sustainability

Article
Residential Prosumer Energy Management System with
Renewable Integration Considering Multi-Energy Storage and
Demand Response
Asjad Ali 1, * , Abdullah Aftab 2 , Muhammad Nadeem Akram 3 , Shoaib Awan 1 , Hafiz Abdul Muqeet 2
and Zeeshan Ahmad Arfeen 4

1 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila 47050, Pakistan;
[email protected]
2 Department of Electrical Engineering Technology, Punjab Tianjin University of Technology,
Lahore 54770, Pakistan; [email protected] (A.A.); [email protected] (H.A.M.)
3 Department of Mechanical, Automotive and Materials Engineering, University of Windsor,
Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada; [email protected]
4 Department of Electrical Engineering, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur (IUB),
Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Rising energy demands, economic challenges, and the urgent need to address climate
change have led to the emergence of a market wherein consumers can both purchase and sell
electricity to the grid. This market leverages diverse energy sources and energy storage systems to
achieve significant cost savings for consumers while providing critical grid support for utilities. In
this study, an energy management system has been employed to tackle the optimization problem
associated with various energy sources. This approach relies on mixed-integer linear programming
(MILP) to optimize energy utilization while adhering to diverse constraints, yielding a feasible energy
solution. This model is applied to real-world energy system consumption data and forecasts the
most cost-effective day-ahead energy plans for different types of loads engaged in demand response.
Furthermore, time-based charging and discharging strategies for electric vehicles and energy storage
systems are considered, conducting a comprehensive analysis of energy costs across various storage
Citation: Ali, A.; Aftab, A.; Akram,
M.N.; Awan, S.; Muqeet, H.A.; Arfeen,
devices. Our findings demonstrate that implementing this model can lead to an 18.26% reduction in
Z.A. Residential Prosumer Energy operational costs when using lithium batteries and a remarkable 14.88% reduction with lead–acid
Management System with Renewable batteries, particularly when integrating solar power and an EV into the system, while GHG is reduced
Integration Considering Multi-Energy by 36,018 grams/day for a load of 25 kW in one particular scenario. However, the analysis reveals that
Storage and Demand Response. integrating wind power is not economically viable due to its comparatively higher operational costs.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su16052156 Keywords: demand side management; distributed generation; energy management system; electric
Academic Editor: Antonio Caggiano vehicle; energy storage system; smart grid; PV generation; wind; prosumer

Received: 6 January 2024

Revised: 25 February 2024
Accepted: 26 February 2024
1. Introduction
Published: 5 March 2024
Both energy demand and the price of electricity over the globe are increasing, and
conventional sources of energy are being exhausted at higher rates, raising environmental
concerns like global warming and temperature surges. The Paris Agreement of 2015
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. and COP 28 have set out to hamper the emission of CO2 caused by fossil fuels and to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. deploy renewable energy sources for power generation [1–6]. Moreover, conventional grids
This article is an open access article equipped with conventional energy sources (fossil fuels) also face lots of problems like
distributed under the terms and peak load management, frequent blackouts, and failures along the unidirectional flow of
conditions of the Creative Commons energy [7–11]. These problems have given rise to the concept of smart grids or microgrids
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
and renewable energy sources. Smart grids are equipped with smart meters, control
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
systems, and decentralized energy sources that are capable of the intelligent generation,
4.0/).

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16052156 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 2 of 27

transmission, and distribution of energy, which is known as the property of self-healing. In

smart grids, loads can communicate with each other and there is a bidirectional flow of
electricity [12–16]. Consumers play important role in smart grids by employing an efficient
energy management system as shown in Figure 1 by reducing stress on grid and decreasing
their electricity cost. In ref. [17], the authors have discussed the architecture of microgrids
and different techniques and software with which to optimize these microgrids to reduce
costs. Smart microgrids consist of power electronics modules, controllers, renewable
energy sources, loads (residential and in some cases loads related to electrical vehicles),
and storage systems. The authors also emphasized that by using IoT/AI, smart grids
can be operated and observed more efficiently. The authors also determined that energy
management systems (EMS) are crucial from an economic perspective. The structure of
microgrids (both on and off grid) entails centralized DC bus configuration, centralized
AC bus configuration, and hybrid AC/DC bus configuration. Storage systems also play a
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 28
crucial role as they provide power during outages and other supportive services such as
peak shaving, balancing load, and reliability of system.

SmartHome
Figure1.1.Smart
Figure HomeEnergy
Energymanagement
managementsystem
systemcomponents.
components.

StorageReview
2. Literature systems usually have three configurations, i.e., single, multiple, and swappable
configurations. They consist of Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors. A lot of research has
In ref. [26], the model for smart household scheduling is presented by the authors.
shown that by employing storage systems, a hefty amount of the cost (up to 10–50%) can
The approach bases the scheduling of all sorts of loads on optimal cost planning and
be reduced. Among renewable energy sources, the most important sources are wind and
mixed linear integer programming. When necessary, the intelligent system can buy and
solar PV cells, and they are also feasible for installation in residential and commercial
sell power to the power grid utilizing a bi-directional energy meter. The systems guaran-
usage. The homes equipped with solar PV cells or small wind turbines in the vicinity of
tee the effective use of energy resources, which leads to greater cost savings. In this study,
smart grids can use their energy during peak hours and sell their surplus energy to utilities.
despite conducting a thorough analysis, the electric vehicle is only charged using one
These homes are termed smart homes. Smart homes have schedulable loads, DG, EVs, and
method from the grid, and a sole battery storage system is employed. In ref. [27], the au-
a home energy management system (HEMS) controller. The HEMS controller provides
thors
accessproposed a home
to real-time energy management
information system
about electricity that includes
consumption, predictive
rate of modeling
electricity, weather
and control. This technology has the potential to optimize the home energy management
conditions, and supportive or enabling technology such as artificial intelligence (AI) or the
system
Internetatof
any time.(IOT)
things It chooses
[18–20].model predictive
If a greater control
number concepts that
of consumers makethe
support usegrid,
of MILP
it will
tohave
circumnavigate the issue of updating new variables with fresh forecasts. In
a significant impact on the grid, which will enhance the reliability of the micro this study,
grid,
the authorsatdid
especially peaknotloads.
incorporate the investigation
Furthermore, of ause
the intelligent wind energy by
of energy system and electric
consumers would
vehicle
reduce(EV)
theirin their research
electricity study. Microgrids
bills considerably and smart grids containing green energy
[20–22].
sources and storage systems have the prowess to resolve these issues by properly sched-
uling the resources according to demand to benefit both consumers and utility [28–32].
In ref. [33], the authors considered a campus-based micro-grid containing both dis-
patchable and non-dispatchable energy sources in China and devised a system using lin-
ear programming techniques in MATLAB with various system constraints. The grid com-
prised secured advanced communication, control, protection, monitoring, and bidirec-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 3 of 27

Smart meters are also installed in these homes for net metering, and they respond to
demand response (DR) programs or demand-side management (DSM). In DR programs,
the end user’s load curve is improved as per the external signal (i.e., price or incentives),
which is usually received from the utility, while in DSM, the overall efficiency of electricity
consumption is improved in the domain of customer [23]. The authors in ref. [24] have
presented a control system based on IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee. Both hardware and software
designs were presented. The authors devised a control system to turn off the lights for
energy saving, and a significant cost reduction was observed in the system. In ref. [25], an
optimization method was proposed for the real-time management of energy in smart homes
with rooftop solar panels, lighting loads, air conditioners, and other smart appliances. The
results depicted a considerable reduction in cost without disturbing customer satisfaction.

2. Literature Review
In ref. [26], the model for smart household scheduling is presented by the authors.
The approach bases the scheduling of all sorts of loads on optimal cost planning and mixed
linear integer programming. When necessary, the intelligent system can buy and sell
power to the power grid utilizing a bi-directional energy meter. The systems guarantee the
effective use of energy resources, which leads to greater cost savings. In this study, despite
conducting a thorough analysis, the electric vehicle is only charged using one method from
the grid, and a sole battery storage system is employed. In ref. [27], the authors proposed
a home energy management system that includes predictive modeling and control. This
technology has the potential to optimize the home energy management system at any time.
It chooses model predictive control concepts that make use of MILP to circumnavigate the
issue of updating new variables with fresh forecasts. In this study, the authors did not
incorporate the investigation of a wind energy system and electric vehicle (EV) in their
research study. Microgrids and smart grids containing green energy sources and storage
systems have the prowess to resolve these issues by properly scheduling the resources
according to demand to benefit both consumers and utility [28–32].
In ref. [33], the authors considered a campus-based micro-grid containing both dis-
patchable and non-dispatchable energy sources in China and devised a system using linear
programming techniques in MATLAB with various system constraints. The grid com-
prised secured advanced communication, control, protection, monitoring, and bidirectional
controllers for system operation.
In ref. [34], the authors used chaotic salp swarm algorithms (CISSA) to contemplate
the impacts of the integration of renewable energy sources (RES) in smart grids on the
cost of fuel, CO2 emission, and the overall cost of the system. Data were taken from
already-conducted research, different scenarios were considered, and the results obtained
from CISSA were compared with other optimization methods. It was observed that results
acquired from CISSA were more efficient, and the overall cost of generation was increased
through the improper integration and utilization of RES. In ref. [35], the authors elaborated
on three mechanisms that can be adopted for charging electrical vehicles (EVs). The authors
have also considered different renewable energy sources (RES) and storage materials that
can be utilized to attain maximum efficiency. The authors have concluded that a hybrid
system is most suitable for charging EVs, but there remain many areas regarding storage
types where exuberant research is needed to improve the efficiency of these systems.
In ref. [36], the authors presented a comprehensive review of load frequency control
(LFC) in power systems that contain renewable energy sources. The authors discussed
the utilization of LFC in different power system configurations. The types of different
controllers and the optimization techniques employed to operate these controllers more
precisely were also expounded. The authors conclude that LFC is an indispensable part of
contemporary power systems, and that more research is required on the development of
robust controllers and efficient optimization techniques.
The authors in ref. [37] presented a reprogramming scheme for consumer loads during
peak demand. The home appliances were reprogrammed using the demand response (DR)
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 4 of 27

program. The simulations were run to study the benefits for both consumer and utility. The
authors observed that on average, reprogramming the appliances aided in reducing the
peak demands.
In ref. [38], the authors proposed a technique by which to reduce the cost of electricity
and carbon emissions by blending natural gas with hydrogen. The applied planning
model is stochastic and consists of two steps. In the first step, blended hydrogen with
natural gas is supplied to the gas unit, and a stepped carbon trading mechanism with a
variable incentive mechanism is employed. In the second step, uncertainties regarding
energy sources and loads are considered through the interaction of cost between both
the distribution network and MMG. Different cases of scheduling are observed by using
ADMM, and the results showed a considerable declination in costs and carbon emissions,
while the utilization of energy sources was augmented. In this reference, neither the EV
nor other RESs are taken into account. In ref. [39], the authors proposed a new algorithm
called the CSAJAYA algorithm by amalgamating CSA and JAYA algorithms for the energy
management of small microgrids considering the demand response program. The proposed
algorithm outperformed already-existing algorithms in terms of speed and robustness.
Both peak demand and cost of electricity were reduced significantly by employing the
CSAJAYA algorithm compared to already-existing algorithms. The stochastic nature of
various components involved in microgrids is a complex and fundamental problem to
be considered.
The authors in ref. [40] considered the stochastic response of microgrid uncertainties
in day-ahead optimal dispatch and employed SRSM and SOCP to optimize the dispatching
problem by taking into account the highly fluctuant nature of RESs and load demands.
By using SRSM theory, random distribution is converted to normal distribution. Nataf
transformation is employed, and a hermetic chaotic matrix finally establishes the linear
constraint functions for probability distribution characteristics. To ensure the convergence
of the optimization model, SOCP is utilized, and a robust stochastic optimization (SO)
model is obtained that is solved using the Yalmip–Gurobi solver. Monte Carlo simulation is
used to show the effectiveness of the proposed model. The results displayed a remarkable
reduction in both carbon emission and cost reduction after employing the proposed model.
The multiple commercial buildings with RESs, electric vehicles, and battery energy storage
systems are considered to be commercial microgrids. However, these microgrids present
problems like network instability due to variations in loads and the intermittent nature of
RESs. The detailed analysis and impacts of RESs are ignored in this paper. The authors in
ref. [41] developed a linear bi-level macro energy hub (MEH) control for several microgrids
that can take part in demand response and reduce both cost and carbon emission. The
optimization problem is solved via a flower pollination algorithm (FPA) considering both
deterministic and uncertain variables. A multi-regression analysis technique is employed
to establish the relationship between customer and utility. Simulations showed a great
decrement in cost, GHG emission, and load deviation in best case scenario. This paper
covers comprehensive aspects of RESs, but the impact of wind energy is not considered in
this research. The authors in ref. [42] proposed a low-carbon economic dispatching strategy
for integrated energy systems (IES) with wind power prediction and electric hydrogen
production. Utilizing advanced forecasting and refined operation models, the model
achieved significant carbon emission reductions of 12.90% with hydrogen production
and of 1.543% with demand response. The costs were reduced by 5.24% by balancing
low-carbon and economic objectives in IES operation. In this study, the authors only
considered wind power but ignored solar energy and EV. The authors in ref. [43] utilized
a hybrid GSA-PSO algorithm to optimize microgrid load dispatch with electric vehicle
charging but did not include wind, solar, or BESS. Their results showed that an ordered
charging-discharging strategy reduced the total cost by 13.38%. It was also observed that
by scheduling distributed power output, costs were cut by 14.06%. The study in ref. [44]
proposed an energy optimal schedule method for distribution networks with distributed
generation (DG) using source–load–storage aggregation groups (SAGs). It introduced a
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 5 of 27

system model, load forecasting approach, and optimized algorithms (ISSA and MOSSA)
within a two-layer framework (ISSA-MOSSA). Simulation results validated its effectiveness
in addressing energy imbalance with DG access. The research in ref. [45] presented a
planning framework for islanded micro-grids, incorporating diesel generators, renewable
energy, and battery storage. Stochastic load and renewable energy variations were modeled
probabilistically. Table 1 shows the disparate factors considered in the literature review and
provides a comparison with proposed system.

Table 1. Summary of literature review, (✓) represents included (×) means omitted.

BESS Economic Energy GHG Case

Reference Grid PV BESS EV Wind Optimal Demand Exchange
Scheduling Response Analysis with Grid Emission Study

× × × Smart
[25] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Household
Integrated
[42] ✓ × ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Energy
System
[43] ✓ × × ✓ × × × ✓ ✓ ✓ Microgrid
Campus
[46] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Microgrid
Campus
[44] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Microgrid
Large
[47] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ×
Building
Campus
[48] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Microgrid
Campus
[49] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ×
Microgrid
Campus
[50] ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Microgrid
Campus
[51] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ × ✓ ✓ ×
Microgrid
Proposed ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Residential
System Building

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, from the literature to date, no contemporary
economic analysis has been conducted comprehensively using multiple energy storage
systems. So, the main contributions of this research are as follows:
• A real-time load has been taken under observation to perform analysis.
• A multi-energy storage system has been employed and an economic analysis has been
performed to find out the most economical battery energy storage system.
• Electric vehicles (EVs) have been charged in different schemes (BESS and Grid) to find
out the operational cost and cheapest scheme to charge EVs in different cases.
• Different types of BESS are analyzed considering the economic aspects.

3. Mathematical Modeling
In this section of the paper, the mathematical modeling of the various components is
described in the following subsections. The major focus of all the literature is to devise an
optimal means of minimizing the cost, and the objective function for the operational cost
(OC), which serves as the foundation for constraints, is presented below.
n         
t=24
OC = ∑t=1
g
Pt × Rate + PtPV × Rate + PtWind × Rate + PtEV × Rate + PtBES × Rate } (1)

The price of electricity is different during different hours of the day, and the energy
demand also varies during the entire day.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 6 of 27

3.1. Power Balance Equation

Equation (2) represents the power balance equation, and Equation (3) consists of
inequality constraints that show the import and export of power from the grid station.
Import and export of power cannot exceed the limits of Equations (2) and (3). Both required
power from the prosumer and surplus power, which is sold by the prosumer, are bounded
by the two equations shown below [52].
g
Pt + PtPV + PtWind + PtEV + PtBESS = PtL (2)
g g g
Pt min ≤ Pt ≤ Pt max (3)

3.2. Modeling of Solar PV

In this subsection, the mathematical model for photovoltaics is presented. Power spawned
from solar cells greatly depends upon the solar irradiance, as given in the equation below.

PtPV = 6PV × A × Irr (4)

Here, ηPV denotes the efficiency of solar panels, A denotes the area of the rooftop
covered by solar panels, and Irr denotes the irradiance of the sun. The irradiance of the
sun is calculated via stochastic modeling. The probability density function is used to
determine the intermittent nature of solar irradiance. Beta PDF is used to determine the
value of irradiance, and the equation for the function is given below. Over 24 h, around
6561 scenarios are considered by employing the Latin hypercube technique. To decrease
the computational burden, only 10 scenarios are considered via the k-means method as
shown in Figure 2. The normal probability density function is given below.
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW −(1 − µ)2
. 7 of 28
1 2σ2
h( Irr ) = √ e (5)
σ 2π

Figure
Figure2.2.Monte
MonteCarlo
Carloscenarios
scenariosofofsolar
solarirradiance.
irradiance.

3.3. Modeling
Irr (kW/m 2 ) is the value of solar irradiance in an hour on a specific day. σ and µ are
of EV
the deviation
An electricand meanalso
vehicle of normal
acts as distribution. The equation
an energy storage below
system or enforces
battery. the fact en-
This reserve that
the power produced from solar PV can either be used for household purposes or
ergy can be utilized during peak hours or in case of any contingency situation. The energyit can be
sold back to the grid [53].
stored in the battery cannot exceed the maximum power of the battery storage system
used in electric vehicles. EquationsPV
(7) and (8) represent the maximum and minimum state
Pt Sold + PtPV Used = Pt PV (6)
of energy of the battery. Both the energy states are bound to a fixed value, and the energy
of the batteries used in the EV cannot go beyond these values.

𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐸(𝑡 − 1)(1 − ∅𝐸𝑉 ) − 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 (7)

× 𝐶𝑝𝐸𝑉 ≤ 𝑃𝑡𝐸𝑉
100
The term 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐸 represents the energy level (kWh) of an electric vehicle when it is
connected for charging at any specified time 𝑡, 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐸 symbolizes the maximum en-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 7 of 27

3.3. Modeling of EV
An electric vehicle also acts as an energy storage system or battery. This reserve energy
can be utilized during peak hours or in case of any contingency situation. The energy
stored in the battery cannot exceed the maximum power of the battery storage system used
in electric vehicles. Equations (7) and (8) represent the maximum and minimum state of
energy of the battery. Both the energy states are bound to a fixed value, and the energy of
the batteries used in the EV cannot go beyond these values.

BSOE(t − 1)(1 − ∅EV ) − BSOEmax

× Cp EV ≤ PtEV (7)
100
The term BSOE represents the energy level (kWh) of an electric vehicle when it is
connected for charging at any specified time t, BSOEmax symbolizes the maximum energy
level (kWh) of an electric vehicle which is a fixed value, and ∅ev represents the internal
energy lost (%).

BSOE(t − 1)(1 − ∅EV ) − BSOEmin

PtEV ≤ × Cp EV (8)
100
In Equation (8) above, BSOEmin is the minimum state of energy of the battery. Equation (9)
below expounds the state of energy of the battery at any instant of time t. The state of
energy of a battery depends upon its previous energy state [54].

100 × 6 ch ch
EV × Pt 100 × Ptdisc
BSOEt = (1 − ∅EV ) BSOE(t−1) − − (9)
Cp EV Cp EV × 6 disc
EV

The charging and discharging constraints of the EV at any time t are defined by the
equations below.
ch ch
0 ≤ p EV (t) ≤ ‘A EV (t) CEV (t) (10)
disc disc
0 ≤ p EV (t) ≤ ά EV (t) C EV (t) (11)
Here, C EV (t) is the maximum energy that is stored in the EV. Equation (12) below
ch disc
shows that ‘A EV (t) and ά EV (t) are binary numbers and their sum is 1.
ch disc
‘A EV (t) + ά EV (t) ≤ 1 (12)

The operation and maintenance cost of the EV binds its charging- and discharging-
degr
related degradation cost CEV , capacity cost, which is paid by the utility to the EV owner,
c ( t ), selling cost C s ( t ), and buying price C d ( t ).
CEV EV EV
Both charging and discharging cycles are modeled as follows.
ch ch ch
‘B EV (t) ≥ ‘A EV (t) − ‘A EV ( t − 1) (13)

disc disc disc

‘B EV (t) ≥ ά EV (t) − ά EV ( t − 1) (14)
The operation and maintenance cost are defined by the equation below.

CEV (t)
 
p disc
degr 1 ch disc c × Cp EV + EV ( t ) s
= CEV 2 ‘B EV (t) + ‘B EV (t) + CEV 6 disc × CEV (15)
EV
p ch
EV ( t ) d
− 6 ch
× CEV
EV

3.4. Modeling of the BESS

The battery energy storage system (BESS) assumes a pivotal role within an energy
management system, providing essential support by supplying power to loads during grid
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 8 of 27

failures and peak hours when the rate of electricity is high. The modeling of battery energy
storage systems is provided in the equations below.
Given the inherent limitation of the BESS, which cannot instantly charge or discharge,
power constraints are explicitly outlined in Equations (16) and (17).

BSOC (t − 1)(1 − ∅BES ) − BSOCmax

× Cp BES ≤ PtBES (16)
100
BSOC (t − 1)(1 − ∅EV ) − BSOCmin
PtBES ≤ × C BES (17)
100
To forestall scenarios of overcharging and complete discharging, stringent upper and
lower limits are imposed on BSOC, designated as BSOCmax and BSOCmin , respectively, as
articulated in Expression (18).

BSOCmin ≤ BSOCt ≤ BSOC max (18)

An underlying assumption is made that the battery state of charge at the close of the
day is BSOCt , identical to its initial state BSOC BES (0).

BSOC BES (0) = BSOC BES (24) (19)

The limits on the upper- and lower-value battery charging and discharging are given
below.
ch ch
0 ≤ pt BES (t) ≤ ά BES (t) P BES (t) (20)
disc disc
0 ≤ pt BES (t) ≤ ά BES (t) P BES (t) (21)
ch disc
‘A BES (t) and ά BES (t) are binary operational variables of charging and discharging,
respectively. When the charging operation is on, it is 1, and the discharging operation is 0
and off.
ch disc
‘A BES (t) + ά BES (t) ≤ 1 (22)
The equation below shows the state of charge of the battery.

100 × 6 ch ch
BES × Pt 100 × Ptdisc
BSOCt = (1 − ∅BES ) BSOC(t−1) − − (23)
Cp BES Cp BES × 6 disc
BES

The battery state of charge (BSOC) at any time interval “t”, denoted as BSOCt , is
intricately linked to its preceding state BSOC(t−1) , as elucidated in Equation (22). The
inception flags for charging or discharging modes are represented by the equations below.

ch ch ch
‘B BES (t) ≥ ‘A (t) BES − ‘A BES ( t − 1) (24)

disc disc disc

‘B BES (t) ≥ ά BES (t) − ά BES ( t − 1) (25)
ch disc
In the equations above, ‘B BES (t) is an inception flag for charging mode, and ‘B BES (t)
ch disc
is an inception flag for discharging mode, while ‘A BES (t) and ά BES (t) are binary variables
for charging and discharging, respectively.
In the model, operation and maintenance costs have also been considered [41].

degr 1
 
ch disc mt
CBES (t) = CBES ‘B BES (t) + ‘B BES (t) + CBES BSOC BES (t) (26)
2
degr mt is the main-
In the equation above, CBES is the degradation cost of batteries and CBES
tenance cost of batteries. The degradation cost of batteries depends upon many factors
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 9 of 27

including temperature, no. of cycles, etc. The degradation of batteries depends upon the
temperature and the equation for that is given below.
Tre f
( T f ( T − Tnor ) T )
Degr Rate = e abs (27)

If the battery is charged and discharged more frequently, the temperature of batteries
usually escalates, and they degrade quite swiftly. The degradation rate is analyzed by
using the Zhurkov model, as given in the equation below. T f represents a coefficient of
temperature in the thermal aging model, T is the actual temperature, and Tnor is a normal
temperature taken at 25 ◦ C. Tre f is reference temperature and is measured in kelvin by
adding 273 in Tnor . Tabs is the absolute temperature in kelvin, which is Tabs = T + 273 [55].
The degradation cost of the battery is given by Equation (28).
 
degr capital cost
CBES = (28)
No. o f cycles × total capacity × 2

3.5. Modeling of Wind

The unpredictable and non-continuous nature of wind speed is modeled using Weibull
PDF. The equation for Weibull PDF is given below.

k  v w  k −1 −vw k
PDF (vw ) = × × e( c ) (29)
c c
Here, c is the scale of Weibull PDF, and k signifies the shape which is obtained from
the historical data of random wind speed variation ( vw ) in a particular area. Around 6561
different scenarios were created and 10 were taken for observation to reduce computational
burden as shown in Figure 3. The output of wind energy depends upon the speed of wind
in a specific area, as given below.

 vswt ≤ vCl vswt ≥ vCO
vswt −vCl

max
Pw vR −v vCl ≤ vswt ≤ v R (30)
Cl
 max
 s
Pw v R ≤ vwt ≤ vCO

3.6. Modeling of Demand Response

Demand response (DR) is one of the imperative features of smart grids as it allows
consumers to schedule their loads at will by participating in different demand response
programs. In this section, demand response constraints are formulated to establish a factor
for the flexibility of DR. The energy profile in any specified horizon of time should be the
same before and after applying the demand response program. This allows for the shifting
of the load from peak or expensive hours to non-peak or economical hours [56].

(1 − ∂) Lt ≤ DRt ≤ (1 + ∂) Lt (31)

In the equation above, Lt represents load without applying DR, and ∂ is the flexibility
of DR.
∑t DRt =∑t Lt (32)

3.7. Calculation of Carbon

To calculate the emission of carbon, the following formula is used:

Emission Reduction (Ery) = Bey − Pey − Ley, (33)

where Bey is the baseline emission, Pey is the project emission, and Ley is the leakage emission [57].
Table 2 below provides the values of different parameters used in equations for
mathematical modeling.
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 28
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 10 of 27

1.6

1.4

1.2
Wind Speed (m/s)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Time (h)

Scenerio 1 Mean STD Scenerio 2

Scenerio 3 Scenerio 4 Scenerio 5 Scenerio 6
Scenerio 7 Scenerio 8 Scenerio 9 Scenerio 10
Figure 3. Monte Carlo scenarios of wind speeds.
Figure 3. Monte Carlo scenarios of wind speeds.

3.6. Modeling
Table of Demand
2. Parameters Response
for the proposed system.
Demand response (DR) is one of the imperative features of smart grids as it allows
Parameters Value Parameters Value
consumers to schedule their loads at will by participating in different demand response
PV 10 kWconstraints areBSOE
Pt section, demand response 8 kWh
programs. In this formulated
min to establish a factor
PtWind 600 W BSOCmax (lead acid) 80%
for the flexibilityEVof DR. The energy profile in any specified horizon of time should be the
P 16 kW BSOCmin (lead acid) 30%
same before andt Lafter applying the demand response program. This allows for the shifting
Pt 25 kW Cp BES 20 kWh
of the load from ηPVpeak or expensive hours to non-peak
0.19 or economical
BSOC hours
(0)(lead acid ) [56].50%
BES
Cp EV 16 kwh
(1 − 𝜕)𝐿 BSOC BES (24)(lead acid) 50%
𝑡 ≤ 𝐷𝑅𝑡 ≤ (1 + 𝜕)𝐿𝑡 (31)
BSOEmax 16 kWh BSOCmax ( Li − Ion) 90%
InBSOC BES (0)( Li −
the equation Ion) 𝐿 represents
above, BSOC
50%load without min ( Li − DR,
applying Ion) and 𝜕 is 10%
the flexi-
𝑡
BSOC BES (24)( Li − Ion) 50% ∅EV , ∅BES 0.001
bility of DR.

4. System Description ∑𝑡 𝐷𝑅𝑡 = ∑𝑡 𝐿𝑡 (32)

This system consists of a consumer load of 25 kW and the price of electricity varies
3.7. Calculation
in different of Carbon
hours. Rooftop solar panels of 10 kW capacity are also installed along with a
600 To
W calculate
wind turbine commissioned
the emission at the
of carbon, theroof. A bidirectional
following formula isEV operation containing
used:
both V2G (meaning energy stored in the vehicle can be sold back to the grid) and V2H
(meaning energy of vehicle Emission
can beReduction (Ery)
used to cover = Bey − Pey
household − Ley,
loads) (33)
is also taken into account.
The EVBey
where hasisa total capacityemission,
the baseline of 16 kW. Charging
Pey is theefficiency and discharging
project emission, and Ley efficiencies of EVs
is the leakage
are kept at
emission [57]. 90%. Electric vehicles are not available at home from 8 AM to 4 PM. A 20-kW
battery
Tableenergy
2 belowstorage systemthe
provides (BESS)
valuesis also includedparameters
of different in the system. The
used inBESS is charged
equations for
from PV, wind,
mathematical modeling. and the grid. The electricity tariff is taken from NEPRA Pakistan [58],
and the data are collected from the Lahore region. The figure below shows the energy
generation
Table from aforPV
2. Parameters thesystem
proposedand wind turbine. Figure 4 displays the power produced
system.
from a solar system and wind turbine during a typical day, while Figure 5 shows the flow
chart ofParameters Value Wind speedsParameters
the optimization algorithm. are very low in the region ofValue Lahore as
𝑃𝑉
𝑃𝑡
per data obtained 10 kW and due to lower
from the literature, 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐸 wind 8 kWh is
𝑚𝑖𝑛 speeds, energy production
also trivial𝑃𝑡𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑
[59]. 600 W 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) 80%
𝐸𝑉
𝑃𝑡 16 kW 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) 30%
𝑃𝑡𝐿 25 kW 𝐶𝑝𝐵𝐸𝑆 20 kWh
ƞ𝑃𝑉 0.19 𝐵𝑆𝑂𝐶𝐵𝐸𝑆 (0)(𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑) 50%
 [58], and the data are collected from the Lahore region. The figure below shows the energy
generation from a PV system and wind turbine. Figure 4 displays the power produced
from a solar system and wind turbine during a typical day, while Figure 5 shows the flow
chart of the optimization algorithm. Wind speeds are very low in the region of Lahore as
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 11 of 27
per data obtained from the literature, and due to lower wind speeds, energy production
is also trivial [59].

Power (kW)
Cumulative Power 51kW
3
Solar Power
2 Wind Power
1

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Time (h) 12 of 28

Figure 4. Energy generation of PV and wind.

Start

Check the current scenario

Day of the week/time of the week

Check the available

sources and energy
Check Battery SOC
demand
Balance load >0

Yes
Check the Electric No
No
vehicle availability SOC< Soc max
SOCev>50%

Yes
Export to the Grid
No

Use the Electric Vehicle Charge battery

Yes
Check battery Soc

No Is Grid
SOC>Soc min available
No

Yes Yes Shed Load

Supply from the Grid

Use Battery

Figure 5. Flow chart of proposed model.

Figure 5. Flow chart of proposed model.

5.5.Analysis
Analysisof ofDifferent
DifferentCases
Cases
This
Thissection
sectionpresents
presentsdifferent
differentcases
caseswhich
whichare
areobserved
observedwithwithboth
bothrenewable
renewableenergy
energy
sources
sourcesand andthe
theEVEVandandwithout
withoutthemthemas well. In this
as well. study,
In this lead–acid
study, and lithium-ion
lead–acid bat-
and lithium-ion
teries are used
batteries as theasstorage
are used system.
the storage The EV
system. is charged
The from two
EV is charged different
from schemes:schemes:
two different (1) it is
charged from thefrom
(1) it is charged grid;the
(2)grid;
storage batteries
(2) storage are used
batteries aretoused
charge the EV.the
to charge Scenarios with both
EV. Scenarios with
renewable energy resources and without renewable energy resources have
both renewable energy resources and without renewable energy resources have been taken been taken into
consideration to study
into consideration the impact
to study on daily
the impact operational
on daily cost, which
operational are discussed
cost, which in thein
are discussed sub-
the
subsections
sections below.below.

5.1. Case 01: Grid-Connected with BESS Boost

In case 1, the consumer only imports electricity from the gird with the energy storage
system. The incurred daily operational cost with the Li-ion battery storage system is USD
68.7969, and with the lead–acid energy storage system, the incurred cost is USD 69.609.
Figure 6 below shows the state of energy for both batteries along with power exchange
 Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 12 of 27

5.1. Case 01: Grid-Connected with BESS Boost

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
In case 1, the consumer only imports electricity from the gird with the energy storage 13 of 28
system. The incurred daily operational cost with the Li-ion battery storage system is
USD 68.7969, and with the lead–acid energy storage system, the incurred cost is USD 69.609.
Figure 6 below shows the state of energy for both batteries along with power exchange
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
with the grid. During the peak hours, the exchange with the grid is minimum while 13 ofthe
28
battery provides most of the energy for loads. The peak hours are from 17:00 to 22:00, and
power exchange with the grids in these hours is minimal.

Figure 6. Power exchange with grid (Case 01).

Figure 6. Power exchange with grid (Case 01).
Figure 6. Power exchange with grid (Case 01).
It can be observed in Figure 7 that the state of charge of batteries during peak hours
It can be observed in Figure 7 that the state of charge of batteries during peak hours
of electricity decreases,
It can bedecreases, inproviding
observed providing
Figure 7the thethe
that ancillary
state serviceofofbatteries
of charge meeting the load.
during peak The
hourslevelized
of electricity ancillary service of meeting the load. The levelized
costs
costs of lithium-ion
of lithium-ion
of electricity decreases,
andand lead–acid
providing
lead–acid the batteries
ancillary
batteries in this
in service
this caseofcase are 1.019
meeting
are USD USD 1.019
the load.
and Theand
USD USD 0.0786,
levelized
0.0786,
respectively. Overall,
costs of lithium-ion
respectively. Overall,and the operational costs
lead–acid batteries
the operational costs forin for both lead–acid
thislead–acid
both case are and and lithium-ion
USDlithium-ion
1.019 and batteriesbatteries
USD 0.0786,
are are
highest inthis
respectively.
highest in this case,and
Overall,
case, and this
thethis case
operational
case iscosts
considered
for both
is considered asbase
the case.
lead–acid
as the base
andcase.
lithium-ion batteries are
highest in this case, and this case is considered as the base case.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Charge
Charge state
state of
of batteries
batteries (Case
(Case 01).
01).
Figure 7. Charge state of batteries (Case 01).
5.2. Case 02: PV-Grid-BESS Synergy
5.2. Case 02:case,
In this PV-Grid-BESS Synergy
along with the grid power and energy storage system, the consumer has
installed a 10
In this kWalong
case, rooftop solar
with thepanels system.and
grid power Theenergy
solar panels
storage generate
system,considerable
the consumer has
amounts of
installed energy
a 10 kW as there issolar
rooftop an abundance of solar The
panels system. in Lahore
solar for almost
panels 8–10 h during
generate considerable
amounts of energy as there is an abundance of solar in Lahore for almost 8–10the
the day. Figure 8 shows the amount of energy generated from solar panels along with h during
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 13 of 27

5.2. Case
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 02: PV-Grid-BESS Synergy 14 of 28

In this case, along with the grid power and energy storage system, the consumer has
installed a 10 kW rooftop solar panels system. The solar panels generate considerable
amounts of energy
Similarly, withas thethere is an abundance
lead–acid of solar
energy storage in Lahore
system, for almost
the overall obtained8–10 h during
operational
the
costday. Figure
is USD 8 shows
59.26, 14.88%the lessamount of energy
than base. generated
A considerable from solar
reduction panels along
in operational costwith
can
the energy exchange with the grid and the energy stored in batteries. The
be seen with both battery storage systems. Moreover, the overall units generated from levelized cost
of thecells
solar solarserve
system is 0.03 USD/kWh.
an imperative Therefore,
role in the reductiontheofnet cost of
carbon electricity
emission. Onisa reduced by
daily basis,
USD 9.986, which is 14.52% less than the base case with lithium
the amount of carbon which is reduced is approximately 36,018 grams/day. battery storage system.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Power exchange with grid
grid (Case
(Case 02).
02).

Similarly, with the

Figure 8 above lead–acid
depicts energy
the energy storage with
exchange system, the
grid. overallpeak
During obtained
hours,operational
there is no
cost is USD 59.26, 14.88% less than base. A considerable reduction
import of energy from the grid. Grid power plunges down during peak hours when in operational cost can
the
be seen with both battery storage systems. Moreover, the overall units
ESS charged from solar cells and the grid during peak hours is utilized. Even during generated from solar
off
cells
peakserve
hours,anextra
imperative role in theinreduction
energy available the storageof system
carbon is emission.
sold backOn to athe
daily
gridbasis,
beforetheit
amount of carbon
is replenished backwhich
to fulliscapacity
reduced foris approximately
peak hours. 36,018 grams/day.
Figure 8 above
In Figure 9, thedepicts
state ofthecharge
energyfor exchange with grid.and
both lead–acid During peak hours,
lithium-ion thereisisde-
batteries no
import of energy from the grid. Grid power plunges down during peak
picted. It can be seen that during off-peak hours, the lithium-ion battery is charged at a hours when the
ESS charged
maximum fromofsolar
value 90%,cells
and and the grid during
the lead–acid batterypeak hours is
is charged uputilized.
to 80%. Even
Duringduring off
off-peak
peak hours, extra energy available in the storage system is sold back to the
hours, the lithium-ion battery is discharged to 10% and the lead–acid battery is discharged grid before it is
replenished
to 30%. back to full capacity for peak hours.
In Figure 9, the state of charge for both lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries is depicted.
It can be seen that during off-peak hours, the lithium-ion battery is charged at a maximum
value of 90%, and the lead–acid battery is charged up to 80%. During off-peak hours, the
lithium-ion battery is discharged to 10% and the lead–acid battery is discharged to 30%.

5.3. Case 03: Inclusion of EV with the Grid, PV, and BESS
In this case, PV is utilized again with the electric vehicle and energy storage system.
Electric vehicle leaves the home charged at full capacity of 16 kW at 8AM and returns
at 4PM. In this case, the EV is bound to be charged from the ESS and the grid, and
different operational costs have been observed. Both lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries
are considered for this scenario.
Scenario 1 is observed with a lithium-ion battery storage system. Electric vehicles
(EVs) are charged in both scenarios with the energy storage system and the grid, and their
operational cost is observed. When the EV is exclusively charged by battery energy storage
systems (BESS), the overall electricity rates fall down slightly. The operational cost for
the particular scenario is USD 56.2602, which is less compared to the case when the EV is
charged from grid. The cost when the EV is charged with the grid is USD 56.6473.
Figure 9. State of charge of batteries (Case 02).
 In Figure 9, the state of charge for both lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries
picted. It can be seen that during off-peak hours, the lithium-ion battery is charg
maximum value of 90%, and the lead–acid battery is charged up to 80%. During off
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 hours, the lithium-ion battery is discharged to 10% and the lead–acid battery
14 of 27 is disch
to 30%.

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15

5.3. Case 03: Inclusion of EV with the Grid, PV, and BESS
In this case, PV is utilized again with the electric vehicle and energy storage sys
Electric vehicle leaves the home charged at full capacity of 16 kW at 8AM and return
4PM. In this case, the EV is bound to be charged from the ESS and the grid, and diffe
operational costs have been observed. Both lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries are con
ered for this scenario.
Scenario 1 is observed with a lithium-ion battery storage system. Electric veh
(EVs) are charged in both scenarios with the energy storage system and the grid, and t
operational cost is observed. When the EV is exclusively charged by battery energy
age systems (BESS), the overall electricity rates fall down slightly. The operational cos
the particular scenario is USD 56.2602, which is less compared to the case when the E
charged from grid. The cost when the EV is charged with the grid is USD 56.6473.
Figure 9. State
Stateofof charge
charge of batteries (Case
of batteries 02).
FigureIn9. Figure 10, the power (Case 02).
dynamics of grid battery energy storage systems (BESS)
electric vehicles
In Figure (EVs)
10, the poweraredynamics
outlined.ofWhen the EV
grid battery is away
energy from
storage home(BESS)
systems during certain h
and
of the day, it is disconnected from residence. During this period,
electric vehicles (EVs) are outlined. When the EV is away from home during certain hoursthe load decreases s
thethe
of battery isdisconnected
day, it is charged and discharged
from residence. through solar
During this cells,
period, thetaking advantage
load decreases sinceof abund
the battery is charged and discharged through solar cells, taking
solar energy. Upon the EV’s return home, there is a one-hour window to maximiz advantage of abundant
solar energy. Upon the EV’s return home, there is a one-hour window to maximize its
charging, coinciding with the start of off-peak hours at 17:00. Both the energy storage
charging, coinciding with the start of off-peak hours at 17:00. Both the energy storage
tem and
system andthe
thebattery contribute
battery contribute to meeting
to meeting load load requirements,
requirements, reducingreducing the
the need for need for
grid
procurement.After
procurement. After
peakpeak hours,
hours, whenwhen solar energy
solar energy is unavailable,
is unavailable, grid powergrid power
is used to is use
charge both the BESS
charge both the BESS and EV. and EV.

Figure 10.Power
Figure10. Powerexchange with
exchange the the
with gridgrid
for Li-ion BESS BESS
for Li-ion when the
whenEV the
is charged from the from
EV is charged BESS the BES
(Case 03).
(Case 03).
Figure 11 shows the state of charge of the lithium-ion battery when the EV is charged
Figure
from the 11 storage
battery shows system
the state
andofthe
charge of thethe
grid. When lithium-ion battery
EV is charged whenthe
from grid, the EV is char
state
from
of theremains
charge batteryinstorage system
the lower andofthe
spectrum grid.signifying
values, When thethat EVeven
is charged from grid, the s
during non-peak
hours, mostremains
of charge of energyin
needs
the are filled
lower with ESS to
spectrum of reduce
values,thesignifying
operationalthat
cost.even
But during
during non-p
peak
hours, most of energy needs are filled with ESS to reduce the operationalwhen
hours, the battery is drained to a comparatively greater extent in the scenario cost. But du
the EV is charged from grid.
peak hours, the battery is drained to a comparatively greater extent in the scenario w
the EV is charged from grid.
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 28

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 28

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 15 of 27

100
90
100
80
90
70
80
60

(%) (%)
70
50
60

SOC
40
50

SOC
40
30

3020
2010
10 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
SOC1: EV charged with grid. Time (Hour)
SOC2: EV charged with ESS.
SOC1: EV charged with grid. Time (Hour)
SOC2: EV charged with ESS.
SOC 1 (Li-ion ) SOC 2 (Li-ion )
SOC 1 (Li-ion ) SOC 2 (Li-ion )
Figure 11. State of charge of Li-ion battery (Case 03).
Figure11.
Figure Stateofofcharge
11.State chargeofofLi-ion
Li-ionbattery
battery(Case
(Case03).
03).
Figure 12 below exhibits the power exchange with the grid in a case when the EV is
Figure1212below
Figure belowexhibits
exhibitsthe
thepower
powerexchange
exchangewithwiththe
thegrid
gridinina acase
casewhen
whenthe theEVEVisis
charged
charged
exclusively
exclusively
fromgrid.
from
grid.Similar
Similarto
tothe
theprevious
previous case,
case, the
the
grid
grid
BESS
BESS
and
andEV
EV operate
operate
charged exclusively from grid. Similar to the previous case, the grid BESS and EV operate
as a cohesive energy system. During the EV’s downtime, solar power is harnessed for for
asasa acohesive
cohesiveenergy
energysystem.
system.During
DuringthetheEV’s
EV’sdowntime,
downtime,solarsolarpower
powerisisharnessed
harnessedfor
loads. Upon
loads.Upon
Uponthethe EV’s return,
theEV’s
EV’s return,during
duringpeak
peakhours,
hours,along
along with
with ESS,ESS, it also provides power
loads. return, during peak hours, along with ESS, ititalso
also provides
provides power
power
for loads,
forloads, decreasing
loads,decreasing procurement
decreasingprocurement
procurementfrom from
fromthe the grid.
thegrid. Post-peak,
grid.Post-peak,
Post-peak,grid grid
gridpower power
powersteps steps in, charging
stepsin,in,charging
charging
for
both
both the
the BESS and
and the
theEV EVfor
forsustained
sustainedenergy
energy efficiency.
efficiency.
both the BESS and the EV for sustained energy efficiency.

Figure
Figure12.
Figure Power
12.
12. exchange
Power
Power with
exchange
exchange thethe
with
with grid
the for for
grid
grid Li-ion
for BESS
Li-ion
Li-ion when
BESS
BESS the EV
when theisEV
charged fromfrom
is charged the Grid
from the
the Grid
Grid
(Case 03).
(Case
(Case 03).

InInthe
thesecond
secondscenario,
scenario, a lead–acid battery is employed asas the energy storage system.
In the second scenario,aalead–acid
lead–acidbattery
batteryisisemployed
employed as the energy
the energystorage system.
storage system.
Unlike lithium-ion ESS, the lead–acid battery has a maximum state of charge set atat80%,
Unlike lithium-ion ESS, the lead–acid battery has a maximum state of charge set80%,
Unlike lithium-ion ESS, the lead–acid battery has a maximum state of charge set at 80%,
and
andititcancanonly
onlydischarge
dischargetoto30% 30%totoensure
ensurea alonger
longerlifespan.
lifespan.The Thedaily
dailyoperational
operationalcostcostinin
and it can only discharge to 30% to ensure a longer lifespan. The daily operational cost in
this
thissituation
situationisisUSD USD59.2679
59.2679whenwhenthe theEV
EVisischarged
chargedfromfromthe thegrid
gridand andUSDUSD58.0848
58.0848when
when
this situation
charged is USD 59.2679 when the EV is charged from thethe grid and USD 58.0848 when
chargedfrom fromthe theESS.
ESS.The Theoperational
operationalexpenses
expensesincurred
incurredwith with thelead–acid
lead–acidbattery
batteryareare
charged from
marginally thethan
higher ESS.those
The associated
operational expenses
with incurred
lithium-ion withinthe
batteries bothlead–acid
cases, battery are
whether
marginally higher than those associated with lithium-ion batteries in both cases, whether
marginally
the
theEV higher
EVisischarged
charged fromthan
from thethose
the grid associated
grid with
or the ESS. Figure
Figure lithium-ion
13illustrates
13 illustrates batteries
theenergy
the in both
energy cases,
exchange
exchange whether
pat-
pattern
the
tern EV
withwith is charged
the grid
the grid from
throughout
throughout the grid or
various
various the ESS.
hourshours Figure
of theof 13
thewhile
day illustrates
day Figure
while Figure the
14 shows energy
14state
shows exchange
state ofofpat-
of charge
tern
charge
batterywith
ofin the
battery grid
in the
the entire throughout
entire
day. day.
In the various
In the
initial hours
initialthe
hours, of
hours,the
BESSthe day while
BESS undergoes
undergoes Figure 14
chargingchargingshows state of
until
until reaching
charge
reaching
its maximumof
itsbattery
maximum in the
capacity. entire day.
capacity.
Through theIn
Through the
theinitial
midday midday hours,
hours, hours,
solar the BESSenergy
solar
energy undergoes charging
availability
availability enables theuntil
en-
reaching
ables
energy its maximum
the storage
energy storage
system to capacity.
system
satisfy Through
to nearly
satisfy thethe
nearly
all of midday
of thehours,
allhome’s home’s
energy solar
energyenergy
demands. availability
demands.
During peak en-
Dur-
ables
hours,the when energy
the EVstorage systematosubstantial
is accessible, satisfy nearly
supply allofofenergy
the home’s energy
is jointly demands.
provided by bothDur-
the EV and the energy storage system, leading to a reduction in grid procurement.
 inging
peak hours,
peak when
hours, thethe
when EVEVis accessible, a substantial
is accessible, supply
a substantial supplyof of
energy is jointly
energy is jointlypro-
pro
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 vided byby
vided both thethe
both EVEV
and thethe
and energy
energystorage system,
storage leading
system, to to
leading a reduction in
a reduction grid
in
16 of pro-
27grid pro
curement.
curement.
Electric Vehicle Power by Electric
ESS Vehicle Power by ESS

40 40
Solar Power (Lead acid) Solar Power (Lead acid)

Grid Power (Lead acid) Grid Power (Lead acid)

Energy Storage Power (Lead

Energy Storage Power (Lead

acid) acid)

30 30

20 20
Power (kW)
Power (kW)

10 10
Electric Vehicle
Electric (ESS
Vehicle (ESS
Charged)
Charged)
0 0 Grid Power
Grid Power
1 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 10 11 11
9 10 12 12
13 13
14 14
15 15
16 16
17 17
18 18
19 19
20 20
21 21
22 22
23 23
24 24 BESS (Lead
BESS Acid)
(Lead Acid)

-10-10

-20-20

-30-30

Time (h)(h)
Time
Figure
Figure13.
Figure13.Power
13. Power
Power exchange
exchange with
exchange
with thegrid
with
the grid
the for
grid
for lead–acid
for BESS
lead–acid
lead–acid BESS when
BESS
when when
the theis
EV EV
the is charged
EV
charged from
is charged
from the thethe
from
BESS
BESS (Case
BESS
(Case 03).03).
(Case
03).

90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60
SOC (%)
SOC (%)

50 50

40 40 SOC 1 (Lead
SOC Acid)
1 (Lead Acid)
30 30 SOC 2 (Lead
SOC Acid)
2 (Lead Acid)

20 20
SOC1: EV charged
SOC1: with with
EV charged grid.grid.
SOC2: EV charged
SOC2: with with
EV charged ESS.ESS.
10 10

0 0
1 21 32 43 54 65 76 87 98 109 11
10 12
11 13
12 14
13 15
14 16
15 17
16 18
17 19
18 20
19 21
20 22
21 23
22 24
23 24

Time (hour)
Time (hour)

Figure 14.
Figure
Figure State
14.
14. of
ofcharge
State
State of of lead–acid
charge
charge of lead–acid battery
of lead–acid (Case
battery
battery (Case 03).03).03).
(Case

InInIn
Figure
Figure
Figure 15,15,
15, thethe
the power
power
powerexchange
exchange and
exchange andstatus of the
status
and electric
of the
status of vehicle
electric
the and energy
vehicle
electric and
vehicle storage
energy
and storage
energy storag
system
system
system are
areareshowcased
showcased
showcased throughout
throughout
throughout different
different daily
different hours,
daily when
hours,
daily hours, the
when
whenelectric
thethe vehicle
electric exclu-
vehicle
electric exclu-
vehicle exclu
sively relies on grid charging. The observed pattern closely mirrors the prior scenario,
sively
sivelyrelies onon
relies grid charging.
grid charging. The observed
The observed pattern
patternclosely mirrors
closely mirrors thethe
prior scenario,
prior scenario
showcasing a decrease in grid procurement during peak hours. Meanwhile, in off-peak
showcasing
showcasing a decrease
a decrease in in
grid procurement
grid procurement during
duringpeak
peakhours.
hours.Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, in in
off-peak
off-pea
hours, solar energy seamlessly meets the home’s energy demands and concurrently charges
hours,
hours,
the solar
battery energy
solar energy
storage forseamlessly
seamlessly
subsequent meets
usemeetsthethe
during home’s
peakhome’s energy
periods. energydemands
demands andandconcurrently
concurrently
charges thethe
charges battery storage
battery forfor
storage subsequent useuse
subsequent during peak
during periods.
peak periods.
5.4. Case 04: Integration of Wind with the Grid, PV, BESS, and EV
In this scenario, we have enhanced our energy system by introducing a 600 W wind
turbine to complement the existing photovoltaic (PV) system, electric vehicle (EV), and
battery energy storage system (BESS). The EV usage pattern remains consistent, with the
vehicle being inactive between 8 AM and 4 PM. Within this context, we analyze the charging
 30

20

Power (kW)
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 10 17 of 27

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
dynamics for EVs, considering both lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries. The strategy for
-10
charging the EV involves a combination of energy storage systems (ESS) and grid electricity,
resulting -20
in varying operational costs. When relying solely on grid energy for EV charging,
the operational cost is USD 69.59 for lead–acid batteries and USD 69.53 for lithium-ion
batteries. -30
However, when utilizing ESS energy, the operational cost decreases to USD 68.42
with lead–acid batteries and USD 68.80 with lithium-ion batteries. Figure 16 illustrates
Time (hour)
the energy exchange pattern with the grid when charging the EV from either ESS or the
grid inESS
the (Lead Acid)
case of a lithium-ion battery Grid Power storage system. In both scenarios, whether
energy
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Electric Vehicle (Grid Charged)
charging from the grid or ESS, during peak hours, power export from the grid decreases 18 of 28
while
Figuremost of the household
15. Power exchange withload the
is supplied by either the
grid for lead–acid EVwhen
BESS or ESS.
the EV is charged from the grid
(Case 03).
40
5.4. Case 04: Integration of Wind with the Grid, PV, BESS, and EV
30
In this scenario, we have enhanced our energy system by introducing a 600 W wind
20
turbine to complement the existing photovoltaic (PV) system, electric vehicle (EV), an
Power (kW)

battery10energy storage system (BESS). The EV usage pattern remains consistent, with th
vehicle being inactive between 8 AM and 4 PM. Within this context, we analyze the charg
0
ing dynamics 1 2 for3 4EVs,5 6considering
7 8 9 10 11 both lead–acid
12 13 and
14 15 16 17 18 lithium-ion
19 20 21 22 23batteries.
24 The strateg
-10
for charging the EV involves a combination of energy storage systems (ESS) and grid elec
tricity,-20
resulting in varying operational costs. When relying solely on grid energy for EV
charging, the operational cost is USD 69.59 for lead–acid batteries and USD 69.53 for lith
-30
ium-ion batteries. However, when utilizing ESS energy, the operational cost decreases t
USD 68.42 with lead–acid batteries Time and(hour)
USD 68.80 with lithium-ion batteries. Figure 1
ESS (Lead Acid) Grid Power
illustrates the energy exchange pattern with the grid when charging the EV from eithe
Electric Vehicle (Grid Charged)
ESS or the grid in the case of a lithium-ion battery energy storage system. In both scenar
ios, whether
Figure
Figure 15. Powercharging
15. Power exchange from
exchange with
with thethe
the gridgrid
grid for or ESS,BESS
for lead–acid
lead–acid during
BESS whenpeak
when the EV
the EVhours, power
is charged
is charged fromexport
from gridfrom th
the grid
the
(Case 03).
grid03).
decreases while most of the household load is supplied by either the EV or ESS.
(Case

5.4. Case 04: Integration of Wind with the Grid, PV, BESS, and EV
30
In this scenario, we have enhanced our energy system by introducing a 600 W wind
turbine to complement the existing photovoltaic (PV) system, electric vehicle (EV), and
20
battery energy storage system (BESS). The EV usage pattern remains consistent, with the
vehicle being inactive between 8 AM and 4 PM. Within this context, we analyze the charg-
10
ing dynamics for EVs, considering both lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries. The strategy
Power (kW)

for charging the EV involves a combination of energy storage systems (ESS) and grid elec-
0
tricity, resulting
1 2 3in 4varying
5 6 operational
7 8 9 10 11costs.
12 13When
14 15 relying
16 17 18solely
19 20 on
21 grid
22 23energy
24 for EV
charging,-10
the operational cost is USD 69.59 for lead–acid batteries and USD 69.53 for lith-
ium-ion batteries. However, when utilizing ESS energy, the operational cost decreases to
USD 68.42-20
with lead–acid batteries and USD 68.80 with lithium-ion batteries. Figure 16
illustrates the energy exchange pattern with the grid when charging the EV from either
ESS or the
-30
grid in the case of a lithium-ion battery energy storage system. In both scenar-
ios, whether charging from the grid or Time ESS,(h)during peak hours, power export from the
grid decreases while most BESS of the household
(Li-ion) Grid Power
load isElectric
supplied by either the EV or ESS.
Vehicle (ESS Charged)
ESS (Li-ion) Grid Power Electric Vehicle (Grid Charged)

30

Figure16.
Figure 2016. Power
Power exchange
exchange withwith the grid
the grid for Li-ion
for Li-ion batterybattery (Case 04).
(Case 04).

Illustrated
10 in Figure 17 are the variations in the battery's state of charge during both
instances of EV charging. It is evident that as the peak hours commence, the state of charge
Power (kW)

gradually0 diminishes,
1 2 3 4 5
reaching
6 7 8
a9 minimum
10 11 12 13
before
14 15
stabilizing
16 17 18 19
at 2150%
20 22
at
23
the
24
beginning of the
next day. Subsequently, the battery is charged to its full capacity just before the onset of the
-10

-20

-30

Time (h)
Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 28

Illustrated in Figure 17 are the variations in the battery's state of charge during both
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 instances of EV charging. It is evident that as the peak hours commence, the state of 18charge
of 27
gradually diminishes, reaching a minimum before stabilizing at 50% at the beginning of
the next day. Subsequently, the battery is charged to its full capacity just before the onset
next peak
of the hours.
next peakThis cyclical
hours. Thispattern highlights
cyclical the dynamic
pattern highlights thecharging
dynamicand discharging
charging and ofdis-
the battery system, strategically managing energy reserves to optimize performance
charging of the battery system, strategically managing energy reserves to optimize per-during
peak demand
formance periods.
during peak demand periods.

100
90
80
70
60
SOC (%)

50
SOC 1 (Li-ion)
40
SOC 2 (Li-ion)
30
20 SOC1: EV charged with grid.
SOC2: EV charged with ESS.
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Time (hour)

Figure17.
Figure 17.State
Stateofofcharge
chargeofofLi-ion
Li-ionbattery
battery(Case
(Case 04).
04).

Giventhe
Given thespecific
specificlimitations
limitationsimposed
imposedononthe thelead–acid
lead–acid battery,
battery, where
where thethe maximum
maximum
state
stateof
ofcharge
chargeisiscapped
cappedatat80% 80%andandthethedischarge
dischargecapacity
capacityis is
restricted
restricted to to
30%,
30%, thethepower
power
exchange
exchangeand andstate
stateofofcharge
charge(SOC)(SOC)profiles
profilesexhibit
exhibita distinctive
a distinctive pattern.
pattern. Notably,
Notably, during
during
peak
peakhours,
hours,thethepower
powerimportimportfrom fromthe thegrid
gridisisminimized,
minimized, withwithboth
boththetheenergy
energy storage
storage
system (ESS) and electric vehicle (EV) playing crucial roles in meeting
system (ESS) and electric vehicle (EV) playing crucial roles in meeting the load demands. the load demands.
However,
However,itit is is important
important to to note
note that
thatbecause
becauseofofdifferent
differentconstraints
constraintsononcharging
charging and
and dis-
discharging, the lead–acid batteries exhibit a different dynamic
charging, the lead–acid batteries exhibit a different dynamic compared to lithium-ion bat-compared to lithium-
ion batteries.
teries. Although Although the overall
the overall levelizedlevelized
cost of cost of lead–acid
lead–acid batteries batteries
is lower, is their
lower, their
effective-
effectiveness
ness is limited is limited
by these by constraints.
these constraints. Consequently,
Consequently, the operational
the operational cost cost is higher
is higher when
when
compared to lithium-ion batteries. In summary, while lead–acid battery storagestorage
compared to lithium-ion batteries. In summary, while lead–acid battery systems
systems offer a cost advantage, their operational efficiency is compromised due to the
offer a cost advantage, their operational efficiency is compromised due to the restricted
restricted limitations on charging and discharging values. This makes lithium-ion batteries
limitations on charging and discharging values. This makes lithium-ion batteries a more
a more effective and versatile option in this energy setup.
effective and versatile option in this energy setup.
The graphical representation in Figure 18 illustrates the state of charge (SOC) of the
The graphical representation in Figure 18 illustrates the state of charge (SOC) of the
lead–acid battery. When the electric vehicle (EV) is charged using the battery energy storage
lead–acid battery. When the electric vehicle (EV) is charged using the battery energy stor-
system (BESS), a distinctive pattern emerges. Notably, during the initial hours of the day,
age system
from (BESS),
1:00 to 6:00, the astate
distinctive
of charge pattern
of the emerges. Notably,
battery remains duringlow.
relatively the Itinitial hoursrises,
gradually of the
day, from 1:00 to 6:00, the state of charge of the battery remains
reaching up to 80% just before the commencement of peak hours. However, during the peakrelatively low. It gradually
rises, themselves,
hours reaching up there to 80% is just before thereduction
a significant commencement of peak
in the state hours.dropping
of charge, However,down during
the peak hours themselves, there is a significant reduction in the
to the predetermined lower constraint of 30%. The SOC profile reveals in Figure 19 that state of charge, dropping
down
the to the
battery predetermined
deliberate discharges lower constraint
during of 30%.
peak hours The SOCto
responding profile reveals constraint.
the imposed in Figure 19
that dynamic
This the battery deliberate
charging anddischarges
discharging during peak
pattern is ahours responding
strategic approach to tothemanage
imposed con-
and
straint. This dynamic charging and discharging pattern
optimize the battery's performance within defined operational parameters. is a strategic approach to manage
and Overall,
optimizethe thecostbattery's
reduction performance
in this casewithin
is muchdefined operational
lower compared parameters.
to the base case despite
the higher levelized cost of wind energy, which is 0.7 USD/Kwh. Due to lower wind speeds,
the operational cost is very high, and the wind turbine generates very low units throughout
the entire day as calculated from Monte Carlo simulations and from data obtained from
the literature as well [60]. The reduction in carbon emission is a little higher—that is, up to
36,968 grams/day—but the operational cost is very high. The cost reduction in the case of
lead–acid battery is only 0.28% compared to base case, while the operational cost remains
same in case of the lithium-ion battery energy storage system.
Sustainability
Sustainability 2024,16,
Sustainability2024,
2024, 16,2156
16, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 20
19 of
20 28
of 27
28

30
30

20
20

10
10

Power (kW)
Power (kW) 00
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

-10
-10

-20
-20

-30
-30

Time
Time (hour)
(hour)
ESS
ESS(Lead
(Leadacid)
acid) Grid
GridPower
Power
BESS
BESS(Lead
(Leadacid)
acid) Grid
GridPower
Power
Electric
ElectricVehicle
Vehicle(ESS
(ESSCharged)
Charged) Electric
ElectricVehicle
Vehicle(Grid
(GridCharged)
Charged)

Figure 18.
Figure18.
Figure Power
18.Power exchange
Powerexchange with
exchangewith the
withthe grid
thegrid with
withaaalead–acid
gridwith lead–acid battery
lead–acidbattery storage
batterystorage system
storagesystem (Case
system(Case 04).
(Case04).
04).

90
90

80
80

70
70

60
60
(%)

50
SOC (%)

50
SOC

40
40 SOC
SOC 11 (Lead
(Lead acid)
acid)
SOC
SOC 22 (Lead
(Lead acid)
acid)
30
30

20
20
SOC1:
SOC1: EV
EV charged
charged with
with grid.
grid.
SOC2:
SOC2: EV
EV charged
charged with
with ESS.
ESS.
10
10

00
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 10
10 11
11 12
12 13
13 14
14 15
15 16
16 17
17 18
18 19
19 20
20 21
21 22
22 23
23 24
24

Time
Time (hour)
(hour)

Figure 19.
Figure19. State
19.State of
Stateof charge
ofcharge of
chargeof Lead-acid
ofLead-acid Battery
Lead-acidBattery (Case
Battery(Case 04).
(Case04).
04).
Figure

Overall,
6. Energy
Overall, the
the cost
Market and reduction
cost Economical
reduction in this
this case
in Analysiscase is
is much
much lower
lower compared
compared to to the
the base
base case
case de-
de-
spite the
spiteThe higher
thecases
higher levelized
levelized
which cost of wind
cost of wind
are discussed energy,
energy,
above which
which
present is 0.7 USD/Kwh.
is 0.7 USD/Kwh.
a dynamic Due
interplayDue to lower
to lower
between wind
wind
energy
speeds,
speeds,and
market the operational
theprosumer.
operational Bycost
cost is
is very
employing very high,
high, and
and the
multi-energy wind
wind turbine
the storage turbine
systems generates
generates very
very low
and renewable low units
units
energy
throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire day
day as
as calculated
calculated from
from Monte
Monte Carlo
Carlo
sources, a system is proposed which reduces the operational costs, favoring the consumer, simulations
simulations and
and from
from data
data ob-
ob-
tained
tained from
from the
the literature
literature as
as well
well [60].
[60]. The
The reduction
reduction in
in carbon
carbon
and the carbon emission is also lowered, which benefits the utility. This article explores emission
emission is
is a
a little
little higher—
higher—
that is,
is, up
up toto 36,968
thatimplementation
the 36,968 grams/day—but
grams/day—but
of the time-of-use the
the operational
operational
(TOU) techniquecost
costas is
is very
avery high.
high. The
demand The cost
cost reduction
response reduction
strategy,
in the case
in the case
wherein of lead–acid
of lead–acid
electricity battery
pricesbattery
fluctuate is only
is only 0.28% compared
0.28%peak
between compared to base case, while
to base case, while
hours (17:00–22:00) the
the operational
and non-peak operational
hours.
cost
The remains
remains same
costunderlying same in
in case
assumptioncase of ofisthe
the
thatlithium-ion
lithium-ion
consumers battery
battery energy
energy
have ceded storage
storage
control ofsystem.
system.
their electrical loads
to the utility. During peak hours, consumers autonomously reduce their reliance on the
6.
6. Energy
gridEnergy Market
for energy,Market and
and Economical
leveraging Economical Analysis
Analysis
battery management systems and renewable energy sources.
This strategic
The casesshift
The cases which
whichin energy
are consumption
are discussed
discussed above results
presentin
above present adynamic
noteworthy
aa dynamic reduction
interplay
interplay between
between in overall
energy
energy
operational
market
market and costs,
and prosumer.
prosumer.withBy Bythe potentialmulti-energy
employing
employing to decrease bills
multi-energy storage
storage by systems
18.2% inand
systems therenewable
and most favorable
renewable energy
energy
scenarios.
sources, a This
systemdualis benefit
proposed positively
which impacts
reduces both
the consumers
operational
sources, a system is proposed which reduces the operational costs, favoring the consumer, and
costs, the grid
favoring by
the fostering
consumer, a
more
and sustainable
the carbon and
emission cost-effective
is also energy
lowered, ecosystem.
which benefits the
and the carbon emission is also lowered, which benefits the utility. This article explores utility. This article explores
the In the context of of
the implementation
implementation non-peak
of the hours, where
the time-of-use
time-of-use (TOU)
(TOU) energy demand
technique
technique as aaisdemand
as less, surplus
demand energy
response
response gener-
strategy,
strategy,
ated by
wherein solar
wherein electricitypanels is
electricity prices harnessed.
prices fluctuate After
fluctuate between charging
between peak batteries,
peak hours any
hours (17:00–22:00) excess
(17:00–22:00) and energy
and non-peak is exported
non-peak hours.hours.
back
The to the utility.
The underlying
underlying This not only
assumption
assumption is provides
is that
that consumers
consumersconsumers
have with control
have ceded
ceded additional
control of incentives
of their
their electricalbutloads
electrical also
loads
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 20 of 27

assists the utility in diminishing its dependence on fossil fuels. Consequently, this prac-
tice contributes to a substantial reduction in carbon emissions, which helps the utility in
avoiding carbon taxes and reducing peak-hour load as well. By strategically redistributing
the load traditionally experienced during peak hours to non-peak periods, this approach
optimizes energy distribution and consumption patterns. The synergy between consumer
behavior, renewable energy utilization, and grid management emerges as a powerful
strategy that not only enhances energy efficiency but also aligns with sustainability goals,
making it a win–win for both consumers and the broader energy infrastructure. The im-
plementation of batteries as a storage system poses some challenges as well. The first and
foremost challenge in the battery energy storage system is the heavy initial cost. Even
though considerable research has been conducted to make batteries more economical,
battery storage system is costly. Other than this, they require a huge amount of space to be
installed, depending upon the size of the system. Ensuring the proper installation of the
battery storage system and compliance with safety regulations can add further complexities
to the system and further increase the cost of the system. In some of regions, regulatory
policies related to net metering and grid connection might pose some challenges for home-
owners and may impact the feasibility of energy storage systems. Table 3 below presents a
comparison of the operational cost in the different scenarios considered in the study.

Table 3. Comparison of operational cost in different case.

Cases Lithium-Ion BESS Lead–Acid BESS

Case 1 (Base case) USD 68.79 USD 69.61
Case 2 USD 58.80 USD 59.26
Case 3 (EV charged from grid) USD 56.64 USD 59.27
Case 3 (EV charged from BESS) USD 56.26 USD 58.08
Case 4 (EV charged from grid) USD 69.53 USD 69.59
Case 4 (EV charged from BESS) USD 68.80 USD 68.42

7. Life Cycle Assessment

Renewable energy exhibits a positive impact on the environment by reducing green gas
emissions, minimizing air and water pollution, and uplifting energy independence. These
sources play a pivotal role in phasing out fossil fuels. Likewise, there are some negative
factors, including habitat disruption, resource extraction, visual and noise disturbances,
and challenges in end-of-life disposal. It is essential to establish a balance between the
advantages of renewable energy and the potential detrimental effects on the environment
while promoting sustainable practices and technical advancement by considering life cycle
assessment. In this study, we have considered life cycle assessment in terms of energy
payback time.

Energy Pay Back Time

The EPBT has gained popularity as a commonly utilized parameter, owing to its
easily interpretable input–output format. Its calculation method is simplified and can be
expressed as follows [61,62]:

(Total primary energy demand)

EPBT = . (34)
(Annual energy production)

In Pakistan, the energy payback period of solar modules of 500 Wp is between

1.12 years to 1 year as shown in Figure 20 depending upon solar irradiance and aver-
age peak sunshine hours. The three regions are the most feasible locations for PV system
installation. The project is installed in the region of Punjab so pay back time is around
1.2 years as shown in Figure 20.
 EPBT= . (34)
(𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧)

In Pakistan, the energy payback period of solar modules of 500 Wp is between 1.12
years to 1 year as shown in Figure 20 depending upon solar irradiance and average peak
sunshine hours. The three regions are the most feasible locations for PV system installa-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156
tion. The project is installed in the region of Punjab so pay back time is around 1.221years
of 27

as shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. EPBT of a 500 Wp PV system in various regions of Pakistan.

Figure 20. EPBT of a 500 Wp PV system in various regions of Pakistan.

Thewind
The windturbine
turbinesystem
systemdoes
doesnot
notproduce
producesufficient
sufficientenergy
energyover
overits
itslife
lifecycle
cyclebecause
because
ofpoor
of poorwind
windspeed
speedininthe
theregion.
region.Figure
Figure21
21shows
showsthat
thatthe
thewind
windturbine
turbinesystem
systemisisunable
unable
toproduce
to produceenough
enoughenergy
energydue
dueto
tothe
theaverage
averagelow
lowwind
windspeed
speedbeing
beingunable
unableto toreach
reachthe
the
cut-in speed of the turbine.
cut-in speed of the turbine.

Figure 21. Energy input of each unit cycle in wind system.

Figure
Figure 21 shows
21. Energy the
input of approximated wind
each unit cycle in windenergy over a lifetime of 20 years in the nega-
system.
tive bar, while all the positive bars show the energy used in production. The comparison
of both graphs reveals that solar PV is more feasible and beneficial in terms of energy
payback time [63].

8. Renewable Energy in Pakistani Perspective: Benefits and Challenges

Pakistan is a developing country, and the rising population is paralleled by a surging
demand for energy. This presents a formidable challenge for the utilities and energy sup-
pliers. The issue of rising energy demands can be solved by embracing a prosumer-based
market with distributed energy resources (DERs). This transformative approach would
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 22 of 27

empower consumers to become producers of energy and take part in the energy market.
Furthermore, this would also alleviate the strain on the utility grid, particularly during peak
hours. As Pakistan continues to burgeon as a growing economy, the conventional practice
of time-based load shedding during peak demand periods can be mitigated through the
transition towards a market structure consisting of prosumers and distributed energy
sources. In this paradigm shift, consumers would not merely be passive recipients of
energy; they would actively contribute to the market, leveraging from DERs. This shift
would foster a dynamic energy ecosystem wherein individuals and businesses would
not only generate and consume their energy but would even sell surplus energy. The
adoption of a prosumer-based market structure offers multi-faceted benefits. This dynamic
change not only aligns with global trends in sustainable energy but also propels Pakistan
towards a more resilient and adaptive energy infrastructure. As the nation continues
on its route of economic growth, a prosumer-oriented market can serve as a catalyst for
sustainable development.
In Pakistan, only the TOU demand response technique is employed to reduce both
peak loads and operational cost. But other demand response techniques like real-time
pricing (RTP) and peak-time pricing (PTP) can also be considered, which would not only
enhance the consumer participation in the energy market but also bring forth a reduction
in the operational cost and peak load as well. More energy storage systems like fuel cell,
hydrogen-based energy storage systems, and the latest batteries, which are more efficient,
can also be utilized, which would further improve the proposed system. This would be
considered in future studies.
Implementing renewable energy systems in the residential areas of developing coun-
tries like Pakistan faces several challenges. One major issue is the cost; setting up renewable
energy and storage systems can be expensive, which might deter people with average
incomes from installing them. Additionally, there is a lack of technical expertise among
residents with regard to installation and maintenance. Many people are not aware of how
to manage their energy usage efficiently or the benefits of demand response techniques.
Residents also encounter bureaucratic hurdles when trying to acquire permits for installing
renewable energy systems. This red tape can discourage people from making the switch.
Moreover, there are complications with net metering policies and connecting renewable
energy systems to the grid, making it difficult for homeowners to sell excess energy back
to the grid due to the grid's structure. Overall, challenges like cost, lack of expertise, bu-
reaucratic obstacles, and grid-related issues, can hinder the adoption of renewable energy
systems in the residential areas of countries like Pakistan.
On the brighter side, a comparison of the existing system with some of the existing
literature has indicated a reduction in both cost and CO2 emission. Table 4 presents the
comparison of the proposed work with existing work in the literature.

Table 4. Comparison of proposed worked with existing work.

Ref. Year Technique Application Remarks Savings

Two-level load By employing LF, a day-ahead
Prosumer- A 1–7% reduction in
[64] 2020 forecasting (LF) model scheduling and operation is
based market operational cost is observed.
is employed proposed for cost reduction
Quadratic objective A numerical analysis is
Prosumer- Operational cost is reduced
[65] 2020 problem with interior performed considering the
based market by 12%.
points algorithm energy storage system.
Overall, the cost has been
reduced by 5.24% and carbon
Integration The system contains electric
emission is reduced by
[42] 2023 GRU network energy hydrogen and short-term
1.543%, while the electrolysis
system wind data prediction.
of hydrogen reduced carbon
emission by 12.90%.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 23 of 27

Table 4. Cont.

Ref. Year Technique Application Remarks Savings

Considering demand
Operational cost is reduced by
Isolated response and DERs and ESS, a
[56] 2023 MICQP 2.6% for 24 hours and 3.72 %
microgrid new method is proposed to
for year.
decrease the cost.
A residential building is
considered with Operational cost is reduced by
grid-connected PV, wind, ESS, approximately 18.2%, while
Proposed Residential
2024 MILP and EV. The EV is charged for carbon emission is reduced by
System building
certain available hours. A 36018 grams/day for
TOU tariff scheme 25 kW load.
is employed.

9. Conclusions
This paper focuses on optimizing diverse energy sources to effectively manage the
electrical load of a residential building of 25 kW load situated in Lahore, Pakistan. The
proposed system integrates various renewable energy sources, a battery storage system,
and an electric vehicle (EV), all of which are connected to a bidirectional energy meter
aimed at minimizing electricity expenses. This study explores different scenarios involving
both lithium-ion and lead–acid battery energy storage systems, employing varied charging
schemes for the EV. Employing the TOU demand response technique, our findings reveal
that utilizing grid power alongside solar PV energy, energy storage systems, and an EV
leads to significantly lower operating costs compared to alternative scenarios. Specifically,
compared to the base case involving only the grid and battery energy storage system,
a cost reduction of 14.88% is observed with lead–acid battery energy storage, while an
18.26% cost reduction is noted with a lithium-ion battery. This study contributes to the
broader goal of achieving low carbon energy in the future. The findings from our research
indicate that by intelligently employing distributed energy sources along with battery
storage systems, we can reduce both costs and carbon emissions. This study lays the
foundation from which researchers may propose regulatory frameworks and policies to
ease the inclusion of distributed energy systems in residential buildings and the national
grid. Future studies should also focus on enhancing energy literacy among consumers
to promote their active engagement in the energy market, as well as their knowledge of
demand response techniques to ensure the efficient operation of the energy market. In
future studies, the authors also aim to consider new energy sources like micro turbines,
biomass with the hydrogen-based energy storage system, and the risk-averse power system.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.A.A. and M.N.A.; methodology, A.A. (Abdullah Aftab);
software, A.A. (Asjad Ali); validation, S.A.; formal analysis, A.A. (Abdullah Aftab); investigation,
Z.A.A.; data curation, S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A. (Asjad Ali) and A.A. (Abdullah
Aftab); writing—review and editing H.A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not Applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not Applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2156 24 of 27

Nomenclature
Pt g Import power from the grid (kW)
Pt PV Generation of PV (kW)
Pt Wind Generation of wind (kW)
Pt EV Generation of electric vehicle (kW)
Pt BESS Power of battery energy storage system (kW)
Pt L Total load of house (kW)
PDF Probability density function
ηPV Solar plate efficiency
A Area of solar plate
Irr Irradiance
σ Deviation of normal distribution
µ Mean of normal distribution
BSOE State of energy of electric vehicle
BSOEmax Maximum state of energy of electric vehicle
CpEV Capacity of electric vehicle
BSOEmin Minimum state of energy of electric vehicle
ηch
EV Charging efficiency of electric vehicle
Pch
t Charging power of electric vehicle
ηdisc
EV Discharging efficiency of electric vehicle
Pdisc
t Discharging power of electric vehicle
degr
CEV Degradation cost of EV
BSOCmax Maximum state of charge of battery (%)
BSOCmin Minimum state of charge of battery (%)
BSOC(24) State of charge level of BESS at 24th hour (%)
BSOC(0) Initial level of SOC (%)
ηch
BES Charging efficiency of battery storage system
Pch
t Charging power of battery storage system
Pdisc
t Discharging power of battery storage system
ηdisc
BES Discharging efficiency of battery storage system
CpBES Capacity of battery storage system
Cmt
BES Maintenance cost of battery storage system
degr
CBES Degradation cost of battery storage system
vw Variation of wind speed in particular area
t Hourly time interval (h)
IoT Internet of things
AI Artificial intelligence
disc Discharging
ch Charging
DR Demand response
GHG Greenhouse gas
RTP Real-time protocol
HEM Home energy management

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