sound project planning.
Let us take for example a library setting where a project is to be carried out. It could
even be something like equipping a new library building. Usually, tenders are
called for. A number of contractors submit their estimates for supplying the
needed equipment. In a bid to win the contract, some of them would submit low
estimates. The Tenders Committee selects one based on certain criteria including cost
and that bid is approved. Now the planning as it affects costs is made based on the
approved estimate and funds are released based on it. However, because the
contractor had underbid to win the project, the contractor does not deliver within
the stipulated time and in some cases may go-ahead to supply sub-standard
equipment. This will definitely impact negatively on other aspects of the project.
So, in project planning, it is important that proper estimates are made for all the
component parts of the project.

Project Scheduling

Project scheduling is concerned with outlining the actual activities of the project
with time assigned in the time order/sequence in which they are to be performed.

Let us take project scheduling of a construction project as outlined by Nagajaran

(2012: 224) for example. The logical sequence of activities of a construction project
is as follows:

1. Company registration

2. Obtaining industrial licenses/import licenses

3. Appointment of consultants

4. Resource mobilization

5. Land acquisition and site development

6. Preparing civil work designs, plans, and estimates and entrusting the
construction work to civil contractors

7. Preparing design specifications and placing orders for plant and

machinery

8. Transport of plant and machinery to the project site

9. Erection of machinery

10. Commissioning the plant and taking a trial run

11. Commencing regular commercial production.

All this are mapped out and timelines are attached to them. The essence is to provide
some type of guidelines to ensure that time and other resources are used wisely.

Organising
As already explained, projects are grouped into activities. Also, resources are an
important requirement in project execution. In organising, the project activities are
clearly defined and analysed in such a way that they are clearly grouped according
to their distinct areas or departments. It also entails establishing the authority and
responsibility relationships by clearly defining who is responsible for what and who
reports to who. It also involves organising the resources that are required for the
accomplishment of organisational objectives. Essentially, project organisation is a
structure that facilitates the coordination and implementation of project activities.
The structure defines the relationships among members of the project management
and the relationships with the external environment.

We can look at it as a process because it provides the arrangement for decisions on

how to realise a project. It decides the project’s process: planning how its costs,
deadlines, personnel, and tools will be implemented. The project organisation
is then presented to the project stakeholders. A well-organised project ensures that
everyone knows what’s expected of them, what their authority is, and what they
need to do. It provides the track on which to run a project. Without it, a project is
bound to become directionless (Hughes, 2019).

Directing

Projects are executed with resources including people. Effectiveness and efficiency
demand that the project manager who is directly responsible for the day-to-day
running of the project directs people to work in the desired manner towards achieving
the stated goals. Put simply, directing is “the process of guiding the subordinates
towards achieving the organisational goals. To achieve this, there is the need to
issue orders, directives, instructions, and commands. For the subordinates, directing
enables them to know what the expectations are. Using the tools of instructions,
orders, requests, guidance, supervision, coaching, advice, etc., the project manager is
expected to get the subordinates to work according to expectations, and he is also to
inspire them to achieve the project goals (Nagarajan, 2012).

Controlling

There are three important factors over which control is exercised in projects. These
are time, resource, and quality. It is important to ensure that the project is running
within the time scale, that the needed resources are available, and that the project
meets standards in terms of quality. Controlling ensures that things are done
according to the plan. It is the process of comparing the actual performance of the
project with the planned performance i.e. the ideal and the reality. Controlling aims
to check up on whether the project progresses exactly in line with what was planned.
If in the course of controlling deviations also called variances are noticed, in terms of
time, resource, and quality parameters, the variances must be analysed, with a view
to identifying the reason for it and applying suitable remedial measures to correct
them and then put the project back on the right track (Nagarajan, 2012).

Closing
As often mentioned, every project is a temporary undertaking. To that extent, a
project has a start date and a finish date. Closing a project is the process of
finalising all activities for the project, phase, or contract. This is an indication
that the project has been successfully completed. It is called the close project or
phase. However, while it is expected that the close project or phase indicates that
the project has been successfully completed, a project may also be closed when
it is terminated before it is finished. The close project or phase can be seen as
the last phase of the project life cycle. At this stage, the project is closed,
and reports of the level of success of the project are made to the owner. Other
activities involved in the closing project or phase include handing over the
deliverables to the customers, passing documentation to the business,
releasing staff and equipment, canceling contracts with the supplier, and
informing the stakeholders about the closure (Nagarajan, 2012).

In essence, this activity is heavy on document verification. All the project documents
have to be gone through carefully and care taken to ensure that there are no
unfinished items, that all the agreements concerning work items are delivered and
signed off officially, and that all the objectives and plans, and obligations are met.
Therefore, there cannot be a close project or phase until the owner has formally
signed off on the project outcome or deliverables. A number of steps are involved
in a close project or phase. The benefit of close project or phase can be said to be that
the tool provides a formal method to end the project. As soon as the organisations’
resources are released, new projects or endeavours can be pursued.

Some of the processes that have been explained above are captured diagrammatically
below denoted as project management face.

Planning
Process

Executing
Initiating Process
Process

Controlling
Process
Closing
Process
 Close Project or Phase

inInputs Tools & techniques Outputs

1. Project charter
1. Expert judgment 1. Project documents
2. .Project management Plan
2. Data analysis updates
• All Components
• Document • Lessons learned
3. Project documents
analysis register
• Assumption log
• Regressionanalysi 2. Final product, service,
• Basis of estimates
s or result Transition
• Change log
• Trend analysis 3. Final report
• Issue log 4. Organisational process
• Variance analysis
• Lessons learned register assets update
3. Meeting
• Milestones list
• Project communication
• Quality control
• Requirements
• Documentation
• Risk register
• Risk report
4. Acceptable deliverables
5. Business documents
• Business case
• Benefits management plan
6. Agreements
7. Procurement documentation
8. Organisational process assets
Fig.5: Close Project or Phase: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Output (Source:
GreyCampus.com).

1.2.4 Principles of Project Management

The rule that guides an engagement is as important as the engagement. That is why
it is important to be aware of the principles that are associated with project
management.

Wikipedia (2021) defines a principle as “a proposition or value that is a guide for

behavior or evaluation.” What the definition conveys is that a principle is a rule that
has to be followed or that is usually followed to achieve a stated objective or meet a
standard.

A simple example can be a construction project. There are certain things that must
be done in order to have a strong structure. Any attempt to do it differently
will certainly result in a building that will not stand the test of time. Therefore,
principles are expected to guide how things are done and where principles are
neglected in the pursuit or execution of a thing or activity, it can lead to some
unpleasant circumstances that are bound to attract some consequence(s).

So, when we talk about a principle guiding a system, we are saying that systems
have their essential characteristics that take into consideration the reason for their
design or their purpose and the only way that systems can be effectively operated or
used would depend on whether the principles are acknowledged and adhered to or
whether they are ignored. Therefore, refusal to adhere to the principles guiding a thing
is to be likened to short-circuiting the process (Guido, also cited in Wikipedia, 2021).

We can therefore look at the principles of project management as the fundamental

rules that should be followed for the successful management of projects. In essence,
for there to be a successful project, project management principles must be followed.
This is why the principles of project management are described as “necessary assets
when charting a path to completion [of a project]. The project principles can be
applied to any level or branch of a project that falls under a different area of
responsibility in the overall project organisation (Simplilearn, 2021).

We are reminded that a project is a temporary undertaking that has a defined

beginning and an end. In project management, a constraint is usually associated with
scope, time, quality, and budget. A major concern in project management is how to
optimise the allocation of necessary inputs and integrate them to meet pre-defined
objectives given that resources are limited (Simplilearn, 2021). What all this point to
is that it is important that principles are followed if the desired outcomes are to be
achieved.
When it comes to principles of project management, Wrike (2021) further notes that
the Project Management Book of Knowledge (PMBOK) does not currently contain
an official list of principles for successful projects but some principles are outlined
by the Project Management Institute (2021).

The principles that must be followed will include 1) defining the project goals and
objectives, 2) defining the project deliverables, 3) clarifying team roles and
responsibilities, 4) creating a strategy for initiation and execution, 5)knowledge of
numbers, 6)careful budgeting, and scheduling, 7) identifying priorities and milestones
ahead of time, 8) accountability and responsibility, 10) communicating plan, 11)
transparency, 12) risk assessment, and 13) monitoring and measuring progress.

Define Project Goals and Objectives

Definition of project goals and objectives is important because the goals that are
set for a project play a critical role in its success or failure. Goals must be set before
work begins and must not be ambiguous so as to enable all the work team to be on
the same page and avoid future misunderstandings. Also, set goals must be
realistic, clear, and measurable. When the goals are ambiguous, it makes it difficult
for the project to be understood or achieved by the project team. This can result in
delays in meeting milestones. With undefined goals, the project manager may
encounter problems on a daily basis in the area of project organisation. All said, the
project goal is the expected outcome and should be known ahead of time because it
also leads to the project structure plan. It is important to state that the successful
achievement of all project goals lies with the project manager, and he can better
define the goals using the
SMART paradigm (specific, measurable, ambitious, realistic, time-bound).

Define Deliverables

According to the Project Management Institute (2021), a deliverable is “any unique

and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is produced to
complete a process, phase or project.” We can look at it in terms of the things that are
produced at the end of a project and depending on the type of project, could be a
product or service that is the final outcome of the project process. After the goals
and objectives have been established, the project manager has to define the project
deliverables. The objective of the project could be for the end-user(s) to manage their
own content on their website. for example, when the project has to do with the
development of a website assuming the project is about something like software
development. At the end of the project, the deliverable will likely be a piece of
software that will enable the managers to manage content as well as training
materials that will be used to train employees and other end-users on how to use
the newly created software.

In the case of a building project, assuming the objective is for the end-user(s) to have
a residential home, the deliverable that will be the final product should be a residential
home that meets expectations in terms of function/quality and performance.
Therefore, anything short of the client’s specifications is not acceptable and can
be regarded as a failure of a project.

Deliverables can either be organisation-focused or employee-focused. When the

deliverable is organisation focused, the emphasis is on making sure that the several
important components of the organisation are supporting one another. What this
means is that the company’s purpose, strategy, capabilities, structure, and system
should all work together. On the other hand, the employee-focused view encourages
managers to evaluate how well-matched the employee is in terms of individual
role, professional goals, team membership, and organsitional vision and
mission. In these examples, we can see that projects can even involve human
development. Given the many aspects or areas of project management, it is not
always possible for the project manager to have control over all the factors that are
involved in project management, but to the extent that he can effect change, he
should leverage these organisation alignment concepts for a more successful project.

Clarify Team Roles and Responsibilities

Projects are structured around teams. To that extent, it is important that members of
teams understand very cleanly, what their roles and responsibilities are. Unclear
definition of roles and responsibilities of team members is the cause of most
confusion and tension among team members. This is because team members will
most certainly cross their boundaries and may not be able to relate with each other
if they are ignorant of the roles and responsibilities. This will usually lead to conflicts
among team members. Therefore, the project manager has the responsibility to define
the role of each team member to help everyone to work more harmoniously with
each other. This point is driven home by the fact that in many cases, a project is
multi-disciplinary in nature and as a result requires the expertise of members from
different specialities. It is important that each knows where their roles and
responsibilities begin and end in order to prevent avoidable conflicts. Project
teams that are conflict- prone will never agree and this has the tendency to further
delay the completion of the project. A delay in completion time entails more financial
involvement.

Create a Strategy for Initiation and Execution

The project initiation and execution strategy are very important. For instance, it is
during the project initiation phase that all preliminary work that must be done
before any other project activities can take place is outlined. The preliminary work
must be carried out before any other thing that is concerned with the project is done
if not the project will run into murky waters. Incidentally, people tend to just focus
their minds on project execution when they think about project management. Project
execution starts with a project kick-off meeting. This meeting officially begins the
project. It is at this meeting that the project manager shares the vision and plan for the
project. It is also the time he delegates tasks and responsibilities to team members
and sends everyone on their way to get things going. To ensure smooth execution of
projects, during the execution phase, the project manager should ensure that there is
a plan in place to document errors, corrections, and other changes.

Knowledge of Numbers, Careful Budgeting and Scheduling

Undoubtedly, projects require resources for their execution. While the project
manager has at his disposal the resources that he requires to run the project, it is a fact
that the resources are not inexhaustible rather they are limited. To this end, there is a
need for judicious utilisation of the resources. To ensure that the project remains
within the resources available, it is important that the project manager budgets his
financial resources very carefully. In the budget, he should allow for certain
flexibility by giving himself some margin for unexpected expenses. He should also
ensure that he takes reasonable measures to save costs during the course of the
project. Since the project manager’s budget is unavoidably linked to his project
schedule, if he is not able to keep to the timelines, his budget will most likely suffer
and affect the entire project. Therefore, it is important for the project manager to
account for not just how long each project task should take, but he should also
endeavour to work within the timeline. exigencies factor in exigencies such as
holidays, corporate and stakeholder events, and team members’ vacations. These
should also be provided for in the budget.

Identify Priorities and Milestones ahead of Time

Prioritisation and identifying milestones ahead of time is a very important aspect

of the project management process. With proper prioritisation, it is possible for
the project manager to know what to focus on, as well as identify milestones where
they exist. This is important because when a project manager is in the midst of a
project, it is easy to sometimes get distracted from the things that matter by less
important details that appear urgent at the moment. Distraction has the tendency to
derail the process. Therefore, to avoid unnecessary distractions, the project manager
should define his task priorities at the very outset of the project. This will enable him
to know where to direct his team’s energy in the event that a conflict arises.
Furthermore, when the project execution is at its climax, it is easy to lose sight of the
details that are involved in a project. Identifying milestones in the project planning
phase will help the project manager to know if he is on course and on schedule.

Milestones define certain phases of the project and the cost and results that are
associated with each phase. Milestones represent decisive steps during the project
execution and they are set after a certain number of work packages that belong
together. Work package means breaking down large project into parts that are related.
This series of work packages leads to the achievement of a sub- goal.

Accountability and Responsibility

Projects cannot be executed without a team(s). Teams are made up of people who
have certain expectations. It is therefore important to ensure that they are motivated.
Motivating team members has the advantage of keeping them committed to the
project; it goes a long way in keeping them focused on the goals. One of the best
ways to achieve this is to empower them by giving them a sense of responsibility and
accountability. When individuals are given responsibility for their own work, it not
only motivates them but also makes the job of the project manager less burdensome.
It also has the positive effect of enabling the employees to work from their strengths
and to learn new project management skills. This is advantageous to both the
organisation and the employees in the long run.

Related to giving team members individual responsibility is setting up a means of

accountability. The project manager needs a system in which task delegation and
project deadlines can be tracked and each team member can see his or her
contribution in the context of the larger project. Ambiguity in roles and
responsibilities makes it difficult for the team members to work efficiently, and it can
also be problematic in the area of holding people responsible when something goes
wrong. When individuals are not given responsibilities or held accountable, they are
more likely to approach the project with a laissez-faire attitude. In turn, the project
manager will have difficulties in the course of the project as he is not only placing
too much burden on himself, additionally, he may not have the loyalty or commitment
of his team(s).

Communicate Plan

It is important that there is productive guidance, efficient communication, and proper

supervision of the project team because the success or failure of a project is
highly dependent on teamwork, thus, the key to success is always in project
collaboration. To this end, the establishment of good communication is of major
importance. Explaining and implementing strong communication guidelines from
the outset of the project is good practice. The communication channels could be
email, text messaging, a chat service, or some combination of things that everyone
on the team understands and can use for communication. Because the
different activities of a project entail teamwork, there is a need to ensure that this
flows through the phases of the project. On one hand, information needs to be
articulated in a clear, unambiguous, and complete way, so that everything is
comprehended fully by everyone. On the other hand, the ability to be able to listen
and receive constructive feedback will ensure that time is not wasted.

The project manager should be clear about the kinds of information that needs to be
communicated, and who needs to be notified in certain circumstances. He should also
model the kind of communication he expects from all stakeholders. It is important
that the channels of communication are clearly defined and understood by all the
people that are involved with the project.

Be Transparent
Transparency here entails creating a system in which all team members can access
all relevant information about a project easily and efficiently. Transparency
is important because it is related to efficiency. There is appropriate software in
existence for this and it is the responsibility of the project manager to ensure that
the software that is appropriate for the work he is doing is utilised if he hopes to
achieve transparency. Transparency also entails ensuring that every one that is part
of the project is able to key into the system and understand the objectives and
components of the project. There is a need to make project data available to the team.
This can be achieved by providing good tools for collaboration and by sharing
calendars among team members and even outside stakeholders.

Project transparency leads to better outcomes for both the team and the project itself.
On the one hand, the team will be more motivated if there is a tangible sense of
progress on the project, and on the other, it will improve trust.

Some useful tools for ensuring transparency include flowcharts, structure plan, and a
milestone plan. These tools help the project manager to stay on track. Transparency
also entails that the project manager should be able to present a brief report about
the status of the project to his principal or stakeholders at each stage of the
project. At such meetings, he should be able to give overviews of the costs, the
timeline, and the achieved milestones. This ensures that he not only carries them along
but also that he gains and retains their trust.

Assess Risks

The project manager should engage in regular evaluation of risks. A risk

assessment is an acknowledgement that something could go wrong that could
potentially derail the project. Risks need to be identified and addressed at the
beginning of the project rather than catch the project manager off guard later. The
project manager should also seek the team members’ opinions on what risks they
think he needs to consider. While it is not possible to eliminate all the risks from
the project, being prepared for them can save him from project failure. Undoubtedly,
all projects come with a variety of risks and this is quite normal. His ability to
identify the risks sooner than later will save him a lot of costs as prompt
identification of the risks will enable him to address them before they become
unmanageable.

Monitor and Measure Progress

In the course of planning the project, the project manager must endeavour to establish
key performance indicators (KPIs). A key performance indicator is one type of
performance measurement which is quantifiable and used to evaluate the success of
an employee, organisation, project, activity, product, etc. in which it is engaged so
as to ascertain whether it meets the objectives for performance. In projects, KPIs
come in the form of budgets, project management timelines, and quality expectations.
An organisation determines what it considers important to it. As the project
progresses, the project manager should regularly keep track of project progress and
check his KIPs so as to catch issues and make corrections quickly as delays can be
costly. While he is monitoring and measuring progress, it is also not out of place to
celebrate when his KPIs tell him that the team has achieved a goal. This can be a
boost to his team because it will not only give them a sense of belonging but it also
conveys to them that their efforts are noticed and appreciated.

1.3 Project Initiation

3.1 Project Initiation

Project initiation is the first phase and is often considered the most important in the
project management life cycle because it is concerned with starting a new project. It
is at this stage that organisations decide whether or not to take up the project. This is
called value judgement. Project value judgement is measured using two metrics
called business case and feasibility. The essence of it is to determine whether the
project will add more value in business terms and how will it be accepted in the
market. These are very important considerations for a number of reasons including
the fact that no organisation wants to execute a project that will not benefit them
given the fact that enormous resources are expended on project execution.

The initiation phase is when “the business problem or opportunity is identified, a

solution is defined, a project is formed, and a project team is appointed to build and
deliver the solution to the customer” (Watt, n.d.). Major decisions that give direction
and information about resource availability are made at this stage. This includes
decisions on matters like project charter and selection of the project stakeholders.
Making sure that the stakeholders come to a clear objective about the project helps
to ensure that everyone is on the same page regarding how the project should proceed.

The project initiation phase consists of four essential steps as outlined

by MacNeil (2021):

1. Create a Project Charter or Business card: Stakeholders need to be

convinced about the necessity and benefit of the project. This is done with either a
project charter or a business case. The project charter and the business case are
essentially the same because they provide details that will help to sell the project to
the stakeholders. However, while the project charter is used for smaller projects, the
business case is used for bigger projects that require significant resources.

2. Identify Key Stakeholders: The key stakeholders are individuals that are an
important part of the project and whose signature will be required to approve the
project charter of the business card. Initiation stakeholders include the customers,
external persons, and the project team.
Other individuals, who though not stakeholders are important in pushing the project
and who can support the project should also be involved.

3. Run a Feasibility Study: A feasibility study is used to determine whether the

available resources can complete the project. The feasibility study will also provide
information about whether the Return on Investment (ROI) on the project is enough.

4. Assemble the Project Team and Tools

As soon as the project is approved and after the feasibility study has been
carried out, the next step is to assemble the project team, workspace and tools

1.3.2 Project Team Skills Identification

Projects are executed with team(s). Teams are made up of people who are brought
together to work towards the achievement of the objectives of the project. Usually,
the project team is made up of people of diverse expertise depending on the size
and complexity of the project. These people have to work together as a team, and
the success or failure of any project depends largely on the team.

Without teamwork, it will be difficult for the members of the team to cooperate with
each other. Teamwork refers to the ability of individuals in a work team to work well
with others to achieve a common objective. Teamwork is a skill that can be developed
through regular practice. An individual who is a team player is always putting the
interest of the team before his/her personal interests.

There are many skills that a project team should possess. Three basic essential skills
that project team members should possess are outlined here. This includes 1.
Good communication skills, 2. Basic management skills, 3. Amicable writing skills,
4. Skills management skills (MyClientSpot, n.d.). These essential skills are
explained below

Listen for Good Communication Skills: It is important to listen for good

communication skills. Good communication is a crucial ingredient in working
together in teams. Teams communicate among themselves and with the leadership. It
is important that communication is carried out effectively and team members should
be able to do that in a language that is clearly understood and acknowledged by all.
Good communication is also essential in minimising conflicts among teams.
Therefore, communication skills is an essential skills to listen out for.
Look out for Basic Management Skills: While the project manager is responsible
for the planning and operations of the team, ideally, his team members should
possess basic management skills. Irrespective of the type of project, some basic grasp
of leadership and judgement should be seen in a team member.

To identify these skills, from time to time, the project manager should delegate certain
tasks and duties to his team. This will provide him with the opportunity to recognise
the management strengths that each team member possesses. Identification of
such skills is beneficial to the project manager as it goes a long way in the formation
of a self-sustaining team that can multi-task on multiple projects at the same time.
Look out for Amicable Writing Skills: The project manager should look out for
amicable writing skills because like good communication skills, amicable writing
skills is important for sharing and passing information around clearly, correctly and
effectively. Like good communication skills, amicable writing skills play a big part
in ensuring information is shared and passed around clearly, correctly and effectively.
There may be a need for documentation of technical information, if this skill is
lacking, the job will not be done accurately.

Possession of Skills in Risk Management: Risks cannot be totally ruled out from
projects even with the best planning. Even though this is an essential skill requirement
from the project leader, it is also very important that this skill is possessed by team
members.

Everyone in the team must see risk management as a shared concern. The ability
of a team member to detect potentials risks and threats to the project and possibly
prevent them is an essential skill that is desirable among team members. A project
manager should take note of team members that possess this skill.

1.3.3 Project Risks Identification

Project risk has to do with any unforeseen or uncertain events that may or may not
crop up during the project execution phase. However, it is important to note that risks
are not necessarily negative. There are also positive risks. Because uncertainties
cannot be completely eliminated, it is important to plan for and identify possible risk
events that may impact the project.

To illustrate this. Assuming a particular library in Nigeria wants to embark on a project

that will transfer all its operations into electronic methods, it is important that
they identify all the risks that could arise including loss of data and system failure
which is a very important consideration in a country that has an epileptic power
supply.

Risk identification is important for risk management. According to Project Risk Coach
(2022), to identify risks in project management, it is necessary to do the following

• Define Project Risk

• Write the Risk in a Consistent Format

 • Use a Variety of Risk Identification Tools:
• Engage the Right Stakeholders to Identify Project Risks
• Look Beyond the Obvious Risks
• Capture your Project Risks

1.4 Project Planning

Project planning is an important part of the project life cycle and in fact can be said
to be at the heart of the project life cycle. It can be described as a kind of road map
that tells everyone involved in the project where you are going and how you intend
to get there. Let us take for instance a decision to set up a digital library. It will
be foolhardy for management to simply rush into it without sitting down to plan what
it will entail.

Considerations must be made about personnel, finance, equipment etc. that will be
needed to complete the project.
Hassan (2006) opines that it is at the planning phase that considerations are given to
resource availability, resource allocation, staff responsibilities, and forecasting of
cash flow. In other words, the project plan states the resources that are available,
how the resources will be allocated, what each staff is responsible for, and the
timeline of the project. As a result, a well-conceived plan will most assuredly
produce a successful outcome. It must be noted, however, that the project plan is
not cast in iron i.e. it is not foolproof. As a result, there is a need to monitor and if
necessary, re-plan the project as it progresses towards the specified goal to avoid
project derailment.

At the project planning stage, it is important that all the parties involved in the project
understand clearly its facets, the expected results or the processes involved in
achieving the project (deliverables), the tasks that are associated with the project, and
roles and responsibilities of all the team members. Also, it is at this stage that the
time constraints within which team members are working are made clear. In
essence, during the process of planning, the various activities/operations involved in
the project, their sequences/order as well as how they relate to each other are
established

Nagarajan (2012) outlines the following as the main steps in project planning: (a)

Defining the objectives of the project

(b) Making forecasts for achieving the goals

(c) Identifying the alternative courses of action for achieving the goals

(d) Evaluating the resources available to the organisation

 (e) Evaluating the available alternative courses of action and selecting the
course of action/actions that are most suited to achieve the desired
results, taking into account resource constraints, if any.

The three basic components of a project plan are scope, budget and timeline. The
scope is concerned with the boundaries of the project so that the project team
understands what they can or cannot do. This also sets the deliverables and the
performance goals. The budget is concerned with taking a good look at the material
and human resources that are needed to meet the project goals and estimate the project
costs.

The timeline on the other hand is concerned with revealing the length of time that is
expected for each of the phases of the project to be completed and this also includes
the project schedule and milestones that will be met.
In project management, a project plan includes three important documents: Project
Charter, Scope of Work Statement (SOW) And Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).

Project Charter is the section of the plan that presents a general overview of the
project. In this section, the purpose and objectives of the project including the
constraints and risks are outlined. It also defines the stakeholders as well as the
general strategy that will be employed in the project’s execution.

Scope of Work Statement (SOW) describes the scope, schedule, activities and
deliverables of the project including key milestones.

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is the aspect of the document that breaks down
the project scope into phases, deliverables and the individual activities that will lead
to the closing deliverable. The Project Execution Plan (PEP) describes the execution
strategy, roles and responsibilities of the project team,
detailed schedule, project assurance, and risk management (Dey, 2022).

1.4.1 Purpose of Project Planning

The purpose of the project planning phase includes

• Establish business requirements: It specifies what the project needs are and also
the criteria for success. This includes the goals of the project and the performance
criteria for success.
• Establish cost, schedule, list of deliverables, and delivery dates: With the
project plan, it is possible to have a view of the cost, schedule, list of deliverables
and delivery dates. This serves as a guide for the project team from the execution
through the closing of the project.
• Establish resources plans: Projects require resources in the form of humans and
materials for their execution. The project planning describes all the aspects and
activities of the project with assigned resources for meeting the tasks that are
involved.
 • Obtain management approval and proceed to the next phase: The project plan
provides all the information which is needed by management, company or
organization to understand the objectives of the project, the expected
deliverables, scope, costs, and timeline of activities among other things. A
well-detailed project plan is a basis for seeking and receiving approval for the
project which takes the project to the execution phase (Barron & Barron, n.d).

1.4.2 Project Planning Elements

Although the process of developing the project plan differs from one
organisation to another, the basic elements of project planning as outlined by
Meredith and Mantel (2010) are:

• Overview – A short summary of the objectives and scope of the project mostly
directed to the top management. This contains a statement of the goals of the
project including a brief explanation of their relationships to the firm’s
objectives, how the managerial structure that will be used for the project is and
also a list of the major milestones in the project schedule.
• Objectives or scope – While the overview gives a summary of the objectives
and scope of the project, this gives a more detailed statement of the general goals
as noted in the overview section. The statement should also contain information
on the profit, competitive aims and technical goals.
• General approach – This is where the managerial and technical approach that
will be adopted in the work is outlined.
• Contractual Approach – This aspect provides information on the complete list
and description of issues such as reporting requirements, customer-supplied
resources, liaison arrangements, advisory committees, project reviews and
cancellations procedures etc.
• Schedules – Here, the various schedules and milestone events are listed. Also
attached is the estimated time for each task as obtained from the people that are
responsible for them.
• Resources – This specifies the resources required according to tasks.

• Planning – This specifies the expected personnel requirements of the project

including such things as special skills, types of training needed etc.
• Risk Management – This covers the plans for possible risks that could affect
the project. It also states the optional contingency plans and the strategies for
mitigating them.
• Evaluation Method – Evaluation is part of every project. This section details
the procedure that will be used in monitoring, collecting, storing and evaluating the
history of the project.

1.4.2 Project Scope

One essential characteristic of a project that we must always bear in mind is that
every project is temporary and has a start and an end time. In essence, there must
be a way to keep a budget within boundaries that will ensure that only what is
required or specified is delivered. To that extent, “project scope is a part of the
project planning process that documents specific goals, deliverables, features,
and budgets. The scope document details the list of activities for the successful
completion of the project” (Project, 2021).

Project scope defines what the project will deliver and what it will not. It is important
to define the scope because one major setback for projects is the failure to determine
or define the scope. If the scope is properly defined and managed, it will be easier to
contain it within time and budget which ultimately results in the successful delivery
of the project. Failure to define a project scope clearly and manage it efficiently will
most likely result in an unsuccessful project

As mentioned, the project scope is a detailed outline of every aspect of the project.
This includes related activities such as resources, timelines (deadlines), and
deliverables. Deliverables are the tangible things that the project produces. Other
aspects that are outlined in the project scope are key stakeholders, steps that will be
taken, assumptions, and obstacles, as well as what the project is about, what is
included, and what is not. This could be a house or software, among other things.

One important thing is that a project is not expected to extend beyond its scope. The
project scope also serves to provide the key stakeholders, with a clear understanding
of why the project is being initiated as well as defines what the key goals are. This
is important for the avoidance of ambiguity. All of this essential information is
documented in a scope statement.

To that extent, the scope of a project must be clearly stated in the planning phase.

To ensure success in the business of carrying out a new project, therefore, three steps
are necessary:

1) identify the factors that are involved in starting a project,

2) Clearly define the objectives, and

3) identify all measures of performance (Mirza, Pourzolfaghar and

Shanazari, 2013).

Furthermore, if a project is to be successfully managed, there are some key steps

that must be taken to define its scope. There is no doubt that a clear and proper
definition of the project scope goes a long way in ensuring that the project stays
within boundaries. The key steps are as follows

(ii) Work with key stakeholders to define and create a scope statement by
identifying what is within scope, and out of scope. Collaborating with
stakeholders helps to ensure essential things do not fall through the cracks.

(iii) Identify, document, and communicate assumptions. Assumptions are those

elements that relate to the project that are assumed to be true for the duration of
 the project. Assumptions are necessary to provide an estimate of the cost and
schedule to deliver the project’s scope during the planning phase of a project.

(iv) Gain buy-in (acceptance and commitment) for the scope statement with the
stakeholders who are most impacted to ensure that (Alexander, 2020).

Some essential information that is documented in a scope statement:

• A project statement of work (SoW), which is a detailed breakdown of all

work to be performed by a project team and any important elements that may impact
the outcome
• Constraints that might limit or negatively impact the outcome of the project,
including resources, procurement issues, timing, or lack of information

• Scope exclusions, which can be anything that will not be part of the project or
its deliverables

• Milestones that provide the exact date that something will be delivered or
completed

• The final deliverables that will be provided to the customer at the end of the
project — for example, a report, a software feature, any process insights or
analysis, or any product or service that a customer needs.

• Acceptance criteria that spell out exactly how success will be measured

• Final approval whereby the customer will sign off on the scope statement
confirming that all parameters have been included and the document is complete
and accurate (Ahmad, Masood & Mohmmed, 2013).

1.5 Project Budgeting

Essentially, “a budget is a document that translates plans into money - money that
will need to be spent to get your planned activities done (expenditure) and money
that will need to be generated to cover the costs of getting the work
done (income). It is an estimate, or informed guess, about what you will need in
monetary terms to do your work” (Civicus, n.d.).

Following this general definition of a budget, we see project budgeting as a laid down
plan for allocating resources. It is important to note that resources are scarce and so
must be used judiciously to achieve the desired results. So, no project can proceed
without funds and funds cannot or should not be disbursed without a laid down project
budget.

By way of a definition, “project budget is the total amount of authorized

financial resources allocated for the particular purpose(s) of the sponsored project for
a specific period of time. It is the primary financial document that constitutes the
necessary funds for implementing the project and producing the deliverables. The
project budget gives a detailed statement of all the direct and overhead costs required
to carry out the project goals and objectives” (McConnel, 2011).

A project budgeting is also defined “as the total projected costs needed to complete a
project over a defined period of time. It is used to estimate what the costs of the
project will be for every phase of the project. It will include such things as labour
costs, material procurement costs and operating costs” (Bridges, 2019).

The definitions help us to understand that the project budget is usually an estimated
cost of how much it will cost to execute a project. The estimation is done to cover
the different phases of a project.

Arguably, one important aspect of project execution is the source of obtaining the
funds that will be used to execute it. Another important issue is ensuring that the
funds that are allocated to a project are used carefully so as to successfully
complete the project. So, the judicious allocation of funds starts with estimating the
cost of the different phases that are involved in a project to ensure that there is a view
of how much will be involved in completing the project. So, the project budget can
be viewed as a control mechanism that ensures that funds are used judiciously in
achieving the project’s objectives and deliverables.

However, beyond being a control mechanism, it should be understood that a project

budget also serves as a means of communicating to the stakeholders how much
money is needed and when it is needed thereby enabling them to keep track of the
project.
To that extent, a project budget assists in monitoring the income and expenditure of
the project as well as in the identification of any problem that may arise. It is the
basis for financial accountability and transparency because based on it, informed
questions can be asked if discrepancies are noticed in the expenditure. The budget
also serves as a basis for approval for the project to proceed to the execution phase.

In a nutshell, project budgeting is important in the following ways

• Budgeting is an essential part of getting a project approved and securing
project funding.
• Well-planned budgets become the foundation for project cost control.
• Project budgets have a direct relationship with the financial viability of an
organization (CFA Journal, 2022).
Take note, however, that the budget is only an estimate. It is not cast in iron such
that it cannot be changed when the occasion warrants it. An estimate may be done
at a particular time only for market forces to affect the costs of items. This will be
taken into consideration in the budgeting process but care should be taken to avoid
arbitrary implementation of the project budget to avoid depletion of funds even
before the project is completed.
 1.5.1 Project Budget Management

Project budget management is the process of managing and controlling the

project budget throughout the project’s life cycle. Budget management consists of a
series of tasks and steps designed to help manage the costs of the project, the steps
identified by PM4DEV (2015) are:

• Defining the Budget: It is the responsibility of the project manager to define the
budget by estimating the budget required to complete the project. The process
involves the allocation of costs to all project activities and all aspects of the project.
This includes the cost of internal and external human resources, equipment, travel,
materials and supplies. The budget has to be more detailed than it was in the project
proposal and if it is a new budget, should carefully cover all the project activities. In
the event that there was already a contracted budget before the project manager
starts his job, there should be no assumptions. There is a need for that budget can
accommodate the project scope. Where this is not the case, the budget should be
reviewed and updated.

• Executing the Budget: A budget is executed by authorizing the expenses

approved in the budget. Thereafter, the project manager initiates to carry out the
activities that include hiring project staff, purchase of equipment, materials and
services, all according to a project procurement plan developed during the resource
management process. This step occurs after the budget has been approved and
the project authorised to start its activities according to the project plan.

• Controlling the Budget

Monitoring and controlling the budget is a critical activity therefore, it is not
enough to have a budget. In the event of any changes in the budget, this should be
appropriately captured and approved and included in the project baseline.

The whole point of controlling and monitoring the project is to ensure that resources
are deployed appropriately. There should be accountability for the project costs. All
expenses must be formally identified, approved and paid for. The roles and
responsibilities of the individuals charged with project control should be clearly
defined.

• Updating the Budget

As approved changes are made to the budget, there should be an update to it. This is
all in a bid to ensure that all items of expenditure are accounted for.
Approved changes to the budget will need to be reflected in the accounting system
used by the organisation and new project budget reports will need to reflect this
change.

To locate this process in the library. In the university system, the Bursary
department is charged with the responsibility of controlling and managing the
budget. Normally, calls for budget submissions is made by them from the various
units and departments in the university system. If the university prepares their budget,
it must be approved before it can operate it. The first step in the process is articulating
all the needs and attaching financial implications to them. When the budget is
approved by the Vice-Chancellor, the Bursary will be directed to release funds. The
library management must ensure that the funds are used as stated. Any new additions
or changes must be approved and the budget updated. Without approval, no
additional expenses can be included. Also, as the activities are being carried out, all
receipts on expenditure will be carefully kept and used to retire the released fund.
The Bursary department will then ensure that expenditure is tallied with budget
submission.

1.5.2 Steps in the Project Budgeting Process

This process can take several steps, however, Wikiaccounting (2022) has outlined the
following steps.

1. Pre-planning: This is the first step in project budgeting and it should start with
identifying the tasks, activities, and milestones of the project since the project cost
estimation will be based on it. Having the project tasks, activities and milestones broken
down in such detail can help in detailed cost estimations and allocation of resources in full.
2. Cost estimation: The budgeting process should not end with outlining the tasks,
activities and milestones of the project, rather, they should be assigned estimated
costs. Project activities and resources should be assigned estimated costs to provide an
insight into the expected overall cost of the project.
3. Contingency planning: Projects are prone to contingencies and so provision should
be made for contingencies in the budget. This is necessary to avoid mishaps during
the project execution and helps to cushion any shortcomings in the pre-planning stage.
4. Real-time management: The real-time management of the budget involves real-time
costs and expenses during the project activities. This step is the actual movement of
money into and out of the project. It serves to give project managers an idea about
their pre-planned cost estimates. This is can be seen as the estimate vs the actual step.
5. Variances: As noted earlier, a project budget is not cast in iron. The actual money is
spent during the project execution phase. The variance is any difference between the
amount that was budgeted and the actual outcome. The estimated cost can be affected
by positive or adverse budget variances. These operational variances can arise from a
number of reasons including idle labour hours, and machine inefficiencies among
others.
6. Reconciliation: This is the process involved in checking the differences between budget
estimation and the outcome. Generally, the project cost is determined by computing the
cost of the different aspects of a project at completion. However, reconciliation of costs
cannot be left until the completion of the project. It can take place during the project
and will serve to control spending.

1.5.3 Project Cost Estimation Technique

The cost estimation technique is the process that involves estimating all the
costs that are associated with the completion of a project from start to completion
within the scope and timeline. There are a number of forecasting techniques that can
be used in project estimation. They include 1. Bottom-top estimation, 2. Top-down
estimation, 3. Analogous estimation, 4. Parametric estimation, and 5. Three-point
estimation (CFA Journal, 2022).

1. Bottom-Top Estimation: This is the most commonly used technique in project

budgeting. This technique requires a sum of all the costs allocated to different project
activities, and the sum-up of all the costs is the total project cost. The drawback of
this technique is that it takes a considerable amount of time to accomplish since all
the project activities are budgeted for. Project budgeting is a continuous exercise and
as the project moves into later stages, it becomes more defined and the goals become
clearer.

2. Top-Down Estimation: This is the opposite of the bottom-top estimation. In this

technique, the sum total of the cost is broken up and allocated to all the activities,
tasks and phases of the project. This technique is useful where there is a decision to
be made about whether or not to accept the project; the budget is therefore kept as a
limiting factor that will determine the decision.

The top-down approach to budgeting is literarily set in stone as it does not have
enough room for change. The fact that every project experiences an increase in scope
and planned tasks as it progresses, means that with this technique frequent
changes to the plan and revisions of the budget are discouraged. The technique is
best suited for projects that of a recurring nature where the nature and scope of the
project are fully understood.

3. Analogous Estimation: In this method, information from already executed

similar projects is used for the estimation. Available data from the projects is used
to determine how long a current project will run and how much it will
cost. This technique is possible where the estimator is experienced and already has
an idea of the nature and scope of a project. For instance, a project manager has
executed Project A and is asked to execute Project B under similar conditions. Data
used to estimate Project A is used to make an estimation for Project B which in nature
and scope is similar to Project A.
The drawback is that it is only useful when a precedent already exists. It cannot be
used for a new and unique project. Moreover, an inexperienced project manager may
find it difficult to use. Moreover, drawing a parallel from a previous project may be
misleading as many aspects of the cost may change over a period due to inflation,
wage increase, etc.

4. Parametric Estimation:

Parametric estimation can be said to be an improvement in the analogous

estimation technique. In this technique, data is gathered from different similar
projects and then applied to the current project. The data points could be more than
one similar project. The objective of this estimation technique is to make the
analogous estimation technique more accurate by including data sets that are
suitable for the current project from many different projects to increase the overall
relevance of costs. In this technique, statistics, historical records and variables are
used to create a budget quickly in comparison to a bottom-top approach but the
accuracy is similar.

The drawback however is that it may be difficult to find similar and relevant data
sets; it is time-consuming and only applies where there are similar projects in
existence.

5. Three-Point Estimation:
The three-point estimation technique is used to estimate activity and
duration/time and costs of work items. The strength of this technique is that it
minimises the risk of exceeding the project budget. It also allows the project manager
to deliver within the budgeted estimates. The only drawback is that it is time-
consuming.

1.6 Project Manager

A project manager is an integral part of any organisation that uses project

management in its operations. The project manager is a very important part
of a project. He is a professional in the field of project management who is
charged with the responsibility of the planning, procurement, and execution
of a project, in any undertaking that has a defined scope, defined start,
and a defined finish; regardless of the environment or industry. While the
project manager may not necessarily be the overall head of an organisation,
once appointed, other heads of departments that are involved in the project
answer to him as long as the issue has to do with that project. He in turn answers
to the overall boss.

Even in construction projects, it is also the project manager that takes that
responsibility. He is the one that the stakeholders go to on any issue concerning
a project. Therefore, project management is the responsibility of a project
manager. This individual seldom participates directly in the activities that
produce the result, but rather strives to maintain the progress, mutual
interaction, and tasks of various parties in such a way that reduces the risk of
overall failure, maximizes benefits and minimizes costs (Wikipedia, 2021).
Therefore, it can safely be said that the success or failure of a project depends
on the project manager. Any project manager that is worth his salt will stake
everything to ensure that the project is successful.

1.6.1 Types of Project Managers

Project managers can be categorised according to the type of industry or job

description. What this implies is that the duties of a project manager vary and can
only be examined on the basis of the industry however, whatever the industry, the
project manager is in charge of projects. In some cases, also, project managers are
categorized based on their character.

In this section, however, we are considering project managers based on the type of
industry or their job description. Wikipedia (2021) identifies five types of project
managers: (i) architectural project manager, (ii) construction project manager, (iii)
engineering project manager, (iv) insurance claims project manager, and (v) IT
project manager.
i. Architectural Project Manager: This type of project manager manages
projects in the field of architecture. The architectural project manager possesses
many similar skills to a project manager in the construction industry. In fact,
the architectural project manager will often work closely with the construction
project manager. In addition, the architectural project manager coordinates the
work design team and many consultants who contribute to a construction project.
He is also in charge of managing communication with the client. Specifically,
he is responsible for budgeting, scheduling, and quality control.

ii. Construction Project Manager: This project manager works in the construction
industry such a building construction. Often times, the construction project
manager works closely with an architectural project manager.

iii. Engineering Project Manager: Engineering projects are managed by an

engineering project manager. Engineering project management has as the
deliverable, a product or device through the developing and manufacturing
stages, working with various professionals in different fields of engineering and
manufacturing to go from concept to finished product. Optionally, this can
include different versions and standards as required by different countries,
requiring knowledge of laws, requirements, and infrastructure.

iv. Insurance Claim Project Manager: Insurance policies are taken by individuals
or organisations to cover losses through fire, flood, or other kinds of disaster.
Therefore, an insurance claims project manager often oversees and manages the
restoration of a client's home/office after a fire, flood, or other disaster, covering
the fields from electronics through to the demolition and construction contractors.

v. IT Project Manager: Naturally, an IT project manager works in the IT industry

and manages IT projects. Two categories of managers are classified under IT
project management. These are software (development) project manager and
infrastructure project manager.

Software is those instructions that enable the user to interact with a computer, its
hardware, or perform tasks. Essentially, most computers will be useless without
software. Therefore, the development of software is an important project in the IT
industry. The project manager in an IT industry plays a vital role. A software project
manager has many of the same skills as their counterparts in other industries.
Beyond the skills normally associated with traditional project management in
industries such as construction and manufacturing, a software project manager will
typically have an extensive background in software development. Many
software project managers hold a degree in computer science, information
technology, management of information systems, or another related field.

On the other hand, an infrastructure IT project manager is concerned with ensuring

the smooth running of hardware in the IT department. Hardware includes computers,
servers, storage, networking, and such aspects of them as backup, business
continuity, upgrades, replacement, and growth.

1.6.2 Selection of A Project Manager

The foregoing discussions, undoubtedly, have helped you to understand the unique
role and responsibilities of a project manager. The fact that a project manager is
entrusted with the responsibility of running a project from initiation to closing phases
reinforces the point that it is not a job to be given to one who is not well grounded.
As mentioned severally, the success or failure of a project largely depends on the
project manager. Therefore, care must be exercised to ensure that the one
commissioned to manage a project is capable of meeting expectations.

The success of a project may be made more likely in having a qualified project
manager. Egeland (2010) contends that careful thought should be given to selecting
the right person for a project because even the qualities of this particular
individual can have a direct impact on the outcome of the engagement. Reinforcing
his position, Egeland (2016) further notes that the sole criteria for selecting a
project manager should not be based on qualification because many qualified
people can do the mechanics of project management, but not everyone is a project
leader. The technically competent person is not necessarily a competent project
leader. A person may have the best logical and analytical mind in the group and yet
lack the qualities that lead a project to a successful conclusion. Because the project
manager must interact with many people (such as sponsors, senior management,
client, and team members), it is important that that person have good “people skills.

Regarding qualifications, while having advanced subject expertise in s specific

project activities is desirable, it needs to be understood that this is not necessarily
important because the project manager does not work alone on the entire project
rather, he most likely will work with a team of sub-project managers that have
the required advanced expertise. In essence, the project manager can rely on them to
provide advanced subject expertise in the specific parts of the overall projects that
they are overseeing. What is more important is that the project manager possesses
good people skills to enable him successfully interact with all the people that he
must meet in the course of the project such as stakeholders, senior management, client
and team members. His ability to interact successfully with the various groups of
people will go a long way to guarantee the success of the project.

Indeed Editorial Team (2021) also posit that irrespective of the industry a project
manager works in, it is imperative that he possesses some soft or peoples skills
in addition to having technical skills as these skills can boost his success. not
exhaustive, Indeed Editorial Team (2021) has also outlined these eight key qualities
to include: 1. Leadership skills, 2. Communication skills, 3. Problem-solving skills,
4. Delegation skills, 5. Enthusiasm, 6. Team-building skills, 7. Integrity and 8.
Competences.
1. Leadership Skills: Strong leadership is an important skill that a project manager
should possess if he is to be successful on the job. The project manager is tasked
with the responsibility of overseeing the project from start to finish. To achieve
this responsibility, he will require team from start to finish. Being a good leader
means that the project manager should be able to motivate his team to perform at
their best throughout the project and ensure all team members have a clear
understanding of what is expected of them. He should also be able to assess his team’s
strengths and weaknesses and decide how to best utilize them throughout the project
completion process.

2. Communication skills: Communication is very important from the start to finish

of a project. The project manager will have to communicate with the stakeholders
and senior management team as well as the various work teams that are involved
with the project. Effective project management requires clear and competent
communication about the expectations, goals and responsibilities of the team who
will be completing the project. Being able to efficiently communicate with his team
as well as clients and management can ensure that everyone is of the same
understanding regarding project expectations. Good communication skills also allow
him to provide constructive feedback to his team to better guide them. Both written
and oral communication skills are important for project managers to have.
3. Problem-solving skills: In the course of executing a project, a number of issues
may arise which can only be resolved by a project manager. Poor management of
issues such as conflicts and misunderstanding can create stakeholders related to the
project. Being able to think on his feet and address disputes and problems is key
to ensuring the project is completed in an efficient and timely manner.

4. Delegation skills: A lot of activities and sub-teams are involved in any project.
Even the best of project managers will need other people to help him oversee some
aspects of the project since he cannot be everywhere at the same time. Being able
to assign and oversee tasks is a fundamental component of successful project
management. A project manager should have the ability to access the skills of his
team and sign tasks based on these skills. Effective delegation also requires him to
trust his team members to fulfill their duties and allows him to avoid micromanaging
them. Delegation has the advantage of equipping other people with supervisory skills.

5. Enthusiasm: The mood of a project manager can transmit positive or

negative vibes to his team members. Enthusiasm is an important part of being a good
project manager because it shows the team that the project manager believes in the
project and has confidence in his team’s ability to complete it. Being
enthusiastic can also help keep team members motivated and in a positive
state of mind while working on their assigned tasks.

6. Team-building skills: As mentioned severally, teams are used to execute projects.

The project manager should possess team-building skills. Being a good team builder
can help him bring a successful team together and that works as a unit to complete a
project. Leading his team towards a common purpose and keeping the enthusiasm
and motivation alive throughout the entire project will make him a better project
manager and leader.

7. Integrity: The project manager should have enough integrity to commit to the
finishing of a project. Integrity, sometimes also referred to as loyalty or honesty, is
an important quality for a project manager to have. Integrity can help him set a good
example for his team and make them more likely to follow that example. It also
shows his team that they are committed to the project and are willing to see it through
to the end at all costs. Integrity additionally fosters trust from his team and promotes
an ethical and responsible work environment.

8. Competence: Being competent in project management can promote both a sense

of trust and authority in the team. Knowing how to effectively and competently lead
his team is paramount to the overall success of project completion. However,
another important part of competency is realizing problems in achieving the
objectives. Successful project managers should be able to solve a variety of problems
throughout all stages of a project. Issues that may need to be solved could involve
team members, clients or when he is not an expert in a certain field and therefore be
willing to ask for help from others when it is needed. Refusal to ask for help is not
only a sign or immaturity but also of foolhardiness as it can derail the project.

1.6.3 Roles and Responsibilities of a Project Manager

The exact duties of a project manager are largely dictated by the type of industry,
organsation and types of project over which he has oversight. What is not
controvertible however; is the role of a project manager spans through the planning
phase to the closing phase of a project. During all of these phases, a project manager
also ensures that the project stays within the stipulated time, budget and within scope.
But irrespective of the industry, organisation or type of project, five distinct phases
of processes are usually associated with projects. These phases are commonly referred
to as the “project life cycle.

Project managers are charged with certain responsibilities, and in line with the type
of project one is involved in. However, the specific tasks that consume a project
manager’s time will vary substantially depending on which phases of the life cycle
their projects are in. What this means is that the responsibilities will vary as they get
into one stage or phase of the project or another. However, there are a number of
general tasks that any good project manager can expect to perform on a daily basis.
The mark of a good project manager is in how efficient and effective he is in
carrying out his responsibilities because the success or failure of a project will to a
large extent depend on him.

Miller (2019) cautions that one should not see the project life cycles listed above
as steps as such because these are processes that project managers continually
return to throughout the duration or life of a project. However, they form the basis
on which the role of a project manager can be discussed. The processes are
discussed more closely below.

1. Initiating: Every project is new and unique and project managers start each
new project by defining what the main objectives of the project are. He is also the
one to define the purpose and scope of the project. Because every project has
stakeholders, the project manager identifies key internal and external stakeholders,
discuss shared expectations, and gain the required authorization necessary to move
the project forward (Miller, 2019). These are things that need to be done to ensure
that everyone is on the same page. Miller (2019) has gone on to identify important
questions that project managers ask during the initiating phase. This includes:

a. Why is the project important?

b. What’s the specific problem we’re trying to solve?

c. What is the desired outcome?

d. What are the project’s success criteria?

e. Who are the stakeholders on this project? Who is impacted by, or who impacts,
this project?

f. What are the requirements and constraints within this project?

g. What assumptions are we making?

h. How will the project be funded?

i. What is within our scope? What is not within our scope?

j. Has this project been executed before? If so, what was the result? What
information from that past project should be considered in this project?

2. Planning: It is the responsibility of the project manager to formulate an

integrated plan to meet the projects objectives. The plan will outline the scope of the
project, budget, timeline and risks. This is important as a guide for the project while
it lasts. Other information that should be captured in the plan includes the
communication strategy, a plan for execution and documentation, and a proposal for
follow-up and maintenance. The plan has to be approved by the stakeholders because
it will serve a critical part of the presentations needed to convince key decision
makers. It is during this phase that project managers will outline key deliverables and
milestones and identify the tasks that must be completed to complete each. It should
be noted that the project planning does not end until the closing of the project.
Throughout project implementation, the plan constantly evolves and changes as the
need arises (Miller, 2019; Wrike,
2021).
3. Executing: A project is executed using teams of diverse expertise. It is during
the execution that the project manager uses team members to complete the
work that has been identified in the project plan in order to reach the goals of
the project. The project manager’s role is to assign this work and to ensure that
tasks are completed as scheduled. The project manager will also typically:

a. Protect the team from distractions

b. Facilitate issue resolution

c. Lead the team in working through project changes

4. Monitoring and Controlling: This is a very important role of a project

manager to ensure that everything is going according to specified plans.
Despite being listed as the fourth phase, monitoring and controlling processes
actually commence at the beginning of a project and continue throughout
planning, execution, and closing. In the monitoring and controlling phase, a
project manager’s work includes:

a. Monitoring the progress of a project

b. Managing the project’s budget

c. Ensuring that key milestones are reached

d. Comparing actual performance against planned/scheduled performance

Bear in mind that although theoretically, the project is supposed to go

according to the laid down plan, the truth is that it does not always go exactly
as planned because unforeseen circumstances can emerge. It is good practice
therefore, that a project manager must be flexible enough to work within a
project’s plan but readily adapt when necessary.

5. Closing: The closing stage is the end of the project. During this phase, the project
manager strives to ensure that all activities necessary to achieve the final
result are completed. During the close of a project, project managers will:

a. Work with the client to get formal sign-off that the project is complete. This is
because it is only the client that can certify the project completed because the
client is the one who assigns the project.
b. Release any resources (budget or personnel) who are no longer needed for the
project

c. Review the work of third-party vendors or partners in order to close their

contracts and pay their invoices

d. Archive project files for future reference and use when there is a need for it.

After the project has been completed, all the stakeholders will meet for a post-
implementation review which is often used to identify key lessons learned.
 Understanding what went well, what could be done differently, and what to
stop doing can help inform and improve project management practices moving
forward.

Furthermore, there are specific demands that are made on the project manager
on a daily basis. As mentioned earlier, while the demands that are made on the
project manager may vary according to the type of project or the phase that a
project is in, there are some general demands that are expected for the project
manager to meet. Miller (2019) outlines and explains these responsibilities as
they relate to communicating (with team members and stakeholders), issue
identification and resolution;

1. Communicating with Team Members: Project Management is all about

communication, whether through emails, calls, daily check-ins, or team meetings.
Project managers must communicate with the members of their team regularly to
determine the status of various projects and potential roadblocks that will need to
be resolved. It is important that there is productive guidance, efficient
communication and proper supervision of the project team because the success or
failure of a project is highly dependent on the work team, thus, the key to success
is always in project collaboration. To this end, the establishment of good
communication is of major importance. Because the different activities of a project
entails teamwork, there is need to ensure that this flows through the phases of the
project. On one hand, information needs to be articulated in a clear, unambiguous
and complete way, so everything is comprehended fully by everyone. On the other
hand, the ability to be able listen and receive constructive feedback will ensure that
time is not wasted.

2. Communicating with Key Stakeholders: There are key stakeholders in every

project. It is important that they are regularly updated on project as it
progresses. This is important to ensure that the project still aligns with
changing company initiatives. This communication can take many forms, including
weekly or monthly reports, regularly updated dashboards, or quick emails, calls,
or meetings. Regardless of the medium, getting comfortable
communicating with data is an essential skill that every project manager
requires.

3. Issue Identification and Resolution: Throughout the course of any project,

it’s common for scope, budget, resource allocation, and other miscellaneous issues
to arise. It is the role of the project manager to ensure that these issues are resolved
effectively in order to keep the project on track. Conflicts may also arise within
teams or between members of different teams. The project manager must ensure
that such conflicts are resolved so that the work is not hindered.

4. Budgeting: Project managers work with money and it is important that proper
budgeting is done so that every aspect of the project is covered. However, the scale
of the budgeting that he does would normally be dependent on the size of the project.
For small-scale projects, cost estimation may be a weekly or even a monthly task.
But for larger projects with many different expenses to keep in mind, project
managers may spend time reviewing budgets each day to ensure the project does
not exceed resource allocations. This may also include reviewing, processing, and
approving invoices from outside vendors if the project includes such partnerships.

5. Time management and Approval: Projects are time bound, and it is

important to keep to the timeline as much as possible. This is to ensure that the
project remains on track. To carry out this responsibility, many project managers
turn to timesheets or a project management software that allows them to see how
their team is spending their time. In addition to ensuring that the project is moving
along as planned, this helps project managers shift resources between projects as
necessary
 Lecture Two: Project Organisation Structure

Project organisation structure is an important element in project management because

it determines the way that an organisation and the project manager performs.
Pm4Dev (2016) observes that orgnisation structure defines the authority and this
is usually conveyed with the aid of an organization chart. An organization chart is a
graphical illustration which shows where individuals are located in the chart and
also the project structure. Organisation forms are usually in a pyramid form and
“individuals that are located closer to the top of the pyramid have more authority
and responsibility than members located toward the bottom.” Relatively speaking
also, the location of individual employees on the organization chart is what
specifies the working relationships, and the lines connecting the boxes designate
formal supervision and lines of communication between the individuals”
(Pm4Dev, 2016). Typically, the project initiation phase is characterised by a level of
uncertainty and confusion; having structure in place helps to reduce uncertainty
and confusion.

Indeed, the organisation structure that any organisation adopts or selects will largely
influence how projects are carried out in it. It is therefore important that one
understands the organization structure in place as well as the culture within which the
project manager is working. In a nutshell, the project organisation structure facilitates
the coordination and implementation of project activities. The major aim is to ensure
that the environment of work is such that fosters interactions among the team
members thereby reducing to the minimum, incidences of disruptions, overlaps and
conflicts. Given that “each project has its unique characteristics, the design of an
organisational structure should consider the organisational environment, the project
characteristics in which it will operate, and the level of authority the project
manager is given” (PM4DEV, 2016). PM4Dev further observes that creating the
structure is not the issue because it is only a part of organizing the project. There are
three major types of project organization: functional organisation structure, pure
project structure, and matrix structure. In terms of organisation of project teams and
their leadership structures, the differences lie in who the project leader is, who has
certain responsibilities and who makes the decisions (Odedayo, 2021).

The diagram below is a typical hierarchical organization chart that graphically

represents an organisation’s structure. It highlights the different jobs, departments,
and responsibilities that connect the company's employees to each other and to the
management team (Chen & Rasure, 2021).
 Project Coordinator

Training
Coordinator
Accounts/Administrator

Provincial Provincial
Coordinato Coordinator

Field Field Field Field

Coordinator Coordinator Coordinator Coordinator

Fig. 6. Project Organisation Chart (Adopted from

PM4Dev)

2.1 Definition of Functional Organisational Structure

It is relevant to note that all firms start small usually with a few human and material
resources. At the initial stages of their operations, they can manage to function
without a sophisticated structure. However, as they become successful, and
begin to grow and add more resources and people along the way, the pressure
arises for them to develop an organisational structure according to their need.
This is important because if the organisation is left as it were without a defined
structure, the system in place will no longer be capable of supporting the
business and activities that take place, and the inevitable result is that the work
will be affected negatively. To ensure that this does not happen, organisations adopt
one form of structure or another. So then, what is organisational structure?
IPL.org (2021) defines organisational structure as “how activities such as
task allocation, coordination, and supervision are directed toward the achievement
of organisational aims.” In essence, organisational structures are created to ensure
that activities or the work factors are divided, organized and coordinated. This
includes also the performance of members of work teams

There are three major types of organisational structures including the functional
organisation structure. The type of structure that an organisation chooses or adopts
will be dependent on a number of factors that are peculiar to it. Where there are
projects in the organisation, they are most likely to be carried out based on the
organisation structure that is in place.

In A functional organisation structure is a structure that is used to organize workers

based on their specific skills and knowledge. In other words, the focus here is placing
workers according to their specialisation. In such organisations, functional units and
roles are created. The units are identified by their names which clearly show what
kind of function they perform. For example, you have Finance, Customer Care, Sales,
Human Resources, Marketing, Administration, etc, usually within departments, and
the employees are assigned to one product or service.

Each unit is managed by a functional manager who reports to the strategic direction
of the organisation. In a large organisation, the heads of the individual functional units
may have other operational managers working under them and that report directly
to them. The larger the organisation the more functional units you have. Each of
the unit functions independently and has its own vertical management structure.

Workers within each functional department communicate with each other

exclusively, and then department heads communicate with each other. In other words,
each functional department is independent and the functional manager only reports
to the overall head. This structure works well in a stable environment that has
continuous operations. The goal of a functional structure is to put together every
informational and human resource necessary for one activity in a single place. That
is if you talking about finance, for instance, every employee there is concerned
with finance and their interaction with other functional unit or department is to the
extent that it is related to finance matters. The functional organisation structure helps
organisations run their business and earn a profit.

An example of a functional organisation is the university system. In any

university, there are different departments (not necessarily academic). Within the
departments are sections, and under some sections are smaller units. Let us take the
example of the university library. The library is divided into sections and under the
sections are units. Each section or unit is charged with a particular aspect of
the job. The unit head reports to the sectional head who in turn reports to a divisional
head, and finally, the divisional head reports to the University Librarian who reports
to the Vice-Chancellor. One distinguishing thing about a functional organisation
structure is that the line of authority is strictly maintained. In fact, deviance is strictly
discouraged.

In functional organisation structure, project team members are allocated according to

the different functional units of an organisation. For instance, if there is a project in
cataloguing unit, the project team will consist mostly of staff that are in the
Technical Services Division and other sections or units are incorporated into the
project only to the extent that there is a role for them to play. In essence, if there is
another section or unit that will be involved in the project, staff are drawn from there
too. The overall objective is to achieve the goals of the organisation. To that extent
also, there is not likely to be a project unit.

Therefore, functional organisation structures must be managed using a

hierarchical structure.

In an organisation of this type, the execution of a project means the birth of a

temporary team. The project team will be composed of members coming from
different functional units to the extent that they are relevant to the work. Where the
members of the different functional units are invited into the project, each will deal
with the part of the project that concerns them most closely and for which they are
directly responsible.

Note that it is not mandatory that all units of an organisation are present in a project.
The employees will in fact be assigned only on the basis of the requirements
of the given project. For some projects, for example, no member from a particular
department may be needed while more specialists of another department may be
required.
 University
Librarian

Project
Manager

DUL, DUL, Tech DUL, Digital DUL (etc)

Readers Services Library
 Staff Staff Staff Staff

Fig. 7: Functional Project Structure (Adapted from Cristobal and Diaz, 2018)

The diagram above describes succinctly the hierarchical nature of functional

organization structure. As can be seen, there are no staff under the project
manager. So, if there is a project to be carried out, he will depend on the staff
under the Deputy University Librarians who in this case are the functional
managers. The one the project manager works with will depend on the project
at hand. The functional heads also do not report directly to the project manager.
In the same vein, each functional manager has staff that reports to him/her
directly. Therefore, the functional manager that the project manager works with
goes along with his staff who are directly answerable to him and not the project
manager. This hierarchy is strictly maintained and only the University
Librarian has overall control of all because both the project manager and the
functional managers report directly to him/her.

2.1.1 Advantages of Functional Organisation Structure

• Competence: As mentioned above, a functional organisation is structured

based on the special skills and knowledge of the workers. As a result,
employees who possess similar skills and experiences are grouped together.
This makes for more efficient and higher quality production.

• Clarity and Accountable Structure: There is clarity of roles and

accountability in functional organization structure as it relates to roles and
tasks. As a result, there is little or no change in the operations of functions with
the result that so little time is spent on learning since each member of the team
in the project does the same thing that he/she would normally do in their unit.

• Clear Communication Lines: In functional organisations also, the hierarchy is

simple, and employees know the one manager they are to answer to, instead of
multiple people. This streamlines communication and reduces confusion
among employees. Employees can feel confident about what they're doing
because it is standardized. They are more likely to feel a loyalty to their
department and the organisation as a whole. This increases morale and work
ethic, as there is more job security. There is a clear path of growth for
employees which provides motivation, and they are more likely to be corporative
with people in their department. A functional organisational structure
provides a perfect environment for learning for new employees (especially
fresh graduates) to be taught the real-world application of theoretical
information (Upcounsel, 2021). In addition, generally speaking, a functional
 organisation structure is more suitable for projects that require the greater
technical experience. There is greater technical experience because the team has
worked on the jobs over the years and so has been able to improve on their skills.

The points above have been succinctly captured by Twproject (2021) as

outlined below:

• No Change: Project is not completed outside the basic functional structure of

the organisation. So, it is familiar ground and as such, there is no radical
change in the operations and structure of the organisation.

• Flexibility: The use of team members is maximally flexible. There is

maximum flexibility regarding the use of team members. Specialists from
different functional units can be temporarily assigned to the project, after which
they return to their normal work. With many specialists available within each
functional department, people can be exchanged between different projects
with relative ease unlike if they were to be sourced from elsewhere.

• In-depth expertise: If the primary responsibility of the project is assigned to

the correct functional unit, it is possible to make use of in-depth expertise on
the most crucial aspects of the project.

• Easy post-project transition: Normal career paths are maintained within a

functional department. While specialists can make a significant contribution to
projects, their functional unit is their professional home, therefore the focus of
their professional growth and advancement. The project becomes like a
temporary home for the staff member and, once it is completed, the employee
returns to his “real” permanent home which is the functional department.

2.1.2 Disadvantages of Functional Organisation

Although functional organisation structure has its advantages, there are also some
disadvantages that are associated with it. Twproject (2021) has articulated some
of these advantages to include:
Monotony/Boredom: Given the repetitive nature of the job done in a
functional organisation structure, the likelihood of boredom exists as
employees may find it boring to repeat the same task over and over, and
become less enthusiastic over time. If promotions are not handled well, an employee
may be discouraged if a lower-performing peer is promoted over them. Problems
may arise among management if department heads are only focused on their
department and do not communicate effectively with other departments. This can
cause poor communication and "silos" that are too independent of one another.
If employees and management are only loyal to their teams, there will be a lack of
teamwork and coordination.
 Rigidity: It is a rigid structure where changes, innovations, and flexibility can be
difficult to implement. An employee in any department may lack knowledge of
information about all other departments. Managers tend to make decisions without
consulting the department first, which can lead to problems. A department can
become too autocratic and put its goals above those of the organisation as a whole.
With so many specialists involved in a process, it is difficult to pin the blame for
a specific product or service malfunction on any individual.

Lack of Ownership: The motivation of the people assigned to the project may be
weak. The project can be seen as additional work not directly related to one’s
professional development. Moreover, since project members only work on one
part of the project, they do not identify with the project as a whole. Lack of ownership
thus discourages team members who may not engage enough in project-related
activities. The result, even in this case, will be a problem of quality of the results.

Poor Integration: There may be poor integration between functional units.

Functional specialists tend to care only about their own project segment and not
what is best for the project in general.

Lack of Attention: Each functional unit has its own basic work to do. Because of
this project responsibilities are set aside to meet these primary obligations. This
becomes even more difficult when the project has different priorities for different
units. For example, the marketing department can consider one project urgent while
other departments consider it only of secondary importance – if not a real waste of
time. This can lead to delays and quality problems.

Poor integration: There may be poor integration between functional units.

Functional specialists tend to care only about their own project segment and not what
is best for the project in general.

Slow Response Time: The hierarchical nature of function organisational

structure results in bureaucracy and red-tape in the operations. As a result, more
time is often needed to complete projects within a functional organisational structure.
Bureaucracy and red-tape causes slowness in response times. Information on the
project and decisions must be disseminated through the normal management channels
that do not consider horizontal communication between departments. For example, if
a staff member of functional unit A needs to solve a problem involving a team
member of functional unit C, the problem must first be assumed by the manager of
A, who must then coordinate with the manager of C that can then reach team
C member in order to get the relevant information and then retransmit it along the same
path back to the staff member of A. This, as is easily deducible, is a complicated
process and can cause delays and stress.
 2.1.3 The Role of Project Manager Within a Functional
Organisation Structure
More than in any other form of organisation structure, the project manager in a
functional organization structure has less authority over the project team. In fact,
he is more of a project coordinator than a real project manager. This is precisely
because functional managers maintain complete authority over project team
members and project budgets in the aspects that concern their department or unit.

Here are the important facts regarding the role of the project manager within a
functional organisational structure as outlined by Twproject (2021).

• The functional organisation is a traditional organisational structure in which the

authorities – and therefore the real managers – are divided according to the
functions performed by a particular group of people, such as Finance, HR,
Marketing and Purchases, etc.

• Power and authority are in the hands of the functional manager, not in those of
the project manager.

• The functional manager has the authority to release the resources based on their
knowledge and their competence – the project manager is therefore always
dependent and pending on the decision of the different functional managers.

• The resource goes back to the functional manager after completing the project
– and in any case it is never “completely” separated.

• The resources that work in this type of organisation are always under the
authority of the functional manager, in any situation.

• The project manager generally has much less power in this type of
organisation.

• Project manager skills are much less used in this type of organisation.

• The resource assigned to the role of “project manager” is usually a member of

the team within a functional area and does not have a real project manager title
or training.
 • The functional manager will control the budget and the “project manager” will
act more as a coordinator of the project activities rather than having real project
management responsibilities.

• The resources for the project must be negotiated with the functional managers
and the accessibility of these resources will be based on the business
conditions.

• Any type of problem escalation must be reported to the functional manager.

• Since the “project manager” has low or no authority, the project can last longer
compared to other organisational structures. Generally, there is no recognized
project management methodology or best practices used.
• The project manager practically assists the functional manager.
• The project manager spends a lot of time doing administrative tasks and often
works as a PM only part-time.

Finally, in a functional organisation, project managers have little or no role

when it comes to allocation of resources and so they must completely rely on
and hope for the cooperation of functional managers in order to obtain the
resources they need to complete projects.

Functional managers have complete control over the company’s specialized

departments and are responsible for the productivity and results of the unit.
Given this scenario, it is safe to conclude that in general, the functional
organisation structure can work well in a company that mainly carries out
repetitive work.

2.2 Pure Project Organisation Structure

2.2.1 Definition of Pure Project Organisation Structure

A pure project organisation may be deemed the opposite of functional organisation.

This is because while in the functional organisation structure, the focus is the
functional arms, units or departments, the focus of pure project organisation is the
project itself. The idea behind a pure project organisation is to ensure that the loyalty
is to the project, rather than to a functional manager. The advantage here is that the
project manager has total control of the project and does not have to depend on the
functional manager for resources to execute the project. This therefore gives him a
measure of independence. According to Nagarajan (2012), “the project organization
offers the flexibility in determining cost, schedule and performance trade-offs since
all the required recourses are at the disposal of the project manager.”
In essence, the project is autonomous of the parent or home organisation, and there
is minimal interference. A characteristic of this approach is that the project is
separated from the home organisation. It also entails that the project has the
independence that guarantees its own special technical staff and administration. Its
loyalty to the parent or home organisation is therefore not so strong as the connection
to the home organisation consists of links that a weak and all that required of the
project manager is reports on the advancement of the project. However, in terms
of work performance, there may also be different practices where the home
organisation regulates issues related to administrative, financial, staff and control
procedures in detail. So, there maybe some variations in how this is carried out by
different organisations.
 General Manager

Program Program Program Program

manager manager manager manager

Human
Project “A”

Pr

R& D
M
arketing

oduction

Res.
nance
Fi
Manager

Project “B”

Production
Marketing

Manager

General Manager

Program Program
manager
Human Res.
Res. & Dev.

Finance
 Fig. 7 Pure Project Organisation Structure (Source: Bobera, 2008)

The diagram of a pure project organisation structure clearly shows that the
project manager is independent. In this organisation structure, more than one
project can go on if the duration is long. The project manager has control over
the team members and reports directly to program manager where the project is
part of a larger program. Where there is no program manager, he reports
directly to the general manager. This is clearly different from what happens
under functional organisation structure.

2.2.2 Advantages of Pure Project Organisation Structure

A few advantages are derivable in pure project organisation structure. AIMS
(n.d.) has outlined them to include:

1. Clear Line of Authority: Clearly, the project manager is in control so there

is no ambiguity about the line of authority. This is unlike the functional
organisation where team members are derived from the functional units and
report to the functional manager. As a result, the project manager in a
functional structure depends on the functional manager for resources needed to
execute the project.

The communication is strong because there is only a single reporting system as

the project manager bypasses the functional manager and reports to only the
top management structure. This shortened the communication because the
project manager does not have to deal with the functional manager.

2. Flexibility in Trade-Offs and Decision Making: Since the project is not

under more than one single reporting system, there is more flexibility in
decision-making.
3. Fast Decision Making: Arising from the above, decision making is faster as
the project manager does not have to get the views and advice of the functional
manager as the case is with functional organisation structure because the
project manager does not have to depend on the input of another manager.

2.2.3 Disadvantages of Pure Project Organisation structure

• Excessive Exercise of Power (Project manager): This is clear enough.
Because the project manager is independent and in control of the project
including resources, there could be the tendency to be arrogant.

• Stressful Work Environment: Pure project organisation thrives on

deadlines or milestones. As a result, it can be a stressful environment as
there is an expectation to meet deadlines or milestones. This can put both
project manager and project team under pressure.

• Insecurity of Jobs: Since the focus is on the project, there usually is not a
permanent job position for team members who are usually assembled for
the purpose of the project. They are not necessarily employees of the
organisation. Consequentially, when the project comes to an end there is the
fear of loss of jobs as some may be redundant as they await another
opportunity. In essence, disengagement is a part of the issue with pure project
organization structure.

• Costly: In most cases, the project team are not members of the project
organisation but are rather hired for the sake of the project. Some equipment
may also have been hired. Therefore, if the project is not delivered within
the time frame, it affects the budget.

2.2.4 The Role of The Project Manager in Pure Organisation

Structure
Pure project organisation is most appropriate when an organisation has a
smaller number of projects but with longer duration. For each project, a
manager is appointed and he is responsible to conduct all the activities associated
with the project. The project manager is in turn responsible to the program
manager ie the project is part of a program with a program manager. The project
manager has full authority for the execution of the project and he reports to the
program manager in the parent organisation. As a result, the lines of
communication are shortened as the project manager directly communicates with
the parent project organisation members.

In a pure project organisation, the project manager has all the power and
authority and everybody working directly in the project team reports to the
project manager. In essence, in a pure project organisation, it is either that there
is no functional manager in existence, or if he exists, he will have a very
limited role. The implication is that in a pure project type of organisation
project managers have a high level of authority to manage and control the project
resources. The project manager in this structure has total authority over the
project and can acquire resources needed to accomplish project objectives from
within or outside the parent organisation, subject only to the scope, quality,
and budget constraints identified in the project. In the project-based structure,
personnel are specifically assigned to the project and report directly to the
project manager. The project manager is responsible for the performance
appraisal and career progression of all project team members while on the
project. This leads to increased project loyalty. Complete line authority over
project efforts affords the project manager strong project controls and centralized
lines of communication. This leads to rapid reaction/response time and
improved responsiveness. Moreover, project personnel are retained on an
exclusive rather than shared or part-time basis which is not the case in
functional projects where project members are mostly members of the
organisation. As a result, project teams develop a strong sense of project
identification and ownership, with deep loyalty efforts to the project and a good
understanding of the nature of project’s activities, mission, or goals (GEC 524,
n.d.).
2.3 Matrix Organisation

2.3.1 Definition of Matrix Organisation

A matrix organisation structure is one in which the reporting relationships are set in
a grid form. What this entails is that the traditional hierarchy which is top down is
totally done away with in the chain of command. Instead of having a worker(s) report
directly to one supervisor or manager, he reports to two. This is because in matrix
organisations, there is both a functional as well as a product manager that see to
the daily productivity. As a result, workers report to the two unlike what you have in
functional organisation structure. According to Business Talk (2012), the matrix
project attempts to blend properties of functional and pure project structure.
Wikipedia, (2021) notes that under a matrix organisation structure, team of
employees are frequently used to accomplish work. The objective is to take advantage
of the strengths, as well as make up for the weaknesses, of functional and
decentralized (pure project) forms. In their illustration of how this works, Wikipedia
(2021) explains that “an example would be a company that produces two products,
"product A" and "product B". Using the matrix structure, this company would
organize functions within the company as follows: "product A" sales department,
"product A" customer service department, "product A" accounting, "product B" sales
department, "product B" customer service department, "product B" accounting
department. In essence, the matrix structure is an attempt to balance between the two
extremes that functional and pure project structures present. Referring to the o matrix
as rows and functional as columns, Business Talk (2018) further says that if the
choice of structure is a matrix, different projects (rows of matrix) borrow resources
from functional areas (columns). Given the nature of this structure, the decision
regarding the type of matrix to use in executing a project (weak, balanced, or strong)
rests with senior management.

• Weak/functional matrix: A project manager with only limited authority is

assigned to oversee the cross- functional aspects of the project. The
functional managers maintain control over their resources and project areas.

• Balanced/functional matrix: A project manager is assigned to oversee the

project. Power is shared equally between the project manager and
the functional managers. It brings the best aspects of functional and
projectized organisations. However, this is the most difficult system to
maintain as the sharing of power is a delicate proposition.

• Strong/project matrix: A project manager is primarily responsible for the

project. Functional managers provide technical expertise and assign
resources as needed (Wikipedia, 2021).
 General Manager

Manager Manager Manager Manager

(Finance) (Production) (personnel) (Marketing)

staff

Staff

Staff
Project
manager A

Staff

Staff
Staff

Project Staff Staff Staff

manager B

Project
Manager C Staff Staff Staff

Fig. 8: Pure Project Organisation: Adopted from GEC 524 & Nagarajan, 2012

The diagram above depicts a matrix organization structure. There are three
project managers (A, B & C) who are in charge of three different projects. The
project managers report to the General manager and to that extent are
independent and have authority over the projects. There are also four functional
managers who report to the General Manager.

The responsibility of the functional managers is maintenance of functional

excellence in all the projects. In order words, they are there as to support the
project manager. While the project managers define what is to be done, the
responsibility of the functional managers is to decide how to do it (Nagarajan,
2012). The key element here is they coordinate with each other to ensure that
all the resources needed to bring the project to a successful end are available in
the best interest of the organization; the functional and project managers jointly
provide input to the planning process and while the functional managers are in
charge of the vertical line of control, the project managers are in control of the
horizontal line, but although they must work together, they also are freely
 allowed to operate as a separate entity except in the area of administration.
Therefore, the employees are both under the functional manager as well as the
project manager. The overriding interest is to work synergistically to achieve
success in the overall interest of the organization.

2.3.1.1 Advantages of Matrix Organisation

As a structure which is designed to be an improvement of the extremes
between functional and pure project structures, the matrix structure has some
advantages. Some of these advantages are outlined by Harrin (2018) as follows

• Resources Sharing: Matrix structure allows for resource sharing especially

when there is need to share skills across departments to complete tasks.
Because of this, a wide range of talents and strengths can be garnered in tasks
completion.

• Flexibility: Matrix structure makes room for flexibility because members of

work teams are able to work on a lot of different areas of a project rather than
their functional units or departments.

• Responsiveness: Matrix structure allows teams and individuals to respond

quickly to new situations. For instance, in the course of working on one project,
if a new project comes up that has to take priority, it is easy enough for members
to quickly adjust and focus on something the area of priority. This cannot be
done easily in a project structure, where it takes longer to disband and regroup.

• Common Structure: The matrix structure requires that everyone uses the
same project management lifecycle and methodology. As a result, moving
between projects is easy. People can join a project team with relative ease when
the terminology and processes are common.

2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Matrix Organisation

 Although the matrix structure has its advantages over the functional and pure
project structures, it is not without its fair share of disadvantages. This includes

• Overload: The matrix has a common structure and this is a disadvantage in the
sense that it also presents with work overload for team members who are also
be part of a functional unit and to that extent are have their regular jobs to carry
out. The work overload is compounded by the fact that the systems that should
manage and monitor the overload is not in place. As a result, team members are
prone to burnout. They may also neglect their tasks or not complete it. This can
in turn affect both the quality of the work or the completion schedule.

• Conflict: There is more than one project at a time, project teams or individuals
will likely fight over the same resources as another project. There can be some
conflict between business-as-usual tasks and project work for individuals,
especially when both managers are giving them different priorities. Moreover,
the structure gives the project manager an edge over the functional manager.
This could lead to conflicts and power struggle between the project department
and functional department as each tries to assert their authority. Therefore,
there is likelihood of frequent conflicts and conflict resolution processes.

• Duplication of Efforts: There are chances of duplication of effort as the

project manager and functional manager operate independently of each other.
None reports to the other. Moreover, there could be a case where the people
who possess the right skills are not made available for project work by their
line manager.

• Cost Ineffective: Implementing matrix form of organization is not cost

effective as more people than required are employed.

• Role Ambiguity: Since there is more than one manager, there are more
chances of role ambiguity among managers and employees. This can result in
more discussions than actions (Nagarajan, 2012).

2.3.1.3 The Role of a Project Manager in a Matrix Organisation

By its nature, the matrix management can put some difficulty on project
managers because they must work closely with other managers and workers in
order to complete the project with different roles, goals, objectives and priorities.
This can present a problem where there are pragmatic programme managers who
may have different goals, objectives, and priorities than the project managers.
This aspect has to be addressed in order to get the job done. In addressing this
situation, it is necessary to adopt an approach that consists of a variation of
the matrix organisation. This approach will include a
coordinating role that either supervises or provides support to the project
managers. In some organisations this is known as the Project Management
Office (PMO), dedicated to provide expertise, best practices, training,
methodologies and guidance to project managers (GEC 524, n.d.).
LECTURE THREE: RESOURCES IN PROJECT
MANAGEMENT

3.1 Definition of Project Resource

The concept of resources is defined across many disciplinary areas somewhat
differently. In economics for example, a resource is a service or other asset
used to produce goods and services that meet human needs (McConnell, Brue,
and Flynn, cited in Wikipedia, 2022). When resource is mentioned in
Geography, they are perceived natural endowments that are of great value to
the survival of man. In library science, we mostly view resources as those
things that are used to meet the information needs of clientele.

Project management involves project tasks and activities that on completing,

results in achieving the expected deliverables. This cannot be achieved without
the resources that are needed to execute project tasks and activities. Resource
allocation also known resource scheduling, recognises and assigns
resources for a specific period to various project activities in order to
successfully deliver within the project life cycle.

One of the responsibilities of a project manager is to find the resources that are
suited to the project he is executing and to also allocate them properly. Where
the resources do not match the project, there is bound to be project failure. This
is referred to as poor resource project planning and allocation. When the
resources are not planned and allocated properly there could be shortage of
resources that could lead to project delays or even abandonment.
3.1.1 Types of Resources in Project Management
There are different types of resources in project management. Some attempts
have been Resources that are used in project management into people,
equipment, materials, facilities and costs. These have been categorised into
three main areas: work, materials and costs (Microsoft Project, 2010).

Work Resources: The work resources are the people that are part of a project,
also called the project team. This category of resources is highly important
because the project largely depends on people to make things happen. While
material resources are important, they cannot do any work by themselves. This
drives home the point that the quality of human beings in a project team will
determine the success or failure of the project. This makes it imperative for the
project manager to intentionally recruit the best possible team.

The work of the project manager does not end with recruiting the work resources.
It is also his responsibility to manage them to get the most benefit from them.

Part of what the project manager should look out for as he gathers his work
team is the skills that are possessed by each person. Nobody can perform beyond
their skills level.

However, to get the best out of his work team, the project manager must ensure
that he pays attention to the welfare needs of his team.

Material Resources: Material resources are tools and assets that are required
to get the work going. The work resources or project team needs tools and
assets to execute the tasks that are assigned to them.

Material resources include tangible goods such as supplies and equipment. It is

also important that they are in good functioning conditions to enable the project
team work effectively and efficiently with them. Poor working tools can cause
dissatisfaction and delays in executing their tasks.

In cases where the company does not have some of the needed equipment, the
project manager should hire them or outsource the tasks to external teams.

Costs Resources: Regardless of the size or type of project, money will be needed
to execute it efficiently. The project manager also needs money to procure vital
tools and equipment and also pay the salaries of team members. Inadequacy of
funds will definitely make project execution difficult.

However, it is not just enough that money is provided. It is imperative that the
project manager how to budget and allocate money properly. Without this skill,
no amount of money will be sufficient. Financial accountability is also required
from the project manager as the project sponsors want be assured of efficient
deployment of their money.
3.1.2 Project Resources Allocation

Resource allocation is an important part of project management. Resource

allocation is the process of assigning and scheduling available resources in the most
effective and economical way possible…it is the management and delegation of
resources throughout a project to ensure that it runs as smoothly and successfully as
possible (Wrike, n.d.).

The need for assigning and scheduling available resources in the most and effective
and economical way possible stems from the fact that resources are not
inexhaustible. Projects need resources from the initiation phase to the closing
phase. The onus is on the project manager to know the right time and allocation of
the resources within the project schedule. The resources are expected to be
planned and scheduled proper.

3.1.3 Importance of Resource Allocation

Prevention of Project Delays: The importance of resources in project management

cannot be understated as resources affect all working processes in project
management. The implication is that their availability and sufficiency enable the
project manager to keep to project deadlines and, therefore, meet the project's
objectives.

We should remember that projects consist of tasks and activities. These tasks and
activities must be completed before the expected deliverables can come. Delay in
completing any of the tasks will most likely result in a delay in meeting
deadlines. Most project delays are caused by either insufficient or inappropriate
allocation of resources.
The importance of resource allocation therefore lies in the fact that with proper
resource allocation, there is less delays and more favourable outcomes. It also means
getting the best result and paying lower costs. This cuts across all types of resources:
work, material and cost.
Reduction of Incidences of Conflicts: Although conflicts cannot be ruled out
completely from project management, negative conflict is not the desire of any
project manager. Unmanaged or improperly managed conflicts can affect the project
schedule and to that extent is costly. One of the ways to prevent conflicts on
the project site is to ensure that workers are paid salaries are paid promptly and that
their welfare is taken seriously. Proper planning and allocation ensure that there are
no delays in salaries and so no delay in project completion.
Prompt Procurement/Replacement of Tools and Equipment: Proper allocation
of resource makes it possible for the project material to procure and/replace broken-
down tools and equipment promptly. Invariably, there will be no delays in the work
process. This in turn significantly reduces team burn outs and improve retention.
Ease of Accountability: Although the project manager is responsible for the
resources, he is expected to allocate the resources properly. Proper allocation means
that all financial expenditure and use of other resources are properly documented and
accounted for. Lack of accountability results in mistrust of the project manager and
could make the stakeholders lose faith in him. Practice of proper resource allocation
enables the project manager to keep correct accounting.
Lower Overhead Costs: Proper resource allocation encourages efficient
resource allocation which in the long run discourages wastage and saves resources
for the organisation. For instance, it goes a long way in making it possible to choose
the best available assets and use them for multiple projects, and manage them
throughout the work and by so doing, avoid under utilisation or overutilisation of
employees.

Increased Productivity: Resource allocation aims at ensuring that there is no hitch

to the project by allocating resources efficiently across tasks therefore, when done
properly eliminates or reduces wastages and delays which in turn leads to greater
productivity.

Enhanced Profits: Proper resources allocation lowers overhead costs and

encourages better productivity among project teams which in turn increases their
productivity. Thus, when there is reduction of overhead costs and increased
productivity, the organisation benefits by saving resources that could be deployed
into other projects.

Improve Quality in Projects and Products: With proper resource allocation, it is

possible to engage project teams and equipment that are of high quality. In terms of
the human resources, expertise ensures that quality products are delivered. High
quality equipment also makes it possible to work with equipment that produces high
quality products and services. This is guaranteed to satisfy the stakeholders.

3.2 Resource Management

3.2.1 Definition of Resource Management
Project budget management is the process of tracking and monitoring the
finances throughout the project. Resource management rates highly among the
many skills needed by a project manager. Regular monitoring of the project
budget throughout the life cycle of a project goes a long way to eliminate leakages,
wastages and mismanagement and ensures that project budget is not adversely
affected. With resource management, the project manager can quickly identify
when costs begin to exceed estimates. This enables him to make adjustments that
ensures that project resources are not depleted during the project life cycle.

Project resource management includes the processes to identify, acquire, and manage
the resources needed for the successful completion of the project (Course Hero, n.d.).
This definition includes the gamut of processes that include identification, acquisition,
and management of resources. In other words, management is not limited to the
ensuring that the resources are utilized in the best way possible.

In resource management, the project manager should endeavor to use the

original project budget prepared during the planning phase as baseline with which to
judge variance i.e. the different between the estimated and the actual.

Since it is possible for changes to occur in the budget, the project manager must
ensure that he receives approval for such changes and then go ahead to re- baseline
the project baseline. Re-baseline here implies that the original baseline has been
changed as a result of the later changes made in the original project budget.

Be that as it may, the project manager should avoid frequent and unexpected budget
change that results in significantly running over the budget. Although there is
provision for contingency in the project budget to handle variance, too
much of it is detrimental and care must be taken to avoid it where necessary.

3.2.2 Resource Management Process

As we already know project resource management is an ongoing process that
continues throughout the project life cycle starting from the planning phase and
ending at the project closure phase to complete the project management cycle. There
are three distinct stages in the project management process and it is important that
the project manager has a clear understanding of how to properly manage the project
resources through all the stages.

During this phase, it is important that the project manager understand how to do
resource planning, resource scheduling and resource allocation.

Resource Planning is the stage where all the project is broken down into tasks and
estimated resources that would be used to complete each task. This is done as soon
as the project scope is determined. Changes that may occur in the future are also
factored into the project plan.

Resource Scheduling: This is concerned with efficient allocation of resources to all

the project tasks to ensure that the tasks or project have all the resources that will be
needed to complete it.

Resource Allocation: This is the actual process of assigning and managing the
project assets of resources in such a way that it supports the strategic goals of the
organisation. Part of resource allocation is managing tangible assets such as
equipment and human capital in such a west that the best use can be made of them.

3.2.3 Resource Management Techniques:

The following resource management techniques are used to forecast, plan,
allocate, level and optimise resources during the project execution phase.

• Resource Forecasting: This is concerned with estimating the resources

that will meet the plan. This is done with resource estimation to cover all
the tasks and activities.
• Resource Allocation: This consists in evaluating the available resources
including capacity, resource schedule and the tasks that need to be
completed to find the project team members who possess the skills that
are most relevant and ensure that the resources available will be used to
carry them out are available when they are needed
• Resource Leveling: This is concerned with team skills and finding
better resource opportunities. With a thorough knowledge of the skills of
project members, tasks are assigned in such a way that resources are
used efficiently.
• Resource Allocation: This is the last of the techniques and it is
concerned with tracking allocated resources to enable the project manager
can spot idle resources. Where resources are not being used efficiently,
they are reallocated or changes made in the resource management plan.

3.2.4 Project Resource Management Tools

• Resource Management Plan: It is one thing to have the resources and
another to allocate them efficiently. A resource management plan is a tool
that project managers use to manage their most important resource which is
the human resource. It is the foundation upon which the resource
management process is built and so is considered the most important tool in
project resource management.
• Resource Breakdown Structure (RBS): This is a chart that is used to help
project managers to organize the resources. It is hierarchical in nature and
so allows them to see how the resources interrelate. It is the basis on which
the budget is laid because a thorough listing of resources in the chart makes
it easier to estimate the cost of the project.

• Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAS): A project consists of different

work packages or related components that are grouped together. This
technique shows how the resources are assigned to each work package
including each thing that is being worked on and who is working on what
thing. Thus, the RAS is used to illustrate the connections that exist between
work packages or activities and the project team members.

• Resource Histogram: This is also a chart but unlike the hierarchical RBS
chart, this is a bar chart and is used for resource allocation. The resource
histogram is essentially a planning graph that shows the amount of time that
a resource is scheduled to work over a period of time. With this graph, it is
possible to determine when a resource is available at any time during the
project resource management life cycle.
 3.2.4 Constraints to Resource Management
1. Resource constraints can be described as any limitation or barrier or risk that is
associated with project resource allocation. It is important that they are identified
because they act as roadblocks that can derail and prevent or delay the
successful Time Constraint: As we have already determined, a project is a
temporary endeavor with a definite start and end time. In essence, project
managers work with a timeline within which they are to produce the project
deliverables. Therefore, the time constraint has to do with the project’s
schedule for completion. This also includes the deadlines for each phase of the
project, and the date of the final project delivery.

It is the wish of every project manager to work within the time constraint as
any delay will tamper with the phases and of course date of completion of the
project.

To mitigate against time constraint, the project manager should ensure proper
planning, scheduling and monitoring.

2. Scope Constraint: A project’s scope defines the specified goals,

deliverables, features and functions of a project. It also includes the tasks that are
required to complete the project. Failure to scope the project properly is
detrimental to the execution of the project.

To check against scope constraint, the project manager should

• Provide clear documentation of the full project scope at the beginning of the
project, including all requirements.
• Set up a process for managing any changes, so if someone proposes a change,
there is a controlled system in place for how that change will be reviewed,
approved or rejected, and implemented if applicable, and
• Communicate the scope clearly and frequently with stakeholders

3. Cost Constraint: The cost of the project also known as the project’s budget
encompasses all of the financial resources that are needed for the timely
completion of the project in line with its predetermined scope. The cost here
includes the costs for labor, vendors, quality control and other factors. well.

Insufficient budget constitutes project cost constraint. It also has its multiplier
effect including delay in providing deliverables.

Depending on the type and size of the project, budget estimation techniques such
as parametric estimation, bottom-top estimation etc. can be used to check against
this in the planning phase.

and timely completion of any project.

In project management, there are three major constraints: time, scope and cost.
3.2.5 Guide for Project Resource Management

To ensure that resource allocation is done properly, there is a need to consider some
tips that can guide one through the process. While there is no authoritative
guide on how to go about it, some authors have identified some guides that can help
to make the process more effective and efficient.
Landau (2022) has outlined a number of guiding principles along this line.
1. Knowledge of Project Scope: Before the project manager, he should be clear
on the scope of the project including size and duration of the project. As soon
as this is determined, he needs to decide on the resources he would be needing,
including how many of those resources that will be necessary to complete the
project. With a good knowledge of the project scope, it will be easier to
determine how to allocate resources to take care of everything.
2. Identify the Project Resources: With knowledge of the scope as well as the
project objective and the tasks, approval received, the next thing to do is to
identify the resources that are available including the equipment that may be
purchased or hired. Again, it is important to ensure that the available resources
will serve throughout the timeline.
3. Avoid Procrastination: The project manager should go to work to plan his
resource allocation. Waiting for the perfect time to carry out this responsibility
is not advisable. Granted that resources needs may change, it is better to go ahead
and plan and then as time goes on, changes can be made. Setting up a resource
plan enables him to detect potential red-flags and responding to them beforehand
before the arise.
4. Holistic Thinking: All aspects of the project including the time schedules for
the project team should be planned for. What time is for holidays and what
happens in the event of illness among the project team. Also, if some
equipment or site has been leased, how long will that last? In essence, the project
manager should pay attention to detail.
5. Knowledge of Resource Dependencies: Oftentimes, there are several projects
running at the same time, it will be wrong to over depend on one project team
for the accomplishment of all the major project work across the projects,
especially if it is an external team as it could result in work overload blocks and
resource shortages. areas.
6. Track Time: Time is critical in project management so, ensure that you are
closely watching the job performance of you team to ensure efficiency. This is
important to avoid job delays or procrastination.

You can improve time tracking by keeping track of the team’s workload using
the right tools that makes real-time data collection on one page where one can
see and schedule ahead of time.
7. Invest in/Use Productivity Tools: There are available online project
management software that are great at managing resources more productively.
Online tools can also get project data instantly updated. These will enable you
 see where the resources are allocated. With such tools, it is possible to know
what the current situation is with the team members.
8. Avoid Over-Allocation: Over-allocation of resources is not helpful and can
result in team burnout. Project team members should not be stretched to their
breaking point. The key for getting result is to allocate resources evenly.
9. Realistic Approach: Do not favour one aspect of the project over another by
allocating more resources to it. For instance, in the project estimate, do not
allocate more resources by adding more people or days to the schedule. This will
be detrimental in the long run.
10. Create a Routine: The project manager plans before executing and
monitoring, expectedly. However, even with the best of resource allocation,
something could go wrong and if not caught on time could mar the process.
Therefore, it is not wise to leave monitoring/checks for later. It is important to
build in regular monitoring into the plan. Ideally, this should be set up to
happen on a particular day and time every week. The project manager should
go through the resources, check the project management tools and ensure that
no one is over-tasked for the coming week.
Also, have regular conversations with your team and update them on the
progress of the progress while also getting their feedback on any issues of
concern. Setting up a routine check-in and keeping updated with the project
management software will help you to have a good idea of your resources
spread.

END OF PART ONE