CHAPTER 2 NATURE OF WORK SCRIPT

GOOD MORNING DOC AND CLASSMATES, I AM JENMARK

JOHN F. JACOLBE AND I AM GOING TO DISCUSS ABOUT
THE CHAPTER 2 ENTITLED NATURE OF WORK. IN CHAPTER
1 WE EXAMINED THE NATURE OF THE EMPLOYMENT
RELATIONSHIP AND IN THIS CHAPTER WE EXAMINE THE
NATURE OF WORK, HOW IT IS ORGANIZED AND HOW IT
HAS CHANGED IN RECENT YEARS. IN THIS CHAPTER, WE
WILL BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE PRINCIPLES OF
TAYLORISM AND ASSESS THE EXTENT TO WHICH
PARTICULAR WORK SITUATIONS DEMONSTRATE THEM
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN FORDIST AND A NUMBER OF
OTHER PRODUCTION REGIMES AND ASSESS THE
RELEVANCE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT TO PRODUCTION STRATEGIES AT THE END
OF THE 20TH CENTURY.

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TAYLORISM, SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND FORDISM

TAYLORISM, ALSO KNOWN AS SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT,

IS A THEORY OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPED
BY FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR IN THE LATE 19TH AND
EARLY 20TH CENTURIES. IT'S ONE OF THE EARLIEST
ATTEMPTS TO APPLY SCIENCE TO THE ENGINEERING OF
PROCESSES AND MANAGEMENT OF WORKERS.

IT IS OFTEN SUGGESTED THAT, PRIOR TO THE

INTERVENTION OF TAYLOR, WORK WAS TYPIFIED BY THE
CRAFTSMAN EXERCISING HIS SKILLS IN THE CONCEPTION
AND PLANNING OF A JOB AS WELL AS IN ITS EXECUTION.
THIS NO DOUBT PRESENTS A SOMEWHAT IDEALIZED VIEW;
HOWEVER, FOR THE PURPOSES OF CONTRASTING PRE-
AND POST-TAYLORIST SCENARIOS IT IS USEFUL. TAYLOR’S
GREAT CONTRIBUTION WAS TO ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE
PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS TO WORK AND ITS
ORGANIZATION.

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KEY PRINCIPLES OF TAYLORISM:

1. SCIENTIFIC JOB ANALYSIS

BREAK DOWN EACH TASK INTO SMALLER PARTS
AND STUDY THEM TO DETERMINE THE MOST
EFFICIENT WAY TO PERFORM THE JOB.
2. SCIENTIFIC SELECTION OF WORKERS
HIRE AND TRAIN WORKERS BASED ON THEIR SKILLS
AND SUITABILITY FOR A SPECIFIC JOB, RATHER
THAN LETTING THEM TRAIN THEMSELVES OR EACH
OTHER.
3. STANDARDIZATION OF TOOLS AND PROCEDURES
ENSURE THAT WORKERS USE THE SAME TOOLS AND
FOLLOW THE SAME METHODS TO PROMOTE
CONSISTENCY AND EFFICIENCY.
4. DIVISION OF LABOR
SEPARATE PLANNING AND EXECUTION — MANAGERS
DO THE THINKING (PLANNING AND SUPERVISING),
AND WORKERS DO THE DOING (EXECUTION OF
TASKS).
5. PERFORMANCE-BASED PAY
WORKERS ARE PAID BASED ON OUTPUT OR
PRODUCTIVITY (PIECE-RATE PAY SYSTEM), TO
INCENTIVIZE HIGHER PERFORMANCE.
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FORDISM IS A SYSTEM OF MASS PRODUCTION AND

CONSUMPTION PIONEERED BY HENRY FORD IN THE
EARLY 20TH CENTURY, ESPECIALLY WITH THE
INTRODUCTION OF THE MOVING ASSEMBLY LINE IN 1913.

IT’S NOT JUST ABOUT HOW THINGS WERE MADE — IT WAS

A WHOLE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MODEL:
→ PRODUCE GOODS QUICKLY AND CHEAPLY,
→ PAY WORKERS WELL ENOUGH SO THEY CAN BUY
WHAT THEY MAKE,
→ CREATE A SELF-SUSTAINING CYCLE OF PRODUCTION +
CONSUMPTION.

ONE OF THE MAJOR DISCIPLES AND CHAMPIONS OF

THESE TECHNIQUES AND PRINCIPLES WAS HENRY FORD,
THE AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURER, AND IT IS BECAUSE
OF THIS THAT SUCH PRODUCTION SYSTEMS HAVE OFTEN
BEEN REFERRED TO AS FORDIST.

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FLEXIBLE SPECIALIZATION

THIS PRODUCTION PARADIGM HAS BEEN PRESENTED AS

THE SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
FORDISM IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC WORLD
ORDER, GIVEN THE CHANGE IN PRODUCT MARKETS
TOWARDS CUSTOMIZATION AND AWAY FROM MASS
MARKETS AND GIVEN THE NEW TECHNOLOGICAL
POSSIBILITIES.

IT HAS BEEN SUGGESTED THAT FLEXIBLE SPECIALIZATION

CAN BE SEEN AS THE RE-EMERGENCE OF THE
TRADITIONAL 19TH CENTURY CRAFT PRODUCTION
REGIME. THE ESSENCE OF THE PARADIGM IS THE USE OF
GENERAL-PURPOSE TECHNOLOGY AND MULTISKILLED
AND ADAPTABLE LABOR IN THE PRODUCTION OF A RANGE
OF SEMI-CUSTOMIZED AND CHANGING PRODUCTS FOR
NICHE MARKETS. IN CONTRAST TO FORDIST SYSTEMS
THIS PARADIGM ALLOWS EMPLOYERS TO PRODUCE
EFFICIENTLY SMALL BATCHES OF PRODUCTS WHICH
ENABLE THEM TO SATISFY DEMAND FOR HIGH QUALITY
CUSTOMIZED GOODS. THIS NEW SYSTEM WOULD ENABLE
SMALLER FIRMS TO COMPETE SUCCESSFULLY AS
ECONOMIES OF SCALE WERE REPLACED BY ECONOMIES
OF SCOPE.

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THE FLEXIBLE FIRM

THIS MODEL BECAME AN IDEAL, A BLUEPRINT, IN

WESTERN ECONOMIES, FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FIRM OF
THE LATTER DECADES OF THE 20TH CENTURY AND INTO
THE 21ST CENTURY. IT CONSTITUTES A FORM OF
ORGANIZATION WHICH SATISFIES THE REQUIREMENTS OF
THE EMPLOYER IN THE CONTEXT OF NEWLY GLOBAL AND
COM- PETITIVE MARKETS BUT IT IS ARGUABLE THE
EXTENT TO WHICH IT IS A MODEL OF ORGANIZATION
WHICH PROVIDES MUCH SCOPE FOR THE SATISFACTION
OF EMPLOYEE NEEDS, SUCH AS NEEDS FOR SECURITY,
RECOGNITION, RELATIONSHIPS, HIGH EARNINGS OR
SELF-ACTUALIZATION IDENTIFIED BY AND ASSOCIATED
WITH THE WORK OF MOTIVATION THEORISTS SUCH AS
MASLOW (1943) AND HERZBERG (1966).

THE ESSENCE OF THE MODEL IS THE DISTINCTION DRAWN

AND HIGHLIGHTED BETWEEN CORE AND PERIPHERAL
WORKERS AND THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY LABOR
MARKETS. IT WAS ALSO A MODEL OR BLUEPRINT WHICH
POINTED UP THE DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT
DIMENSIONS OF FLEXIBILITY, FUNCTIONAL AND
NUMERICAL. IN THIS CONTEXT, FUNCTIONAL MEANS A
FLEXIBILITY OF TASK AND/OR SKILL, THE ABILITY TO DO
DIFFERENT THINGS. THE CORE GROUP OF WORKERS
NEEDS TO BE FUNCTIONALLY FLEXIBLE AND NUMERICAL
FLEXIBILITY IS PRIMARILY DERIVED FROM THE SELECTIVE
USE OF LABOUR IN THE SECONDARY LABOUR MARKETS.
THESE TWO CATEGORIES OF FLEXIBILITY ARE OFTEN
ALSO REFERRED TO AS INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
FLEXIBILITY AND EXTERNAL FLEXIBILITY OR RIGIDITY IS A
REFLECTION OF THE LABOUR MARKET IN THE COUNTRY IN
WHICH THE BUSINESS IS LOCATED. THE UK AND AMERICA
ARE CHARACTERIZED AS LABOUR MARKETS THAT ARE
FLEXIBLE OR DEREGULATED WHEREAS THE MAJORITY OF
EUROPEAN MARKETS WOULD BE CHARACTERIZED AS
RIGID.

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IT IS ALSO IMPORTANT TO REALIZE THAT DESIGNING JOBS

AND WORK PROCESSES SO AS TO FACILITATE
EMPLOYEES ACHIEVING INTRINSIC SATISFACTIONS MAY
YIELD MORE SATISFIED AND EVEN MORE PRODUCTIVE
EMPLOYEES, BUT ONLY IF THEIR OTHER NEEDS ARE ALSO
BEING MET.
THE MOST COMMON OF THE EXPERIMENTS IN JOB DESIGN
FALLING INTO THIS CATEGORY ARE: JOB ROTATION, JOB
ENLARGEMENT AND JOB ENRICHMENT, WHICH WE
EXAMINE IN THIS SECTION AND THE CREATION OF
AUTONOMOUS (OR SEMI- AUTONOMOUS) TEAMS WHICH
WE LOOK AT IN THE FOLLOWING SECTION ON
JAPANIZATION.

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JOB ENLARGEMENT “TRANSFORMS THE JOBS TO

INCLUDE MORE AND/OR DIFFERENT TASKS” (DURAI, 2010).
THE BASIC AIM OF JOB ENLARGEMENT IS TO STIMULATE
THE INTEREST OF EMPLOYEE IN THE JOB, NAMELY
INCREASING JOB ATTRACTION, THROUGH THE
DIFFERENTIATED AND VARIOUS TASKS THAT THE
EMPLOYEE PERFORMS IN HIS/HER JOB. CONSEQUENTLY,
THE OBJECTIVE OF JOB ENLARGEMENT IS TO DESIGN
JOBS WHERE THE NEEDS OF EMPLOYEES MEET THE
INTERESTS OF THE ORGANIZATION.

THIS IS WHERE TASKS OF A SIMILAR SKILL LEVEL AND

NATURE TO THE EXISTING JOB ARE ADDED SO THAT THE
JOB IS ENLARGED IN A HORIZONTAL SENSE. THE LEVEL OF
RESPONSIBILITY REMAINS THE SAME BUT THE NUMBER
OF TASKS BEING UNDER- TAKEN INCREASES. THIS
WIDENING OF THE JOB CAN RELIEVE THE
REPETITIVENESS OF A HIGHLY FRAGMENTED AND
SPECIALIZED PROCESS AND THEREBY ARGUABLY YIELD
BENEFITS FOR THE EMPLOYEE IN TERMS OF INTEREST
AND BOREDOM RELIEF.
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JOB ENRICHMENT REFERS TO THE VERTICAL EXPANSION

OF THE JOBS. IT INCREASES THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE
WORKER CONTROLS THE PLANNING, EXECUTION AND
EVALUATION OF HIS WORK (P. ROBBINS, 2014). REFERS
TO THE INCLUSION OF GREATER VARIETY OF WORK
CONTENT, REQUIRING A HIGHER LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE
AND SKILL, GIVING WORKERS, AUTONOMY AND
RESPONSIBILITY IN TERMS OF PLANNING, DIRECTING,
AND CONTROLLING THEIR OWN PERFORMANCE, AND
PROVIDING THE OPPORTUNITY FOR PERSONAL GROWTH
AND MEANINGFUL WORK EXPERIENCE (ALI & AROOSIYA,
2012).

HERE THE ENLARGING OF THE JOB IS VERTICAL RATHER

THAN HORIZONTAL SO THAT RESPONSIBILITY IS ADDED TO
THE JOB; FOR EXAMPLE, A PRODUCTION OPERATOR MAY
ALSO BE GIVEN THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR INSPECTING
QUALITY, ORDERING MATERIALS, DEVISING AND
IMPLEMENTING MAINTENANCE SCHEDULES ON THE
MACHINERY OR POSSIBLY EVEN RESPONSIBILITY OF A
SUPERVISORY NATURE. COMMONLY, ENRICHMENT OF
THIS KIND OCCURS WHEN ORGANIZATIONS ARE SEEKING
TO DE-LAYER OR REDUCE THE NUMBER OF DIFFERENT
SKILL AND RESPONSIBILITY LEVELS WITHIN THE
ORGANIZATION.

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JOB ROTATION IS A SYSTEM, WHICH ALLOWS EMPLOYEES

TO ROTATE FROM ONE JOB TO ANOTHER, IN A
PREDETERMINED WAY (DURAI, 2010).
THE ESSENCE OF THIS MECHANISM IS THE SIMPLE
ROTATION OF EMPLOYEES BETWEEN JOBS OF A SIMILAR
SKILL LEVEL SO AS TO ALLEVIATE BOREDOM. THE
EMPLOYEE STILL ONLY UNDERTAKES ONE JOB AT A TIME.
ONE MIGHT AUTOMAT- ICALLY THINK OF ASSEMBLY LINE
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AS LENDING THEMSELVES TO
THIS KIND OF RE-DESIGN BUT THERE ARE OTHER
CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THIS CAN BE PRACTISED; THE
OBVIOUS DANGER IS THAT YOU SIMPLY SWAP ONE
BORING JOB FOR ANOTHER THAT IS EQUALLY AS BORING.

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JAPANIZATION? QUALITY, INVOLVEMENT AND

COMMITMENT AS COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE

THROUGHOUT THE 1980S AND 90S THERE WERE MANY

COMPANIES IN EUROPE AND AMERICA THAT SOUGHT TO
ACHIEVE THE COMPETITIVE SUCCESS WHICH THEY
ASSOCIATED WITH JAPANESE COMPANIES AND THE
JAPANESE MODEL OF HRM.

IT HAS BEEN SUGGESTED THAT AMERICAN MNCS

EXPORTED TAYLORISM AND FORDISM TO THE REST OF
THE WORLD AND THAT JAPANESE MNCS HAVE EXPORTED
THE LEAN PRODUCTION MODEL EMPHASIZING
FLEXIBILITY, MINIMIZING WASTE, AND QUALITY, AND THIS
APPLIES TO LABOUR AS WELL AS TO THE OTHER
PRODUCTION RESOURCES. INTEGRAL TO THIS MODEL IS
THE CONTINUOUS SEARCH FOR IMPROVE- MENT THAT
PERVADES ALL ASPECTS OF THE ORGANIZATION’S
ACTIVITY AND RECOG- NIZES THEIR INTERDEPENDENCE, A
SYSTEM OF APPARENT CONSENSUAL DECISION MAKING
AND AN EMPHASIS UPON EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT IN
AND COMMIT- MENT TO THE ORGANIZATION’S
OBJECTIVES.

EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN ORGANIZATIONS HAVE

THEREFORE BEEN KEEN TO INTRODUCE A RANGE OF
NEW WORKING METHODS AND PHILOSOPHIES WHICH
THEY ASSOCIATE WITH JAPANESE ORGANIZATIONS AND
THEIR SUCCESS: THAT IS, QUALITY CIRCLES (QCS) AND
OTHER PROBLEM-SOLVING GROUPS; CELL OR
TEAMWORKING; TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)
PROCESSES; JUST-IN-TIME ( JIT) AND LEAN PRODUCTION.

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TEAMWORKING

MUELLER ET AL., 2000 HAS DEFINED TEAMWORKING AS,

‘A GROUP OF EMPLOYEES, NORMALLY BETWEEN 3 AND
15, WHO MEET REGULARLY IN ORDER TO WORK
INDEPENDENTLY ON FULFILLING A PARTICULAR TASK’.

IN PRACTICE, THE NATURE OF TEAMS AND

TEAMWORKING VARIES ENORMOUSLY ON A RANGE OF
DIFFERENT CRITERIA AND THERE IS A CONSIDERABLE
BODY OF LITERATURE CONCERNED TO IDENTIFY THE
FACTORS CRITICAL FOR TEAM SUCCESS AS WELL AS THE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEAMS.

IN SUM, COMMON DIMENSIONS USED TO DIFFERENTIATE

TYPES OF TEAM ARE: PURPOSE, NATURE OF
MEMBERSHIP, INCLUDING WHETHER THE TEAM
MEMBERSHIP IS CROSS-FUNCTIONAL, AND THE DEGREE
AND NATURE OF AUTONOMY ALLOWED TO THE TEAM.
TEAMWORKING IS INTEGRAL TO THE JAPANESE SYSTEM
AND TENDS TO COMPRISE WORK OR PRODUCTION TEAMS
AND TEAMS WITH QUALITY CONTROL AND OTHER
PROBLEM-SOLVING ROLES. THERE HAS BEEN
CONSIDERABLE DEBATE SURROUNDING THE DEGREE OF
AUTONOMY OF TEAMS IN THE CONTEXT OF JAPANIZATION.

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TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

THE ESSENCE OF THE APPROACH IS A COMPREHENSIVE

AND CONTINUOUS SEARCH FOR IMPROVEMENT, THE
PRODUCTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES WITH ‘ZERO
DEFECTS’, WHICH INVOLVES MOST EMPLOYEES AND
KNOWS FEW BOUNDARIES IN TERMS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITY; AS NOTED ABOVE IT WAS
THE ADVENT OF THIS APPROACH THAT PROBABLY
CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEMISE OF THE MORE PARTIAL
QCS. IN MANY RESPECTS IT IS AN APPROACH THAT
SEEKS/NEEDS TO GENERATE A CULTURE OF QUALITY
THROUGHOUT THE ORGANIZATION.

THE DRIVER FOR THIS ATTENTION TO TQM SHOULD BE

THE CUSTOMER AND THIS SHOULD INCLUDE INTERNAL AS
WELL AS EXTERNAL CUSTOMERS. INTERNALLY
CUSTOMERS ARE THE EMPLOYEES INVOLVED IN THE
NEXT STAGE OF THE PROCESS; THEY MAY BE THE NEXT
INDIVIDUALS OR TEAM IN THE ASSEMBLY PROCESS, THE
NEXT PERSON TO RECEIVE A REPORT OR THE RECIPIENT
OF ADVICE FROM A SERVICE FUNCTION INTERNAL TO THE
ORGANIZATION SUCH AS THE LINE MANAGER WHO HAS
ASKED THE PERSONNEL OFFICER FOR ADVICE ON
WHETHER IT WOULD BE FAIR TO DISMISS SOMEONE IN A
PARTICULAR SET OF CIRCUMSTANCES.

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JUST-IN-TIME

THE ESSENCE OF THE JIT APPROACH AND APPROPRIATE

SYSTEMS IS TO ELIMINATE WASTE AND SUPERFICIALLY
THIS MAY HAVE LITTLE TO DO WITH EITHER FLEXIBILITY
OR QUALITY. HOWEVER, THERE ARE INTERDEPENDENT
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THESE CONCEPTS AND
SYSTEMS.

THE BASIC THEORY OF JIT IS THAT, AT ALL STAGES OF

THE PRODUCTION OF A GOOD OR THE PROVISION OF A
SERVICE, CONSIDERATION SHOULD BE GIVEN TO
MINIMIZING THE TIME BETWEEN THE PRODUCT OR RAW
MATERIAL BEING NEEDED AND ITS ACQUISITION. SYSTEMS
SHOULD BE DESIGNED WHICH RESULT IN THE FINAL
PRODUCT BEING PRODUCED JUST BEFORE IT IS
REQUIRED IN THE MARKETPLACE, SUB-ASSEMBLIES ARE
PRODUCED JUST BEFORE FINAL ASSEMBLY AND BOUGHT
COMPONENTS ARE ACQUIRED JUST BEFORE THEY ARE
NEEDED. THIS ENABLES THE COMPANY TO RESPOND
MORE QUICKLY TO MARKET DEMAND AND IT CONFIRMS
DEMAND AS THE DRIVER OF THE PRODUCTION PROCESS.
THIS CONTRASTS WITH TRADITIONAL FORDIST SYSTEMS
IN WHICH VAST QUANTITIES OF STANDARDIZED
PRODUCTS ARE MADE AND MAY BE STOCKPILED UNTIL
THEY ARE SOLD.