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Python
1. History of Python
Python was created by Guido van Rossum in 1991. It is designed to be easy to read and write, with a focus on
reducing complexity.
Python 2 is released in 2000, introduced features like list comprehensions. It was officially discontinued in 2020.
Python 3 is released in 2008, brought major improvements but was not backward-compatible with Python 2.

2. Features of Python
1. Easy to Learn and Use: Python has a simple syntax that resembles English, making it beginner-friendly.
2. Interpreted Language: Python code is executed line by line, making debugging easier.
3. Dynamically Typed: No need to declare variable types explicitly.
4. Platform Independent: Python code runs on various operating systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux
without modification.
5. Extensive Libraries: Python has a rich standard library and third-party modules for various tasks.
6. Supports Multiple Paradigms: Procedural Programming, Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) and Functional
Programming
7. Open Source: Python is free to use and distribute, even for commercial purposes.
8. Automatic Memory Management: Python manages memory allocation and garbage collection automatically.

3. Applications of Python
1. Web Development: Frameworks like Django and Flask make it easy to build robust web applications.
2. Data Science and Machine Learning: Libraries like NumPy, Pandas, and Scikit-learn are widely used for data
analysis and modeling.
3. Automation and Scripting: Automates repetitive tasks using simple scripts.
4. Game Development: Libraries like Pygame help in creating games.
5. Scientific Computing: Used in research and simulations with libraries like SciPy and Matplotlib.
6. Artificial Intelligence: Frameworks like TensorFlow and PyTorch are popular for AI applications.
7. Embedded Systems: Python is used in IoT devices and microcontroller programming.

Python Syntax
Python's syntax is minimalistic and emphasizes readability. It is similar to writing in English, which makes it
accessible to beginners.
1. No Semicolons: Statements end without semicolons.
2. Case Sensitivity: Python is case-sensitive, Variables like name and Name are different.
3. Dynamic Typing: No need to declare variable types.
4. Line Continuation:
 Implicit: Parentheses, brackets, or braces allow multi-line statements.
 Explicit: Use a backslash (\) for multi-line statements.

Indentation in Python
Python uses indentation to define blocks of code, replacing the use of curly braces {} or begin-end keywords
seen in other languages.
Mandatory Indentation:
 Use the same number of spaces or tabs for all statements in a block. Use 4 spaces for each level of
indentation.
 Indentation is not optional in Python. Omitting or inconsistent indentation will result in a IndentationError.
 Increase the indentation level for nested blocks.
 Mixing tabs and spaces can cause errors. Use either spaces or tabs consistently.
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Comments in Python
Comments are used to explain the code, making it easier to understand. They are ignored during execution.
Types of Comments:
1. Single-Line Comments: Begin with a # symbol.
Example: # This is a single-line comment

2. Multi-Line Comments: Python does not have a specific syntax for multi-line comments.
However, you can use triple quotes (''' or """) to create block comments.
Example:
"""
This is a multi-line comment.
It spans multiple lines.
"""
Python Variables and Constants
Variables in Python
Python variables has dynamic typing. Explicit type declaration does not require. The type is determined at
runtime.
Constants in Python
Python does not have a built-in constant declaration mechanism, but naming conventions (e.g., all
uppercase) are used to indicate constants.

Basic Data Types in Python

Python provides several built-in data types to handle different kinds of data. Below is a table explaining the basic
data types with examples:
Data Type Description Example
int Represents integers (whole numbers). x = 10
float Represents floating-point numbers (numbers with decimal points). pi = 3.14
str Represents strings (sequence of characters). name = "Alice"
bool Represents Boolean values (True or False). is_valid = True
complex Represents complex numbers (numbers with a real and imaginary part). z = 2 + 3j

Note: Use type() function to check the data type of a variable.

Example: print(type(10)) # Output: <class 'int'>

Type Conversion and Type Casting

Python allows you to convert data from one type to another. This is essential for operations involving different
data types.
Type Conversion vs. Type Casting
Aspect Type Conversion Type Casting
Definition Implicit conversion done by Python Explicit conversion done by the programmer
automatically. using built-in functions.
Control Performed automatically by Python when Requires the programmer to specify the
compatible types are involved. target data type explicitly.
Example Adding an integer to a float results in a float Converting a string to an integer using int().
automatically.
Code Example result = 5 + 2.0 (Result: 7.0) num = int("10") (Converts string "10" to
integer 10).

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Common Type Casting Functions
Function Description Example Explanation
int() Converts to an integer. int("123") → 123 Converts strings or floats to integers,
truncating decimals.
float() Converts to a floating- float("3.14") → 3.14 Converts integers or strings to floats.
point number.
str() Converts to a string. str(10) → "10" Converts numbers or other types to string.
bool() Converts to a Boolean bool(0) → False 0, None, or empty values are False; others are
value. True.
complex() Converts to a complex complex(2, 3) → 2+3j Creates a complex number with real and
number. imaginary parts.

Input and Output Functions

1. Input Function (input()): Used to take user input as a string.
Syntax: variable = input(prompt)
Property Description
Always returns a string Data entered through input() is always returned as a string.
Type conversion required Convert the input to the required type using type casting.
Example of conversion age = int(input("Enter your age: ")) (Converts the input string to an integer).

2. Output Function (print()): Used to display output on the screen.

Syntax: print(value1, value2, ..., sep=' ', end='\n')
Parameters:
 sep: Defines the separator between values (default is space).
 end: Defines what to print at the end of the output (default is newline).

Feature Example Explanation

Basic Output print("Hello, World!") Prints the string Hello, World!.
Multiple Values print("Name:", "Alice") Prints Name: Alice with a space as the separator.
Custom Separator print(1, 2, 3, sep="-") Prints 1-2-3 using - as the separator.
Custom Ending print("Hello", end=" ") Prints Hello without a newline, appending a space instead.
Formatted Output print(f"Age: {age}") Uses f-strings to embed variables or expressions in strings.

Conditional Statements in Python

Conditional statements control the flow of execution based on conditions.

Statement Syntax Description

if python if condition: statement(s) Executes the block if the condition is True.
elif python elif condition: statement(s) Checks another condition if the previous one is False.
else python else: statement(s) Executes the block if all previous conditions are False.

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Example:
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age < 18:
print("You are a minor.")
elif age == 18:
print("You are just 18.")
else:
print("You are an adult.")

Input Output
15 You are a minor.
18 You are just 18.
21 You are an adult.

Loops in Python
Loops are used to execute a block of code multiple times.

Loop Type Syntax Description

for Loop python for variable in iterable: statement(s) Iterates over items in a sequence (e.g., list, range,
string).
while Loop python while condition: statement(s) Repeats as long as the condition is True.

Example of for loop:

# Iterating through a range
for i in range(5):
print(i, end=" ")
# Output: 0 1 2 3 4

Example of while Loop

# Countdown using while loop
n=5
while n > 0:
print(n, end=" ")
n -= 1
# Output: 5 4 3 2 1

Loop Control Statements

These statements modify the flow of a loop.
Statement Syntax Description
break python break Exits the loop immediately, regardless of the condition.
continue python continue Skips the current iteration and continues with the next one.
pass python pass Does nothing; used as a placeholder for future code.

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Examples of Loop Control Statements
1. break Example
for i in range(10):
if i == 5:
break
print(i, end=" ")
# Output: 0 1 2 3 4

2. continue Example
for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue
print(i, end=" ")
# Output: 0 1 3 4
3. pass Example
for i in range(3):
pass # Placeholder for future code
print("Loop executed.")
# Output: Loop executed.

Functions in Python
Functions are reusable blocks of code that perform a specific task. They enhance modularity and reusability in
programming.

1. Defining and Calling Functions

A function is defined using the def keyword followed by the function name and parentheses.
Syntax: python def function_name(parameters): statement(s)
Calling a Function: Functions are invoked using their name followed by parentheses.
Return Statement: The return keyword is used to send a value back to the caller.

Example:
# Function definition
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"
# Function call
message = greet("Alice")
print(message)
# Output: Hello, Alice!

2. Parameters and Return Values

Parameters: Parameters are variables used in the function definition to accept input values when the function is
called.
Type of Parameter Explanation Example
Positional Values are passed in the order they def add(a, b): return a + b
Parameters appear in the function definition. add(2, 3) (Result: 5)
Default Parameters Assigns a default value to a def greet(name="Guest"): print("Hello,
parameter if no value is provided {name}")
during the function call. greet() (Output: Hello, Guest)
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Keyword Parameters Allows specifying parameters by def greet(name, msg): print(f"{msg}, {name}")
name during the function call. greet(name="Alice", msg="Hi")
Variable-Length Args Allows a function to accept any def print_all(*args): print(args)
number of positional or keyword print_all(1, 2, 3) (Output: (1, 2, 3))
arguments.

Return Values
The return statement is used to send the result of a function back to the caller.
Aspect Explanation Example
Single Value Return Returns a single value to the caller. def square(x): return x ** 2
square(4) (Result: 16)
Multiple Values Returns multiple values as a tuple. def calc(a, b): return a + b, a * b
Return calc(2, 3) (Result: (5, 6))
No Return Value If return is omitted, the function returns def say_hello(): print("Hello")
None by default. say_hello() (Result: None)

Example: Parameters and Return Values

# Function with parameters and return values
def calculate_area(length, width):
return length * width

# Calling the function

area = calculate_area(5, 3)
print(f"Area: {area}")
# Output: Area: 15

Default and Keyword Arguments in Python

Default Arguments
Default arguments allow a function to use default values if no value is provided for the parameter during the
function call.
 Parameters are assigned default values in the function definition.
Example: def greet(name="Guest"): print(f"Hello, {name}")
 If no argument is passed, the default value is used.
Example: greet() → Output: Hello, Guest
 Default arguments must follow non-default arguments in the function definition.
Example: def func(a, b=10): pass is valid; def func(a=10, b): pass is invalid.

Example of Default Arguments

def greet(name="Guest"):
print(f"Hello, {name}")
greet() # Output: Hello, Guest
greet("Alice") # Output: Hello, Alice

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Keyword Arguments
Keyword arguments allow you to pass values to function parameters by explicitly naming them during the
function call.
 Arguments are passed by explicitly specifying parameter names.
Example: def greet(name, msg): print("{msg}, {name}")
 The order of arguments does not matter when using keywords.
Example: greet(name="Alice", msg="Hi") → Output: Hi, Alice
 Positional arguments must precede keyword arguments in the function call.
Example: greet("Alice", msg="Hi") is valid; greet(msg="Hi", "Alice") is invalid.

Example of Keyword Arguments

def greet(name, msg="Hello"):
print(f"{msg}, {name}")
greet(name="Alice", msg="Hi") # Output: Hi, Alice
greet("Bob") # Output: Hello, Bob

Introduction to Modules
A module is a file containing Python code (functions, classes, or variables) that can be reused in other programs.
Built-in Modules

Module Purpose Common Example Usage

Name Functions/Classes
math Provides mathematical sqrt(), ceil(), floor(), pow(), import math
functions. pi, sin(), cos(), tan() print(math.sqrt(16)) → 4.0
random Generates random randint(), random(), import random
numbers and performs choice(), shuffle(), print(random.randint(1, 10)) →
random selections. uniform() Random integer between 1 and 10
os Interacts with the getcwd(), listdir(), mkdir(), import os
operating system. remove(), rename(), print(os.getcwd()) → Current working
system() directory
sys Provides access to argv, exit(), path, platform, import sys
system-specific version print(sys.version) → Python version
parameters and
functions.
datetime Handles date and time datetime(), date(), time(), import datetime
operations. timedelta(), now(), print(datetime.datetime.now()) →
strftime() Current date and time
time Handles time-related time(), sleep(), ctime(), import time
operations. strftime(), localtime() time.sleep(2) → Pauses execution for 2
seconds
re Provides support for search(), match(), findall(), import re
regular expressions sub(), compile() print(re.findall(r'\d+', 'abc123')) →
(pattern matching). ['123']

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Importing and Using Libraries
Python allows importing libraries (modules or packages) using the import statement.
Method Syntax Explanation
Full Import import module_name Imports the entire module.
Selective Import from module_name import function_name Imports specific functions or variables.
Alias Import import module_name as alias Provides an alias for the module name.

Examples of Importing Libraries

# Full Import
import math
print(math.sqrt(9)) # Output: 3.0

# Selective Import
from math import pi, pow
print(pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793
print(pow(2, 3)) # Output: 8.0

# Alias Import
import random as rnd
print(rnd.randint(1, 5)) # Output: Random integer between 1 and 5

Data Structures and Their Operations

1. Lists: A list is an ordered, mutable collection of elements. It can contain items of different data types and
allows duplicates.
Indexed: Elements can be accessed using indices (starting from 0).
Dynamic: Size can grow or shrink dynamically.
Mutable: Items can be modified after creation.
Operation Description Example Code
Create Use square brackets []. my_list = [1, 2, 3, 'Python']
Access Use indices. print(my_list[0]) # Output: 1
Add append(), extend(), insert() my_list.append(4) my_list.extend([5, 6])
Remove remove(), pop(), clear() my_list.remove(2) my_list.pop() # Removes last element
Update Direct assignment. my_list[0] = 'Updated'
Iterate Use a for loop. for item in my_list: print(item)

2. Tuples: A tuple is an ordered, immutable collection of elements. It can also contain mixed data types and
allows duplicates.
Immutable: Elements cannot be modified after creation.
Lightweight: Tuples are faster than lists.
Suitable for fixed data that should not change.

Operation Description Example Code

Create Use parentheses (). my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, 'Python')
Access Use indices. print(my_tuple[0]) # Output: 1
Immutability Cannot add, remove, or update elements. # my_tuple[0] = 'Updated' # Error
Iterate Use a for loop. for item in my_tuple: print(item)

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3. Sets: A set is an unordered, mutable collection of unique elements. It does not allow duplicates.
Unordered: No indexing or slicing.
Unique: Duplicate elements are automatically removed.
Supports mathematical operations like union and intersection.
Operation Description Example Code
Create Use curly braces {} or set(). my_set = {1, 2, 3}
Add Use add() or update(). my_set.add(4) my_set.update([5, 6])
Remove Use remove(), discard(), pop(). my_set.remove(2) my_set.pop()
Iterate Use a for loop. for item in my_set: print(item)
Union Combines two sets. set1 = {1, 2} set2 = {2, 3} print(set1.union(set2)) #
Output: {1, 2, 3}
Intersection Finds common elements. print(set1.intersection(set2)) # Output: {2}

4. Dictionaries: A dictionary is an unordered, mutable collection of key-value pairs. Keys must be unique and
immutable, while values can be mutable.
Fast lookups using keys.
Dynamic: Can grow or shrink dynamically.
Keys are unique; values can be duplicated.
Operation Description Example Code
Create Use curly braces {} or dict(). my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
Access Use keys. print(my_dict['a']) # Output: 1
Add/Update Assign key-value pairs. my_dict['c'] = 3
Remove Use pop(), clear(). my_dict.pop('a')
Iterate Use for loop with keys(), values(), items(). for key, value in my_dict.items(): print(key, value)

Key Differences between List, Tupple, Set and Dictionary

Feature List Tuple Set Dictionary

Ordered Yes Yes No No
Mutable Yes No Yes Yes
Allows Duplicates Yes Yes No Keys: No, Values: Yes
Use Case General-purpose storage Fixed data Unique elements Key-value mappings

5. Comprehensions:
Comprehensions are a concise way to create data structures.
Type Example Code Output
List Comprehension squares = [x**2 for x in range(5)] print(squares) [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]
Set Comprehension unique_squares = {x**2 for x in [1, 2, 2, 3]} {1, 4, 9}
print(unique_squares)
Dictionary square_dict = {x: x**2 for x in range(5)} {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}
Comprehension print(square_dict)

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Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which can
contain data (attributes) and methods (functions) that operate on the data.
It makes programming more modular, reusable, and organized.

1. Class: A blueprint for creating objects. It defines the attributes and methods that the objects of the class will
have.
A class is a user-defined data type that serves as a blueprint for creating objects.
It is defined using the class keyword.

2. Object: An instance of a class. Objects are created using the class blueprint and can have their own data and
behavior.
3. Methods: Functions defined inside a class that operate on the attributes of the class.

Syntax for Defining a Class

class ClassName:
# Constructor method (optional, used to initialize attributes)
def __init__(self, attribute1, attribute2):
self.attribute1 = attribute1
self.attribute2 = attribute2
# Method to perform an action
def method_name(self):
# Code for the method
pass
# Creating an object
object_name = ClassName(attribute1_value, attribute2_value)

Defining a Class and Creating an Object

class Student:
# Constructor to initialize attributes
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

# Method to display student details

def display_details(self):
print(f"Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}")

# Creating an object of the Student class

student1 = Student("Alice", 20)

# Accessing the method using the object

student1.display_details()
Output:
yaml
Name: Alice, Age: 20

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Constructor (__init__ Method)
A constructor is a special method in Python, defined using the __init__ method, that is automatically called when
an object of a class is created.
It is used to initialize the attributes of the class.
The constructor is defined using the __init__ method.
It is automatically invoked when an object is created.
It typically initializes the attributes of the object.

Syntax
class ClassName:
def __init__(self, parameter1, parameter2):
self.attribute1 = parameter1
self.attribute2 = parameter2

Example: Constructor
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
# Initializing attributes
self.name = name
self.age = age
def display_details(self):
print(f"Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}")

# Creating objects
person1 = Person("Alice", 25)
person2 = Person("Bob", 30)

# Accessing methods
person1.display_details() # Output: Name: Alice, Age: 25
person2.display_details() # Output: Name: Bob, Age: 30

Inheritance
 Inheritance allows a class (called the child class) to inherit the attributes and methods of another class (called
the parent class).
 It helps in reusing code and extending the functionality of existing classes.
 Parent Class (Base Class): The class whose properties are inherited.
 Child Class (Derived Class): The class that inherits the properties of the parent class.
 A child class can add new attributes or methods and can override the methods of the parent class.

Syntax
class ParentClass:
# Parent class methods and attributes
pass
class ChildClass(ParentClass):
# Child class methods and attributes
pass

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Example: Inheritance
class Animal:
def __init__(self, species):
self.species = species

def display_species(self):
print(f"Species: {self.species}")

class Dog(Animal): # Dog class inherits from Animal

def __init__(self, species, breed):
super().__init__(species) # Calling the parent class constructor
self.breed = breed

def display_details(self):
print(f"Species: {self.species}, Breed: {self.breed}")

# Creating an object of the Dog class

dog1 = Dog("Mammal", "Golden Retriever")

# Accessing parent and child methods

dog1.display_species() # Output: Species: Mammal
dog1.display_details() # Output: Species: Mammal, Breed: Golden Retriever

Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms." It allows the same method or operator to behave differently based on the
object or data type.
Types of Polymorphism
1. Method Overriding: A child class redefines a method of the parent class.
2. Method Overloading (Not natively supported in Python): Achieved by default parameters or handling multiple
argument types.

Example: Method Overriding

class Vehicle:
def start(self):
print("Vehicle is starting...")

class Car(Vehicle): # Car class inherits from Vehicle

def start(self): # Overriding the start method
print("Car is starting...")

# Creating objects
vehicle = Vehicle()
car = Car()

# Calling methods
vehicle.start() # Output: Vehicle is starting...
car.start() # Output: Car is starting...

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Example: Polymorphism with a Common Interface
class Bird:
def sound(self):
print("Birds chirp.")

class Dog:
def sound(self):
print("Dogs bark.")

# Polymorphic behavior
def make_sound(animal):
animal.sound()

# Using the same function for different objects

make_sound(Bird()) # Output: Birds chirp.
make_sound(Dog()) # Output: Dogs bark.

File Handling in Python

File handling is a way to work with files (e.g., text files) to perform operations like reading, writing, and closing
files. Python provides built-in functions and methods to make file handling simple and efficient.
Basic File Operations
1. Opening a File: Use the open() function.
2. Reading from a File: Use methods like read(), readline(), or readlines().
3. Writing to a File: Use write() or writelines().
4. Closing a File: Use the close() method to release resources.

File Modes
Mode Description
'r' Opens a file for reading (default mode). The file must exist.
'w' Opens a file for writing. If the file exists, it is overwritten. If it doesn’t exist, a new file is created.
'a' Opens a file for appending. Data is added to the end of the file. If the file doesn’t exist, it creates a
new file.
'r+' Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file must exist.
'w+' Opens a file for both writing and reading. If the file exists, it is overwritten. If it doesn’t exist, a new
file is created.
'a+' Opens a file for both appending and reading. Data is added to the end of the file. If the file doesn’t
exist, a new file is created.

Opening and Closing Files

Syntax
file = open("filename", "mode") # Opens the file
file.close() # Closes the file

Example
file = open("example.txt", "w") # Open file in write mode
file.write("Hello, World!") # Write to the file
file.close() # Close the file

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Reading from a File
Method Description Example When to Use
read(size) Reads the specified number of with open("file.txt", "r") Use when you need a portion of
characters from the file. If size is as f: the file or want to control
not specified, reads the entire file. print(f.read(5)) # Reads memory usage for large files.
first 5 chars
readline() Reads one line from the file, with open("file.txt", "r") Use when processing files line by
including the newline character as f: line, such as reading logs or
(\n). print(f.readline()) # Reads structured text files.
first line
readlines() Reads all lines in the file and with open("file.txt", "r") Use when you need all lines at
returns them as a list of strings. as f: once and can afford to load the
print(f.readlines()) # List entire file into memory.
of all lines

Writing to a File

Method Description Short Example When to Use

write(string) Writes a string to the file. If with open("file.txt", "w") as f: Use when writing a single
the file doesn’t exist, it f.write("Hello, World!") string or appending a specific
creates one. line to a file.
writelines(list) Writes a list of strings to with open("file.txt", "w") as f:\ Use when writing multiple
the file without adding f.writelines(["Line1", "Line2"]) lines from a list. Ensure lines
newlines automatically. include \n for proper
formatting.

Using with Statement

The with statement is used to automatically close the file after the block of code is executed, even if an exception
occurs.

Example
with open("example.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
# No need to call file.close() explicitly

Handling Exceptions during File Operations in Python

When performing file operations, errors can occur, such as trying to read a non-existent file, writing to a file
without proper permissions, or encountering unexpected issues.
Python provides a mechanism to handle such errors using exception handling.

Common Exceptions in File Handling

Exception Description
FileNotFoundError Raised when trying to open a file that doesn’t exist.
PermissionError Raised when trying to access a file without the required permissions.
IOError Raised for general I/O errors, such as reading from a closed file.
ValueError Raised when an invalid mode is passed to open().

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Using try-except for Exception Handling
try:
# Code that may raise an exception
except ExceptionType:
# Handle the exception
finally:
# Optional: Code to execute regardless of an exception

Nested try-except Blocks: Sometimes, multiple operations on a file may require separate exception handling.

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