RESEARCH

by Rev. Fr. Michael Vasquez

ETYMOLOGY OF RESEARCH
The word research comes from the now obsolete French word ‘recherché’ which
means to search in-depth and to ‘to investigate thoroughly’. In a very generic
perspective, the study aims at discovering. Research comprises of intellectual
investigation of human efforts aimed at discovering, interpreting, and updating
knowledge on different aspects. It is an organized and systematic way of finding
solutions to problems (Walia & Uppal, 2020, p. 17)

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
The term “Research” seeks to gather & assimilate information on a particular topic.
Alternatively, research is a systematic investigation. The methods of research
include all the techniques used for conducting research. Research methodology is
an approach in which research problems find solutions in a detailed manner. It is a
science involving the study of how research progresses sequentially. The researcher
also tries to find solutions to an identified problem by using different steps. Hence,
the scientific approach, which adopted for conducting research, is called
methodology (Walia & Uppal, 2020, p. 17).
 Zora Neale Hurston said, “Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and
prying with a purpose with an intent to contribute to the existing body of
knowledge.” (Walia & Uppal, 2020, p. 17)
 L.V.Redman and A.V.H Mory, in their book on ‘The romance of research’,
define it as “a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.” (Walia & Uppal,
2020, p. 17)
 C.R.Kothari, in his book ‘Research Methodology – Methods and Techniques’,
defined “research is a scientific and systematic search for relevant
information on a specific topic.” (Walia & Uppal, 2020, p. 17)
 The Oxford dictionary defines research as “the systematic investigation into
the study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new
conclusions.” (Walia & Uppal, 2020, p. 17)
 “Research is to understand facts by using observation and experimentation.”
(Walia & Uppal, 2020, p. 18)

Research refers to a systematic investigation carried out to discover

new knowledge, expand existing knowledge, solve practical problems, and
develop new products, apps, and services. This article explores why different
research communities have different ideas (Moxley, 2020).

Research may refer to

1. a body of knowledge on a topic
 When professionals talk about research, they typically are
referencing peer-reviewed research on a particular topic.
o For most researchers, the first step in any research project
involves strategic searching to learn what the current and best
research, theory, and scholarship is on a topic.
2. the act of creating new knowledge

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  Researchers in different disciplines have unique and sometimes even
contrasting ideas about what knowledge is and how to develop it. For
example,
o scholars create knowledge by engaging in textual
research, interpretation, and hermeneutics.
o scientists create knowledge by engaging in observation and
systematic experimentation., using methods such as
 Qualitative Research Methods
 Quantitative Research Methods
 Mixed-Method Research
3. a method for creating new products, applications, and services
 Entrepreneurs endeavor to apply knowledge and new knowledge
claims to solve real-world problems. For instance founders and product
managers may engage in
o Customer Discover Research. “a systematic application of
knowledge toward the production of useful materials, devices,
and systems or methods, including design, development, and
improvement of prototypes and new processes” (NSF n.d.)
o Venture Design. a process, a research methodology, that
follows the principles of lean design.

OTHER DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH

 Good (1963; 1972) defines it as a "careful, critical, disciplined inquiry,
varying technique and method according to the nature and conditions
of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution
(or both) of a problem.
 Aquino (1974) described it as a "systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic or problem”
 Manuel and Medel, (1976)said that It is the process of gathering data
or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific
manner.
 Parel (1966) as cited by Sanchez (1980) defines it as a systematic
study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering
questions posed by the researcher.
 Treece and Treece (1973; 1977) commented that "research in its
broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. It is the
collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of
prediction or explanation
 It is a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,
analyzing, classifying. organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for
the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the
discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing
knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of human life .
Why Research? (Ramos, n.d.)
It is important to conduct or do research because:

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  It is a major contributor towards attainment of national development
goals.
 It plays a major role in shaping the nature’s future development and
modernization .
 In particular, undergraduate or college thesis is not compilation of the
ideas of the writers or researchers but an organization of their views in
one’s own way to show the relation of the different ideas and if
possible, to draw conclusions based on one’s readings.
 Its purpose to answer a specific question, to solve a particular
controversy or issue
 Its primary objective is to (a) seek new knowledge and (2) provide
useful information in the form of verification.

Thus the value of Research to Man as follows:

 Research improves quality of life – to ease burden of work; to relieve
from suffering
 Research improves instruction – teaching techniques/methods
 Research improves student’s achievement – academic accomplishment
 Research improves teacher’s competence – professional growth and
credibility
 Research satisfies man’s needs – satisfying man’s craving for
understanding; and improves judgments
 Research has deep-seated psychological aspects
 Research improves the exportation of food products
 Research responds to the economic recovery and austerity measure of
the country
 Research trains graduates to become responsive to the economic
development of the country and compete globally (ASEAN integration
and entrepreneurship)

Overall, some of the practical benefits of research are as follows:

 Government policies (desired outcomes for better living condition of
the people and its communities)
 Decision-making (effective and strategic planning)
 Social and cultural interactions (better collaborations and programs for
people)
 Medicinal and health purposes (well-being)
 Environmental awareness and protection (disaster and calamities)
 Inventions of products (to live easier for humans and animals)

Benefits of research writing process (Individually)

 It helps hone important and necessary individual skills such as critical
thinking, organization, self-discipline, and teamwork.
o Critical Thinking: to able to reason analytically; examining the
information in terms of logic, reason, and strength of claims;

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 learning to look at alternative reasons or showing different
sources of evidence; recognizing other people’s arguments and
become aware of inconsistencies.
o Organization: ability to focus in thinking and writing, to be
cohesive (consistent) and coherent (clear or logical).
o Self-discipline and perseverance: it is about delaying gratification
(satisfaction/fulfillment) to gain something of greater value; or
not giving up despite difficulties and challenges.
o Teamwork: It is the willingness to work on a common aim;
communicate effectively, clarify expectations and discuss
differences amicably (harmoniously).

RESEARCH AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

Research and problem solving are two concepts that can often be confusing
although there is a key difference between these two processes. The
confusion arises from the fact that both research and problem solving have a
common factor. This is the problem. In research, we try to answer the
research problem by gathering data and analyzing the data. In problem-
solving we focus on finding a solution to an already identified problem.
The key difference between research and problem solving is that while in
problem-solving the individual already has the necessary information to
make the decision or come up with a solution, in research the researcher
needs to gather the information before he answers the research problem.

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APPROACHES TO RESEARCH (Cresswell, 2014)
Three research approaches are: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c)
mixed methods.
 Qualitative research. An approach for exploring and understanding
the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and
procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data
analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and
the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. The
final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this
form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an
inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of
rendering the complexity of a situation.
 Quantitative research. An approach for testing objective theories by
examining the relationship among variables. These variables, in turn,
can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can

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 be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a
set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods,
results, and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who engage
in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories
deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for
alternative explanations, and being able to generalize and replicate the
findings.
 Mixed methods research. An approach to inquiry involving
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two
forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core
assumption of this form of inquiry is that the combination of qualitative
and quantitative approaches provides a more complete understanding
of a research problem than either approach alone.
In planning a research project, researchers need to identify whether they will
employ a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approach. This
approach is based on bringing together a worldview or assumptions about
research, a specific design, and research methods. Decisions about choice of
an approach are further influenced by the research problem or issue being
studied, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the audience for
whom the researcher writes.

ABSTRACT (Bouchrika, 2023)

Definitions
Before researchers learn how to properly compose an abstract and proceed
with conducting research, they must first know, “What is an abstract in a
paper?” An abstract is one of the most important parts of any academic or
professional paper (Atanassova et al., 2016). This concise text functions as a
synopsis of a paper’s content. It is designed to very briefly summarize the
key details contained in a paper without providing too much detail (Hartley,
2008).
An abstract is a self-contained, short, and definitive summary that describes
the full contribution or content of an academic publication. Generally
considered as the first section of a scholarly article, an abstract is considered
as “a standalone genre” (Gillaerts & Van de Velde, 2010 cited in Ngai et al.
2018).
Goals
While there are many different types of abstracts in terms of an author’s
field, discipline, or purpose, all of them typically serve these primary
objectives:
 An abstract helps readers decide if they should read the whole
article. Readers first read abstracts to know if an article interests them
or is related to a subject important to them. Instead of checking
numerous written materials, readers depend on abstracts to quickly
determine if an article is relevant to them or not.

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  It presents the nature or level of technicality of an
article. Readers use abstracts to help them measure the complexity or
sophistication of a report or article. If the abstract is too simple or too
technical, readers will readily know whether to read the entire article or
not.
 An abstract enables supervisors to evaluate theses or
dissertations without being too overwhelmed by intricate
details. While many research supervisors and thesis advisers prefer
reading simple executive summaries, some of them still need to be
updated on technical developments. Due to their busy schedules,
many of them rely mainly on abstracts to know the work status of their
thesis advisees or research subordinates.
 It helps to screen newly submitted papers and to decide on the
initial outcomes for reviewing. Journal editors and conference
organizers use abstracts in deciding whether to proceed to the review
stage or just give the authors an initial reject.
 An abstract allows readers and researchers to easily remember
core findings on a research topic. Even after reading an entire text,
readers usually store copies of abstracts to remind them which
particular studies support certain findings. Since abstracts have full
bibliographic citations, they facilitate scholarly writing and referencing.
You can always use a citation generator to save time in adding these to
abstracts.
 It supports article indexing for quick access and cross-
referencing. In the past, librarians and researchers had been using
abstracts to easily find information. Today, with the bulk of easily
accessible online indexes and virtual libraries, researchers can quickly
scan through hundreds of abstracts to identify articles and materials
relevant to their research. Further, abstract-based cross-referencing
helps researchers discover new research areas and topics that are
previously unknown when they began their research. However, it is
important to note that relying solely on abstracts may limit the depth
and accuracy of research findings. Therefore, proper citations in
research play a crucial role in providing a comprehensive and reliable
foundation for scholarly work.
Purpose of an Abstract
Abstracts show the key elements of a longer written work in a concise, yet
authoritative way. The main objective of an abstract is to offer potential
readers the chance to assess if an article or report is relevant to their specific
needs or not. Because they contain the gist of a research article or report,
abstracts have proven to be very helpful in providing essential information to
a wide range of users.

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE OF THE STUDY (Elsevier Author

Services)

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The background of a study is one of the most important components of a
research paper. The quality of the background determines whether the
reader will be interested in the rest of the study. Thus, to ensure that the
audience is invested in reading the entire research paper, it is important to
write an appealing and effective background.

What is the background of a study?

The background of a study is the first section of the paper and establishes
the context underlying the research. It contains the rationale, the key
problem statement, and a brief overview of research questions that are
addressed in the rest of the paper.
The background forms the crux of the study because it introduces an
unaware audience to the research and its importance in a clear and logical
manner. At times, the background may even explore whether the study
builds on or refutes findings from previous studies.
Any relevant information that the readers need to know before delving into
the paper should be made available to them in the background.

How is a background different from the introduction?

The introduction of your research paper is presented before the background.
Let’s find out what factors differentiate the background from the
introduction.
 The introduction only contains preliminary data about the research
topic and does not state the purpose of the study. On the contrary, the
background clarifies the importance of the study in detail.
 The introduction provides an overview of the research topic from a
broader perspective, while the background provides a detailed
understanding of the topic.
 The introduction should end with the mention of the research
questions, aims, and objectives of the study. In contrast, the
background follows no such format and only provides essential context
to the study.

How should one write the background of a research paper?

The length and detail presented in the background varies for different
research papers, depending on the complexity and novelty of the research
topic. At times, a simple background suffices, even if the study is complex.
Before writing and adding details in the background, take a note of these
additional points:
 Start with a strong beginning: Begin the background by defining the
research topic and then identify the target audience.
 Cover key components: Explain all theories, concepts, terms, and ideas
that may feel unfamiliar to the target audience thoroughly.
 Take note of important prerequisites: Go through the relevant literature
in detail. Take notes while reading and cite the sources.

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  Maintain a balance: Make sure that the background is focused on
important details, but also appeals to a broader audience.
 Include historical data: Current issues largely originate from historical
events or findings. If the research borrows information from a historical
context, add relevant data in the background.
 Explain novelty: If the research study or methodology is unique or
novel, provide an explanation that helps to understand the research
better.
 Increase engagement: To make the background engaging, build a story
around the central theme of the research

Avoid these mistakes while writing the background:

 Ambiguity: Don’t be ambiguous. While writing, assume that the reader
does not understand any intricate detail about your research.
 Unrelated themes: Steer clear from topics that are not related to the
key aspects of your research topic.
 Poor organization: Do not place information without a structure. Make
sure that the background reads in a chronological manner and organize
the sub-sections so that it flows well.

THEORY, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, AND CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORK (Kivunja, 2018)
Theory. A systematic review of pertinent literature provides the
understanding that a theory is a generalized statement of abstractions or
ideas that asserts, explains or predicts relationships or connections between
or among phenomena, within the limits of critical bounding assumptions that
the theory explicitly makes (Gabriel, 2008). The generalized statement
brings together ideas, “interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions
that explain or predict events or situations by specifying relations among
variables” (Glanz, 2008, p. 114). The ideas, concepts and themes, constitute
a deep and broad base of knowledge in the discipline – which constitutes the
theory. These ideas, concepts, and themes together comprise the theory,
which enables us to explain the meaning, nature, relationships, and
challenges asserted, or predicted to be associated with a phenomenon in an
educational or social sciences context, so that an application of those
attributes of the theory, enables us to understand the phenomenon and to
act more appropriately (Asher, 1984), including ability to predict. In line with
this understanding, Kerlinger and Lee (2000, p. 11) define and explain the
meaning of a theory very well, as follows:
A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and
propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining
and predicting the phenomena.
This definition says three things: (1) a theory is a set of propositions
consisting of defined and interrelated constructs, (2) a theory sets out
the interrelations among a set of variables (constructs), and in so

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 doing, presents a systematic view of the phenomena described by the
variables, and (3) a theory explains phenomena; it does so by
specifying which variables are related to which variables and how they
are related, thus enabling the researcher to predict from certain
variables to certain other variables.
As explained by Jacard and Jacob (2010), each theory – its assumptions,
tenets, assertions, propositions, predictions – comprises a common frame of
reference that can be used by researchers in a particular discipline as to
what is understood to be true or a basis for searching for meaning and truth
in our lived experiences, and a well-grounded guide for research within the
field. As well articulated by Glanz, (2017, p. 10), “Theory, research, and
practice are part of a continuum for understanding the determinants of
behaviors, testing strategies for change, and disseminating effective
interventions”. The three are inextricably interlinked. Theory enables
researchers to name what they observe, to understand and to explain
relationships and to make sense of human interactions. This understanding
increases the body of knowledge in the field and provides a basis for further
theorization, research, and understanding.
Characteristics of a Theory
A good number of authors (e.g., Bunge, 1967; Hunt, 1991; Johnson &
Christensen, 2017; Popper, 1985; Reynolds, 1971; and Wacker, 1998) outline
the essential ingredients of a theory. A review of their work suggests that for
a body of assertions, descriptions or predictions of behavior or relationships
to qualify as a theory, it must meet the following characteristics:
 It has to be logical and coherent
 It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary
conditions
 It has a domain where it applies
 It has clearly described relationships among variables
 It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
 It comprises concepts, themes, principles and constructs
 It must have been based on empirical data
 It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and
verified
 It must be clear and parsimonious
 Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in
existing theories
 Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and in
several contexts
 Its assertions or predictions are applicable, and if applied as predicted,
will result in the predicted outcome
 The assertions and predictions are not set in concrete, but subject to
revision and improvement as social scientists use the theory to make
sense of phenomena in their world
 Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why

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  Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to
predict future events

Theoretical Framework. A theoretical framework comprises the theories

expressed by experts in the field into which you plan to research, which you
draw upon to provide a theoretical coat hanger for your data analysis and
interpretation of results. Put differently, the theoretical framework is a
structure that summarizes concepts and theories, which you develop from
previously tested and published knowledge which you synthesize to help you
have a theoretical background, or basis for your data analysis and
interpretation of the meaning contained in your research data. Swanson
(2013, p. 122) explicitly asserts, “The theoretical framework is the structure
that can hold or support a theory of a research study”. The theoretical
framework for your research proposal or thesis is not a summary of your own
thoughts about your research. Rather, it is a synthesis of the thoughts of
giants in your field of research, as they relate to your proposed research or
thesis, as you understand those theories, and how you will use those
theories to understand your data. In essence, the theoretical framework
comprises what leaders in your field of research say about your research
question, about the problem you plan to investigate, and might even include
suggestions of how to solve that problem, including how to interpret the
findings in your data. What those leaders say, helps you to develop an
informed, and specialized lens, through which you examine your data,
conduct the data analysis, interpret the findings, discuss them, and even
make recommendations, and conclusions.
Conceptual Framework. A conceptual framework is the total, logical
orientation and associations of anything and everything that forms the
underlying thinking, structures, plans and practices and implementation of
your entire research project. So, the conceptual framework comprises your
thoughts on identification of the research topic, the problem to be
investigated, the questions to be asked, the literature to be reviewed, the
theories to be applied, the methodology you will use, the methods,
procedures and instruments, the data analysis and interpretation of findings,
recommendations and conclusions you will make (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017).
Thus, the conceptual framework is the logical conceptualization of your
entire research project. Saying that it is a logical conceptualization means
that a conceptual framework is a metacognitive, reflective and operational
element of the entire research process. This in turn means that the
conceptual framework involves high order consideration of the following
questions and/or issues about your research:
1. What do you want to do in your research? For example, as articulated
in your research topic.
2. Why do you want to do it? For example, why is it important to conduct
that research? Why it is significant? What aims will it seek to achieve?
Which specific objectives will it pursue? How much scope will it cover?

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 3. How do you plan to do it? For example, which methodology will you
apply? Which methods will you use? Who will be your participants?
How will you gather data? How will you analyse the data?
4. How will you make meaning of the data? For example, which
theoretical framework will you use to analyse the data? Which software
will you use? Which skills will you need?
5. Which worldview will you locate your research in? For example, will it
be in the positivist or interpretivist paradigm; critical or pragmatic
paradigm?
6. How will you report your findings? For example, in a research paper, or
a seminar paper, or a conference paper, a book chapter, or a book or a
thesis?
Thus, you can look at the conceptual framework as the logical master plan
for your entire research project. It is noteworthy, as you can see from the
above, that a theoretical framework is only a little sub-set of the conceptual
framework. A helpful analogy might be, that while the conceptual framework
is the house, the theoretical framework is but a room that serves a particular
purpose in that house. The purpose of the room could, for example, be the
kitchen, or living room, or bathroom or bedroom, or garage. While each room
has a unique purpose, no single room can serve all the functions that a
house serves. This analogy should help you to appreciate better, why these
two terms should never be used interchangeably. Only in a one-room ‘house’,
would the house and room be one and the same thing. Most houses are not
built like that.

SIGNIFICANCE OF A STUDY FOR AUDIENCES

Research writers often include a specific section describing the significance
of the study for select audiences in order to convey the importance of the
problem for different groups that may profit from reading and using the
study. By including this section, the writer creates a clear rationale for the
importance of the study. The more audiences that can be mentioned, the
greater the importance of the study and the more it will be seen by readers
to have wide application. In designing this section, one might include the
following:
• Three or four reasons that the study adds to the scholarly research and
literature in the field • Three or four reasons about how the study helps
improve practice
• Three or four reasons as to why the study will improve policy or
decision making

THE DEFINITION OF TERMS

Another topic is the identification and definition of terms that readers will
need in order to understand a proposed research project. A definition of
terms section may be found separate from the literature review, included as
part of the literature review, or placed in different sections of a proposal.

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Define terms that individuals outside the field of study may not understand
and that go beyond common language (Locke et al, 2013). Clearly, whether a
term should be defined is a matter of judgment, but define a term if there is
any likelihood that readers will not know its meaning. Also, define terms
when they first appear so that a reader does not read ahead in the proposal
operating with one set of definitions only to find out later that the author is
using a different set. As Wilkinson (1991) commented, “scientists have
sharply defined terms with which to think clearly about their research and to
communicate their findings and ideas accurately” (p. 22). Defining terms
also adds precision to a scientific study, as Firestone (1987) stated this:
The words of everyday language are rich in multiple meanings. Like other
symbols, their power comes from the combination of meaning in a specific
setting. ... Scientific language ostensibly strips this multiplicity of meaning
from words in the interest of precision. This is the reason common terms are
given “technical meanings” for scientific purposes. (p. 17)
With this need for precision, one finds terms stated early in the introduction
to articles. In dissertations and thesis proposals, terms are typically defined
in a special section of the study. The rationale is that in formal research,
students must be precise in how they use language and terms. The need to
ground thoughts in authoritative definitions constitutes good science.
No one approach governs how one defines the terms in a study, but several
suggestions follow (see also Locke et al., 2013):
• Define a term when it first appears in the proposal. In the introduction,
for example, a term may require a definition to help the reader
understand the research problem and questions or hypotheses in the
study.
• Write definitions at a specific operational or applied level. Operational
definitions are written in specific language rather than abstract,
conceptual definitions. Since the definition section in a dissertation
provides an opportunity for the author to be specific about the terms
used in the study, a preference exists for operational definitions.
• Do not define the terms in everyday language; instead, use accepted
language available in the research literature. In this way, the terms are
grounded in the literature and not invented (Locke et al., 2013). It is
possible that the precise definition of a term is not available in the
literature and everyday language will need to be used. In this case,
provide a definition and use the term consistently throughout the plan
and the study (Wilkinson, 1991).
• Researchers might define terms so that they accomplish different
goals. A definition may describe a common language word (e.g.,
organization). It may also be paired with a limitation (e.g., the
curriculum may be limited). It may establish a criterion (e.g., high
grade point average), and it could also define a term operationally
(e.g., reinforcement will refer to listing).
• Although no one format exists for defining terms, one approach is to
develop a separate section, called the “Definition of Terms,” and

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 clearly set off the terms and their definitions by highlighting the term.
In this way, the word is assigned an invariant meaning (Locke et al.,
2013). Typically, this separate section is not more than two to three
pages in length.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (uis.edu, n.d.)

A literature review is an evaluation of research works available on a specific
academic theme or topic or subject under investigation by a researcher. It
involves a process of investigating already written and published bodies of
writing to achieve specific research objectives other than those already
achieved by the works under investigation (Chigbu et al., 2023).

The purpose of a literature review is to collect relevant, timely research on

your chosen topic, and synthesize it into a cohesive summary of existing
knowledge in the field. This then prepares you for making your own
argument on that topic, or for conducting your own original research.
Depending on your field of study, literature reviews can take different forms.
Some disciplines require that you synthesize your sources topically,
organizing your paragraphs according to how your different sources discuss
similar topics. Other disciplines require that you discuss each source in
individual paragraphs, covering various aspects in that single article,
chapter, or book.
Within your review of a given source, you can cover many different aspects,
including (if a research study) the purpose, scope, methods, results, any
discussion points, limitations, and implications for future research. Make sure
you know which model your professor expects you to follow when writing
your own literature reviews.

Benefits of Literature Reviews

 Literature reviews allow one to gain familiarity with the current
knowledge in the chosen field, as well as the boundaries and
limitations of that field.
 Literature reviews also help one to gain an understanding of the
theory(ies) driving the field, allowing to place the research question
into context.
 Literature reviews provide an opportunity to see and even evaluate
successful and unsuccessful assessment and research methods in the
field.
 Literature reviews prevent one from duplicating the same information
as others writing in the field, allowing the researcher to find his/her
own, unique approach to the topic.
 Literature reviews give one familiarity with the knowledge in the field,
giving the chance to analyze the significance of the additional
research.

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Choosing Sources
When selecting sources to compile literatures, the following guidelines
ensure the strongest, most appropriate sources possible.
 Topically Relevant. Find sources within the scope of the topic
 Appropriately Aged. Find sources that are not too old
 Credible. Find sources whose authors have authority on the topic
 Appropriately “Published”. Find sources that meet the guidelines
(academic, professional, print, etc.)

Sources of published scientific information for a literature search

(Chigbu et al., 2023).

Review Forms

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In general, the literature review can take several forms. Cooper (2010)
discussed four types: literature reviews that:
 integrate what others have done and said,
 criticize previous scholarly works,
 build bridges between related topics, and
 identify the central issues in a field.
With the exception of criticizing previous scholarly works, most dissertations
and theses serve to integrate the literature, organize it into a series of
related topics (often from general topics to narrower ones), and summarize
the literature by pointing out the central issues.

METHODOLOGIES
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) and Williams (2011) describe the research
methodology as the holistic steps a researcher employ in embarking on a
research work (p. 14).

Quantitative Research Method (Apuke, 2017). A quantitative research

method deals with quantifying and analyzing variables in order to get results.
It involves the utilization and analysis of numerical data using specific
statistical techniques to answer questions like who, how much, what, where,
when, how many, and how. Expatiating on this definition, Aliaga, and
Gunderson (2002) describes quantitative research methods as the explaining
of an issue or phenomenon through gathering data in numerical form and
analyzing with the aid of mathematical methods, in particular statistics.
On the other hand, Leedy and Ormrod (2001) and Williams (2011) stated that
“Quantitative research involves the collection of data so that information can
be quantified and subjected to statistical treatment in order to support or
refute alternative knowledge claims.” Furthermore, Williams (2011) remarked
that quantitative research starts with a statement of a problem, generating
of hypothesis or research question, reviewing related literature, and a
quantitative analysis of data. Similarly, Creswell (2003); Williams (2011)
stated that a quantitative research “employ strategies of inquiry such as
experiments and surveys, and collect data on predetermined instruments
that yield statistical data” (p.18).

Types of Quantitative Research

According to Sukamolson (2007), “there are several types of quantitative
research. For instance, it can be classifiedas 1) survey research, 2)
correlational research, 3) experimental research and 4) causal-comparative
research.”

Survey research. Sukamolson (2007) stated that survey research

encompasses the use of scientific sampling method with a designed
questionnaire to measure a given population's characteristics through the
utilization of statistical methods.

16
Correlational research. A quantitative methodology used to determine
whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more
variables within a population (or a sample). The degree of relationships is
expressed by correlation coefficients. Coefficients range from +1.00 to -1.00.
Higher correlations (coefficients closer to +1.00 or -1.00) indicate stronger
relationships. Positive correlations indicate that as the values associated with
one variable go up, so do the values associated with the other. e.g., higher
grades are associated with higher???. Negative correlations indicate that as
the values associated with one variable go up, the values associated with the
other go down e.g., higher grades are associated with lower??? Buttressing
on this, Leedy & Ormrod (2010) remark that correlation method of research
deals with creating relationship amid two or more variables in the same
population. “The first type of correlational design, explanatory design, is
conducted when researchers want to explore the extents to which two or
more variables co-vary, that is, where changes in one variable are reflected
in changes in the other (Creswell, 2008, p. 358). The second type of
correlational design, prediction design, is used by researchers when the
purpose of the study is to predict certain outcomes in one variable from
another variable that serves as the predictor.

Experimental research. During the experimental research, the researcher

investigates the treatment of an intervention into the study group and then
measures the outcomes of the treatment. There are three types of
exploratory approaches: pre-experimental, true experimental, and quasi-
experimental (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). The pre-experimental design involves
an independent variable that does not vary or a control group that is not
randomly selected. Campbell and Stanley (1963) endorsed the true
experimental design, which provides a higher degree of control in the
experiment and produces a higher degree of validity. The true experimental
designs result in a systemic approach to quantitative data collection
involving mathematical models in the analyses. Whereas, the quasi-
experimental design involves nonrandom selection of study participants.
Therefore, control is limited and true experimentation is not possible. Since
the variable cannot be controlled, validity may be sacrificed. The factorial
design focuses on two or more categories with the independent variables as
compared to the dependent variable (Vogt, 1999). Key, (1997) describes
experimental research as a form of research whereby a researcher takes
control and maintains the basic elements that might affect the result of an
experiment, by so doing; the researcher predicts outcome of an experiment.
While experimental design is the synopsis that guides a researcher while
testing his hypothesis in order to reach a tangible conclusion on the
relationship concerning an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Furthermore, Key, (1997) outline the steps involve in experimental research
as follows:
 Selecting a sample subjects.
 Grouping or pairing of subject matter

17
  Selecting and constructing as well as validating the instruments that
will be used to measure the outcomes
 Conducting a pilot study
 Determining the place, time and duration of the experiment.
Experiment deals with the process of supporting, rejecting, or validating a
hypothesis in order to get insight into the cause and effect of something
when certain factors are being manipulated. For example, someone may
carry out a basic experiment to understand the existence of gravity while
others basically scientists carries out experiment for years depending on the
subject matter to be experimented. Furthermore, Adèr, (2008) states that
there are certain things a researcher should ruminate while embarking on an
experimental research, that is, considering the suitable way of
operationalizing the variables to be measured as well as the appropriate
statistical method to be employed to answer the hypothesis or research
questions, putting into consideration, the expected outcome of the study as
well as how to analyze such outcome, the limitations involve in the study,
such as the obtainable participants and their relevance and suitability in the
representation of the target population of the study

Causal-Comparative or Ex Post Facto. Ex post facto implies "from after

the fact" (Gay, 1976). In simple terms, in ex-post facto research, the
researcher investigates a problem by studying the variables in retrospect. It
is research in which the dependent variable is immediately observable and
now your main concern is to find out the antecedents that gave rise to this
consequence. – In other words, a causal-comparative study is a form of study
that tries to identify and determine the cause and effect of the relationship
between two or more groups. - The causal-comparative study is a study in
which the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for pre-
existing differences in groups of individuals.

18
Qualitative Research Method (Mohajan, 2018). Qualitative research is
inductive in nature, and the researcher generally explores meanings and
insights in a given situation [Strauss & Corbin, 2008; Levitt et al., 2017]. It
refers to a range of data collection and analysis techniques that use
purposive sampling and semi-structured, open-ended interviews [Dudwick et
al., 2006; Gopaldas, 2016].
It is described as an effective model that occurs in a natural setting and
enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from high involvement in
the actual experiences [Creswell, 2009]. It consists of a set of interpretive

19
material practices that makes the world visible. It is multi-method in focus,
involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter [Denzin
& Lincoln, 2005]. It is a type of social science research that collects and
works with non-numerical data that seeks to interpret meaning from these
data that help us to understand social life through the study of targeted
populations or places [Punch, 2013]. It is the observations and
interpretations of people’s perception of different events, and it takes the
snapshot of the people’s perception in a natural setting [Gentles et al.,
2015]. It investigates local knowledge and understanding of a given
program, people’s experiences, meanings and relationships, and social
processes and contextual factors that marginalize a group of people. It is less
structured in description, because it formulates and builds new theories
[Leedy & Ormrod, 2001]. It focuses on words rather than numbers, this type
of research observes the world in its natural setting, interpreting situations to
understand the meanings that people make from day to day life [Walia,
2015].
Qualitative research comprises of the following methods: logic, ethnography,
discourse analysis, case study, open-ended interview, participant
observation, counseling, therapy, grounded theory, biography, comparative
method, introspection, casuistry, focus group, literary criticism, meditation
practice, historical research, etc. [Cibangu, 2012].
Qualitative research is a form of social action that stresses on the way of
people interpret, and make sense of their experiences to understand the
social reality of individuals. It makes the use of interviews, diaries, journals,
classroom observations and immersions; and open-ended questionnaires to
obtain, analyze, and interpret the data content analysis of visual and textual
materials, and oral history [Zohrabi, 2013]. It is exploratory, and seeks to
explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular social phenomenon, or program,
operates as it does in a particular context. It tries to help us to understand
the social world in which we live, and why things are the way they are
[Polkinghorne, 2005].

Types of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods typically include interviews and observations,
but may also include case studies, surveys, and historical and document
analyses. Qualitative research is an umbrella term used to refer to the
theoretical perspectives designs as [Creswell, 2009; Hancock et al., 2009]:
narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, action research, case study,
ethnography, historical research, and content analysis.

Narrative Research. It is a method that includes the analysis of the

characteristics of the narrative text, and recently of the meaning of inter-
human relations in social, historical, and cultural contexts [Hoshmand, 2005;
Felton & Stickley, 2018]. It focuses on people’s narratives either about
themselves or a set of events. Instead of looking for themes that emerge
from an account, it concentrates on the sequential unfolding of someone’s

20
story so there is an emphasis on characters. It is time consuming, and
usually includes a very small number of cases [Hancock et al., 2009]. For
example, a doctor takes interviews from limited number of patients, and the
patients narrate the pros and cons of the diseases; and pains and sufferings
of the diseases, is a narrative research. Narrative analysis focuses on stories
that told by participants. The story aspect is seen as a complete entity in
itself with a beginning, middle, and an end. It is used when the study has a
specific contextual focus, such as, classrooms, and students or stories about
organizations, when the subject is biographical or a life history, or an oral
history of personal reflections from one or more individuals. For example, a
researcher wants to study the effects of physical punishment in schools in
the 20th century, is a narrative research [Grbich, 2007]. In narrative research
data are collected by observations, diaries, letters, interviews, artifacts, and
photographs [Lenberg et al., 2017]. Narrative research may give unique
insight into procedural and impalpable aspects of participant experience,
informing project design, and illuminate context-based impacts that give
greater power to local people. It allows for unique, context-based evaluations
through time-oriented structures revealing how changes occur and evolve
from a personal perspective. It has distinct communication features as: a set
of characters developing over the course of the narrative, a plot, a sequence
of events, or a temporality with more or less degrees of cause and effect,
and a narrator/point of view [Constant & Roberts, 2017].

Phenomenological Research. The meaning of the phenomenon is

conceptualized in the interior of the individual’s awareness. Phenomenology
is an approach to explore people’s everyday life experience. It is used when
the study is about the life experiences of a concept or phenomenon
experienced by one or more individuals. A phenomenological researcher
investigates subjective phenomena [Creswell, 2009]. For example, a
thoughtful understanding of the meaningful aspects of having a conversation
or a talk together or the experience of interacting online and the kind of
contact or closeness we experience through email, texting, or social
networks may be of value to professional practitioners as well as to anyone
involved in the conversational relations of everyday living. This type of
research is used to study areas in which there is little knowledge [Donalek,
2004; Guerrero-Castañeda et al., 2017]. For example, a researcher takes
interview of 100 widows, and asks them to describe their experiences of the
deaths of their husbands. Creswell [2014] expressed that this type of study is
the search for “The central underlying meaning of the experience that
emphasize the intentionality of consciousness where experiences contain
both the outward appearance and inward consciousness based on the
memory, image, and meaning.” For example, reading a story, having a talk
with someone, sending an email or a message, listening to a piece of music,
etc. are reflections of phenomenological research. Therefore,
phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from philosophy
and psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of

21
individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants [Creswell,
2014]. For example, we need to increase our knowledge about experiences
of new teachers with technology and the influence of these experiences on
their teaching practice and on student learning.
Edmund Husserl is the most important name in phenomenology [Husserl,
1960]. During his time, Europe was dominated by a Christian vision, and
passed through a period of transition, from the world dominated by tradition
to modern industrial era. At that time philosophies were personal and offered
answers to people’s questions, to their prejudices and religious believes.
Husserl’s purpose was to better understand human basics like: time, intent,
color, and number [Drobot, 2012].
Phenomenology attempts to understand how participants make sense of
their experiences. It is a popular study in psychology, and in some areas of
nursing. It looks at subjective states so takes an insider perspective [Hancock
et al., 2009; Tuffour, 2017]. A phenomenologist considers the meanings of
experience, and describes the life world. Phenomenology could be difficult to
understand, particularly if a person has had a limited background in
philosophy [Mariano, 1990]. It is rigorous, critical, and systematic [Streubert
& Carpenter, 2002]. Although it is a challenging, exciting, and at times
exhaustive process, but the final research product might be very satisfying
for the researcher [Donalek, 2004].
A phenomenological researcher would ask a question such as, “What is it like
for a mother to live with a teenage child who is dying of cancer?” The
researcher might observe that the mother would feel very hopeless and
frightened. This mother has discovered an important reason for living,
whereas previously she had not felt needed anymore by her teenage child
[Parse et al., 1985]. Daly [2005] has studied the lived experiences of six
mothers of suicidal adolescents. She has identified six themes as: failure as a
good mother, the ultimate rejection, feeling alone in the struggle,
helplessness and powerlessness in the struggle, cautious parenting, and
keeping an emotional distance.

Grounded Theory. Grounded theory is developed in 1967 by two

sociologists, Barney Glaser, and Anselm Strauss, in their book ‘The Discovery
of the Grounded Theory’ from real life observations. This is an approach to
theory development grounded/rooted in the data rather than empirical
testing of the theory, that is, data are collected and analyzed, and then a
theory is developed which is grounded in the data [Glaser & Strauss, 1967].
These two authors defined the grounded theory as “The theory that was
derived from data, systematically gathered, and analyzed through the
research process” [Strauss & Corbin, 1990]. They took the idea from
symbolic internationalist that meaning is constructed through the use of
sign, languages, and symbols. The main aim of it is to generate theory from
field by using observations [Walia, 2015]. For example, students could be
required to reassess the power they use in leadership situations to achieve
their desired results. According to Creswell the grounded theory research is

22
“Researcher attempts to derive a general, abstract theory of a process,
action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants in a study”
[Creswell, 2009]. The basic principles of this theory are [Glaser & Strauss,
1967]: i) The task of research is to discover new methods of understanding
or investigating the social processes and interactions, and ii) The purpose of
the analysis is to generate or discover a theory based on possibility
fundamental patterns in life.
The grounded theory uses both an inductive and a deductive approach to the
theory development. It investigates social processes and interactions among
lives of people [Atkinson et al., 2001]. It deals with only inductive approach
rather than deductive approach of inquiry [Glaser, 1992]. It is an appropriate
way to study human behavior on a sensitive topic even in a different cultural
context [Wolcott, 2009]. It is one of the data collection approach in
qualitative research methods which is totally based on data rather than try to
emerge theory from data [Khan, 2014]. Here the researcher does not test
hypothesis, but builds the theory from unprocessed information or from the
extension of the existent theory [Yeh & Inman, 2007]. Various data collection
techniques are used to develop grounded theory, particularly interviews and
observation. In this method data are gathered through face-to-face, focus
group, telephonic, etc., interviews [Tepper, 2000]. For example, if we develop
a theory of identity loss and reconstruction among young people with new
disabilities, we should examine our theoretical categories in other areas of
life in which people have experienced a sudden major loss, such as occurs
with a partner’s sudden death, layoff from work, or loss of place due to a
natural disaster.
A grounded theory report incorporates five aspects as: i) describe the
research question, ii) literature review, iii) describing the methodology, iv)
data analysis that explains the theory, and v) discussing the implications
[Leedy & Ormrod, 2001]. Some key features of grounded theory are as
follows [Hancock et al., 2009]:
• It focuses on emergence, that is, a research should start from a
position where the researcher knows nothing about what they are
studying, so that all concepts truly emerge from the data.
• Sampling is based on theoretically relevant constructs.
• It supports constant comparative method which is a useful formulation
of how to do qualitative analysis, and can be used separately from the
other elements of grounded theory.
• Data analysis should occur at the same time as data collection to allow
researchers to refine the research question, and data collection
procedures in the light of new findings.
• It needs theoretical sensitivity, that is, the ability to recognize what is
important in the data so that a researcher can give it meaning.

Action Research. Action research is an emergent inquiry process that

integrates theory and action to couple scientific knowledge with existing
organizational knowledge and to address real organizational problems

23
together with the people of the system under inquiry [Coghlan, 2011]. It has
a complex history, because it is not a single academic discipline; but an
approach to research that has emerged over time from a broad range of
fields [Brydon-Miller et al., 2003]. For example, a school and its resources,
curricula and pedagogical practices all precede and pre-figure the dayto-day
enactment of the practice of education in the school, having a life of their
own.
It is a type of qualitative research that seeks action to improve practice and
study the effects of the action that was taken [Streubert & Carpenter, 2002].
For example, the language conventions for communicating about human
motivation are linked to certain activities, objects and settings.
It is a systematic investigation performed by the teachers and other
educational personnel to collect and study data that can help them to realize
and develop their practices. It is based on the view that teachers and other
educational professionals use to improve quality of teaching [Mills, 2003].
Actually it has found support from educators; others do not consider it as a
legitimate form of research and inquiry. Most of the researchers view it as an
informal approach to educational research [Stringer, 1999]. It is true that this
type of research plays an important role in education. It is used in real
situations, rather than in contrived, experimental studies, since its primary
focus is on solving real problems [Brydon-Miller & Greenwood, 2006]. For
example, working with members of university human subjects review
committees to develop a greater shared understanding of the constraints
within which they must operate and the shared mission of the review process
and action research.

Case Study. According to A. Sturman, “A case study is a general term for

the exploration of an individual, group or phenomenon” [Sturman, 1997].
Creswell [2009] defines case study as “Researcher explores in-depth a
program, an event, an activity, a process, or one or more individuals”. The
structure of a case study should be the problem, the context, the issues, and
the lessons learned [Creswell, 2014]. Hence, it is a comprehensive
description of an individual case and its analysis [Mesec, 1998]. J. Sagadin
states that “A case study is used when we analyze and describe; each person
individually for his/her activity, special needs, life situation, life history, etc.;
a group of people, such as, a school department, teaching staff, etc., a
problem or several problems, process, phenomenon or event in a particular
institution, etc., in detail. If we remain in such analyses on the descriptive
level, then a case study is considered as a form of descriptive method, but if
we climb to the causal level, case study proceeds towards causal
experimental method” [Sagadin, 1991]. According to H. Simons “Case study
is an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and
uniqueness of a particular project, policy, institution, program or system in a
real life” [Simons, 2009].
A case study is usually a study of a single case or a small number of cases
[Sagadin, 1991]. Case studies are considered as quantitative or qualitative

24
research depending on the purpose of the study, and the design are chosen
by the researcher. These are in-depth examinations of people or groups of
people. These are one of the first types of research to be used in the field of
qualitative methodology. The case method has its roots in sociology, and has
been found to be especially valuable in practice-oriented fields, such as,
management, public administration, psychology, history, education, and
medicine. Case studies are not used to test hypotheses, but hypotheses may
be generated from case studies. A case study is time consuming and may be
quite costly [Younger, 1985; Mills et al., 2010; Starman, 2013]. It is used to
study one or more cases within a bounded setting or context. It is conducted
by using multiple sources like: questionnaires, interviews, observations,
written accounts, and audio-visual materials [Creswell, 2009]. For example, a
researcher studies a classroom that is given a new curriculum for technology
use, is a case study type research.
George and Bennett have identified four advantages of case studies as
follows [George & Bennett, 2005]: i) their potential to achieve high
conceptual validity, ii) strong procedures for the development of new
hypotheses, iii) usefulness for closely examining the hypothesized role of
causal mechanisms in the context of individual cases, and iv) their capacity
for addressing causal complexity.

Ethnographical Research. Ethnographic observation is the most intensive

and in-depth observational qualitative approach. The word ethnography
comes from Greek ethnos which means ‘folk, people, and nation’, and
grapho means ‘I write’. Therefore, ethnography has a setting in
anthropology, which means ‘portrait of a people’. It represents an approach
in which the researcher engages in prolonged observations from the group’s
everyday life. In this type of research behaviors, values, and interactions
among the members of the group are deeply studied, described, and
interpreted by the researcher [Creswell, 2014]. For example, encourages
children to use cameras to record their lives and challenges the concepts of;
who actually makes an image, who is the photographer, who the subject,
who is the observer and who the observed, is an ethnographical research.
It is the study of the beliefs, social interactions, and behaviors of small
societies, involving participation and observation over a long period of time,
and the interpretation of the data collected [Denzin & Lincoln, 2011]. The
case study studies a person, program, or event, while ethnography studies
an entire group that shares a common culture [Leedy & Ormrod, 2001;
Reeves et al., 2013]. For example, an adult researcher wishing to understand
the mathematical concepts of young children will find full participation in the
children’s world of mathematics difficult; observation will be easier.
According to Cameron [1990], ethnography is “learning from people”.
According to Leininger [1985], ethnography can be defined as “The
systematic process of observing, detailing, describing, documenting, and
analyzing the life ways or particular patterns of a culture (or subculture) in
order to grasp the life ways or patterns of the people in their familiar

25
environment.” For example, prior to the feminist movement, women entering
traditional marriages expected inequality in marital relationships.
The main characteristics of ethnographical study are as follows [LeCompte &
Schensul, 1999]:
• It is related to intimate, face-to-face interaction with participants.
• It reflects an accurate view of participants’ perspectives and behaviors.
• It is conducted on natural settings, not involve with laboratory.
• It uses multiple data sources.
• It frames all human behavior and belief within a socio-political and
historical context.
• It uses inductive, interactive, and recursive data collection and analytic
strategies to build local cultural theories.
• It uses the concept of culture as a lens through which to interpret
results.

Historical Research. Historical research is one of the methods to describe

how and where the study started, how it is developed during time, and where
it stands at present [Špiláčková, 2012]. It is referred to as historiography,
that is, investigation of elements from history [Berg, 2012]. F. N. Kerlinger
[1972] defines historical research as “Critical investigation of events,
development, and experiences of the past, careful consideration of past
testimonies from the perspective of information sources validity and
subsequent interpretation of the concerned testimonies.” Historical research
seeks not only to discover the events of the past but also to relate these past
happenings to the present and to the future. According to Leininger [1985],
“Without a past there is no meaning to the present, nor can we develop a
sense of ourselves as individuals and as members of groups.” For example,
in 1609, Galileo trained his telescope for the first time on the moon, and
observed previously unsuspected features, ones that he believed were not
very different from those on the earth, is a historical research.
The procedures of historical research are similar to other types of researches.
It is the systematic collection of data that happened in the past, and
subsequently to identify, classify, arrange, clarify, evaluate, synthesize,
elaborate, develop, and publish them by means of scientific methods. It also
helps the both researchers and readers to analyze the present events and
realize future ones. Many educational practices and theories can be captured
properly by the use of past experiences. A historical researcher can neither
manipulate nor control any of the variables, as past events are unchangeable
[Hroch et al., 1985]. Historical research may be more difficult to conduct than
some of the other types of research. According to Teresa Christy the
historical researcher must develop the “Curiosity, perseverance, tenacity,
and skepticism of the detective” [Christy, 1975]. The sources of historical
data are divided them into four types as follows [Danto, 2008]: ▪ primary
sources (these are original documents found in archives), ▪ secondary
sources (works by other authors writing about history), ▪ official records
(official records from various institutions, case reports), and ▪ private

26
materials (chronicles, autobiographies, diaries, memoirs, records of oral
history).

Content Analysis. Content analysis is a method of analyzing written, verbal

or visual communication messages. Leedy and Ormrod [2001] define it as “A
detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of
materials for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes, or biases.” It was
first used as a method for analyzing hymns, newspaper and magazine,
articles, advertisements, and political speeches in the 19th century [Harwood
& Garry, 2003]. At present it has a long history of use in communication,
journalism, sociology, psychology, and business [Neundorf, 2002; Akşan &
Baki, 2017]. For example; through the framing of the media content,
researchers can analyze the tone (negative, positive or neutral) of the news
stories published by the selected newspapers.
The emphasis in conventional content analysis is on counting, where
researchers would count occurrences of a word, phrase, or theme. It is used
by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting words and images from
documents, books, newspapers, films, arts, music, and other cultural
products and media. For example, responses to open-ended questions are on
the basis of content analysis [Hancock et al., 2009]. Content analysis, the
examination of communication messages, is used in evaluating the data
from case studies.]
The collection of data in content analysis is a two-step process: i) the
researcher must analyze the materials, and put them in a frequency table as
each characteristics or qualities, and ii) the researcher must conduct a
statistical analysis so that the results are reported in a quantitative format
[Leedy & Ormrod, 2001].

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research does not include statistical or empirical calculations
[Brink, 1993]. The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection
and analysis. It is usually involved with fieldwork. The researchers must go to
the people, setting, site, and institutions to observe behavior in its natural
setting. It builds abstractions, concepts, hypothesis, or theories rather than
tests existing theory. Different types of qualitative research have some
common characteristics as follows [Ely et al., 1991; Hammersley & Atkinson,
1993]:
 The researcher has the opportunity of collecting data directly from the
participants through direct encounters with individuals, through one to
one interviews or group interviews or by observation.
 Data are used to develop concepts and theories that help us to
understand the social world.
 The sampling seeks to demonstrate representativeness of findings
through random selection of subjects.
 It seeks to gain a better understanding of people’s thoughts, attitudes,
and behaviors.

27
  The researcher remains open to alternative explanations.
 It is concerned with the opinions, experiences, and feelings of
individuals producing subjective data.
 It is rooted in people’s everyday lives; how they experience and make
sense of phenomena occurring in their lives.
 It requires clear information and detail analysis of the respondents’
opinions.
 It describes social phenomena as they occur naturally.
 The data have primacy; the theoretical framework is not given
previously, but can be derived from the data.
 It is conducted in ‘real life’ and day-to-day settings, not in controlled or
laboratory settings.
 It focuses on individual, and person to person interactions.
 A researcher needs to spend a lot of time in the research settings with
the participants.
 The data are presented in a narrative form, i.e., in the words of the
individuals participating.
 A researcher must avoid taking premature decision of the study.
 It is context-bound, and researchers must be context sensitive.
 It seeks to establish a holistic perspective of a given situation.
 It focuses on discovery and understanding which requires flexibility in
the research design.
 A researcher is responsible to obtain true information and to ensure the
participants’ ethical treatment.
 The product of it is richly descriptive.
 A researcher is an integral part of the research process. The issue is
not one of minimizing the influence of the researcher, but of knowing
how the researcher was involved in data collection and analysis in
order to assess better the information they provide.
 It has the ability of the researcher to use their motivation and personal
interest to stimulate the study.
 Data collection and data analysis proceed together.
 Typically the findings are in the form of themes, categories, concepts
or tentative hypotheses or theories.

Mixed-Method Research (Dawadi, 2021). A mixed-methods approach is a

research methodology in its own right. As stated by Creswell and Plano Clark
(2011), a mixed-methods research design is a research design that has its
own philosophical assumptions and methods of inquiry. As a methodology, it
includes philosophical assumptions to provide directions for the collection
and analysis of data from multiple sources in a single study.
A mixed-methods design offers a number of benefits to approaching complex
research issues as it integrates philosophical frameworks of both post-
positivism and interpretivism (Fetters, 2016) interweaving qualitative and
quantitative data in such a way that research issues are meaningfully
explained. It also offers a logical ground, methodological flexibility and an in-

28
depth understanding of smaller cases (Maxwell, 2016). In other words, the
use of mixed-methods enables researchers to answer research questions
with sufficient depth and breadth (Enosh, Tzafrir, & Stolovy, 2014) and helps
generalize findings and implications of the researched issues to the whole
population. For example, the quantitative approach helps a researcher to
collect the data from a large number of participants; thus, increasing the
possibility to generalize the findings to a wider population. The qualitative
approach, on the other hand, provides a deeper understanding of the issue
being investigated, honoring the voices of its participants. In other words,
whereas quantitative data bring breadth to the study and qualitative data
provides depth to it. Moreover, quantitative results can be triangulated with
qualitative findings and vice versa. Triangulation, as a qualitative research
strategy, is the use of multiple methods or data sources to develop a
comprehensive understanding of a research problem or to test validity
through the convergence of information from different sources (Carter et al.,
2014). A mixed-methods design, therefore, offers the best chance of
answering research questions by combining two sets of strengths while
compensating at the same time for the weaknesses of each method (Johnson
& Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Consequently, "mixed-method research designs are
becoming increasingly relevant to addressing impact research questions”
(Saville, 2012, p.7).
Mixing two methods might be superior to a single method as it is likely to
provide rich insights into the research phenomena that cannot be fully
understood by using only qualitative or quantitative methods. A mixed-
methods design can integrate and synergize multiple data sources which can
assist to study complex problems (Poth & Munce, 2020). The application of
mixed-methods means purposeful data consolidation which allows
researchers to seek a wide view of their study by enabling them to view a
phenomenon from different perspectives and research lenses (Shorten &
Smith, 2017).
Timans et al. (2019) claim that "mixed-methods research (MMR) scholars
seem to be committed to designing a standardized methodological
framework for combining methods." (p. 212). They argue that although MMR
must be separated from their native epistemology to work, it is necessary to
be within a qualitative and quantitative research approach which will also be
indicated by the data they use. While acknowledging merits in the Timans et
al.'s views, this article is based on the premise that the research-novices
need to treat the mixing of methods as one research approach as keeping
them epistemologically separate within MMR may create complications at
the data integration and interpretation stage. This section, therefore,
presents core common mixed-methods research types which are prevalent in
the field of research. Several scholars (Plano Clark & Ivankova 2016; Terrell,
2012; Wilkinson & Staley, 2019) have listed various types of mixed methods
research design. Creswell and Plano Clark (2018) consider these core designs
as parsimonious and practical since they have the potential to make
researchers understand the best possible options of mixed methods research

29
designs. In this section some common types of mixed methods are
presented. Attempts have been made to illustrate the MMR types with
suitable examples.

Convergent Parallel Mixed-Methods Design. A convergent design that

follows pragmatism as a theoretical assumption, is an efficient and popular
approach to mixing methods research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Two
different approaches namely qualitative and quantitative methods are mixed
to obtain the triangulated results in this design. At first, two types of data
sets are collected concurrently, and secondly, they are analysed
independently using quantitative and qualitative analytical approaches
(Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017; Shorten & Smith, 2017; Creswell and Plano
Clark, 2018; Wisdom & Creswell, 2013). In a convergent design, the
integration of both data will help a researcher gain a complete understanding
of the one provided by the quantitative or qualitative results alone. It is an
approach in which two data sets are combined to get a complete picture of
the issue being explored and to validate one set of findings with the other
(Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018). For instance, if a researcher is examining
experiences of using digital technologies in education, s/he administers a
survey and also conducts interviews with teachers and students to
understand the issue. S/he collects quantitative data from a survey and
qualitative data from interviews and examines if the findings obtained from
these two different data sets converge or diverge. In case the results
diverge, the researcher explains the finding by re-examining the results and
collecting more data, or explaining the quality of the dataset. "The intent of
integration in a convergent design is to develop results and interpretations
that expand understanding, are comprehensive and are validated and
confirmed" (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018, p. 221). Fàbregues et al. (2020)
argue that convergent studies are apt designs for integration as both data
results are available when interpretation is planned.
In the analysis phase, a researcher can always look for the common concepts
across both sets of findings. Integration in convergent design can be done in
two ways: a) by presenting findings of the qualitative study followed by the
quantitative study or vice versa or b) by transforming the qualitative data
into counts and integrating the transformed qualitative dataset into
quantitative data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). In the latter case, a
researcher can count the identified codes or themes.
Creswell and Plano Clark (2018) maintain that this design can be useful in
certain conditions, such as, it can be adopted when a researcher has limited
time; when s/he needs both qualitative and quantitative information from the
participants and when s/he (or a team of researchers) has required skills to
handle both quantitative and qualitative methods. They also list issues of
different sample sizes, the need to merge a text and numeric database and
the need to explain divergence when comparing results as the challenges of
convergent design. Firstly, in this design, a researcher needs to think of the
possibility and outcomes of having different sample sizes when quantitative

30
and qualitative data are collected for generalization and deeper
understanding. Secondly, s/he might find it difficult to merge data based on
texts with the data based on numbers to examine the same issue. Thirdly, if
the findings have divergent results, it might add an additional layer of
complexity for them, and they might find it difficult to address these
differences. They might require to collect qualitative data or quantitative
data or both again. The following is an example of a study that explains
convergent parallel mixed-methods design.

Explanatory Sequential Design. Explanatory Sequential design occurs in

two distinct interactive phases, the beginning with the collection and
analysis of the quantitative data to expand the first phase quantitative
results followed by the designing of the second, qualitative phase on the
basis of the quantitative findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018;
Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017; Shorten & Smith, 2017; Wisdom & Creswell,
2013). In this design, a researcher follows up on a specific quantitative
finding and explains it with the qualitative data (Wisdom & Creswell, 2013).
For example, once the significant predictors are identified through statistical
measures, such as it is found that pandemic is one of the reasons that has
made teachers and learners use digital technologies profusely, an interview
is designed to delve deeper and explain this predictor. In this design, the
qualitative design helps explain certain quantitative results that include
unexpected findings in more detail (Terrell, 2012). Creswell and Plano Clark
(2018) suggest that a researcher should shift from postpositivist to
constructivist theoretical assumption when this design is adopted in a study.
The researcher follows the postpositivist assumption to select instruments
and moves to constructivist assumption as they value multiple perspectives
and in-depth exploration (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).
In this design, firstly, a quantitative strand is designed and implemented,
and later the specific quantitative findings which will be explained is decided.
Secondly, a qualitative strand is designed and developed to explain the
quantitative findings. And finally, the quantitative results are summarized
and interpreted. Creswell and Plano Clark (2018) argue that integration in
this design takes place in two ways: a) by connecting the quantitative
findings to the qualitative data collection and b) by drawing integrated
findings after combining two sets of results after the qualitative phase is
completed.
This design is useful when a researcher and research issue is more
quantitatively oriented; when s/he has already identified a variable to
measure; when s/he has an ability to access the participants to collect the
qualitative data; when s/he has time to collect data in two phases; and when
s/he is the sole investigator, collecting and analysing the data one at a time.
Wilkinson and Staley (2019) in their study found that sampling was one of
the problems associated with this design. They pointed out that the
reviewers of the research papers, which they analysed, were concerned with
"how well the sample for the qualitative component represented the

31
phenomenon identified in data from a larger sample of participants and
analysed in the quantitative portion of the study" (p. 70). Creswell and Plano
Clark (2018) enumerate the extended time needed for completion, the
complexity in specifying the qualitative phase in advance, the compulsion for
the identification of quantitative results to be followed up, and the need to
specify the participants who can provide the explanation as challenges of
this design. In this design, a researcher needs to spend too much time to
implement two phases and a researcher might face difficulty to get approval
from the institutional board since it will be challenging for a researcher to
specify the qualitative phase beforehand. A researcher also needs to decide
the quantitative results to be followed on, and they also need to decide who
to study and what will be the criteria for sampling (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018). The following is an example of the study that explains explanatory
sequential design.

Exploratory Sequential Design. Exploratory sequential design is a three-

phase study in which a researcher works from the constructivist principle.
During the first phase, a researcher explores an issue in-depth, and as they
reach the second phase, they shift to the post-positivist principle to identify
and measure the variable and statistical trend (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018). In this design, at first, the qualitative data are gathered and analysed,
and later quantitative data are collected and tested (Schoonenboom &
Johnson, 2017; Shorten & Smith, 2017). This design begins with the
collection and analysis of qualitative data. Building from the qualitative
findings, quantitative measures or instruments are developed (Terrell, 2012;
Wisdom & Creswell, 2013), and finally, a researcher quantitatively tests the
variable that they have identified and interprets in what ways the
quantitative data generalizes and extends the qualitative findings (Creswell
& Plano Clark, 2018). For example, once a researcher identifies variables that
have a role in promoting the use of digital technologies in education, they
design the research instruments to check if those variables are prevalent in a
large mass as well. As far as the integration of this design is concerned, it
begins when a quantitative measure is developed based on the qualitative
results. Integration is also seen when a researcher integrates two sets of
data after the quantitative phase is complete, and draws integrated
conclusions that help to extend qualitative findings.
The exploratory sequential design is useful when a researcher and a research
issue are more qualitatively oriented; when s/he has a required amount of
time to conduct a three-phase study; when s/he is interested in the
transferability or generalizability of the product; and when s/he finds an issue
based on a small sample and wants to test it with a large sample (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2018). They further claim that it is straightforward to implement
and describe and it makes the qualitative result acceptable to quantitative-
biased audiences since it combines the quantitative component. They argue
that in this design, a researcher can develop a new instrument during the
research process. They also list challenges as a compulsion to plan for an

32
extended time to complete, a necessity to tentatively specify the
quantitative phase in advance, a prospective requirement of the
identification of two different samples, the necessity to determine the
qualitative results to use, and the requirement of the skillful researcher. This
research design requires a lot of time for a researcher to complete a study
and as in the explanatory sequential design, as s/he needs to decide
tentatively quantitative phase for the institutional board review which is
challenging. A researcher should use a small, purposeful sample in the first
phase and a large sample in the second phase to have the extended finding
which is difficult too. Next, s/he needs to decide the qualitative result which
will be used to build the quantitative measure, and s/he must be skilled and
proficient in qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods research and
developing instruments. The following is an example of a study that employs
the exploratory sequential design.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Although the concepts of Validity and Reliability are closely related, they
express different properties of the measuring instrument. Generally, a
measuring instrument may be reliable without being valid, but if a measuring
instrument is valid, it is also likely to be reliable. However, Reliability alone is
not sufficient to ensure validity. Even if a test is reliable, it may not
accurately reflect the desired behavior or quality. For this reason, researchers
must test both the Validity and Reliability of the measuring instrument
researchers intend to use. The measuring instrument must satisfy these two
conditions. Otherwise, it will not be healthy for researchers to interpret the
research findings.
Validity (Sürücü & Maslakçı, 2020). Validity refers to whether the measuring
instrument measures the behavior or quality it is intended to measure and is
a measure of how well the measuring instrument performs its function
(Anastasi and Urbina, 1997). Validity is determined by the meaningful and
appropriate interpretation of the data obtained from the measuring
instrument as a result of the analyses. Whiston (2012) defined validity as
obtaining data that is appropriate for the intended use of the measuring
instruments. In this case, validity tests, which determine whether the
expressions in the scale make suitable measurements according to the
purpose of the research, come to the fore. Testing the validity of the
measuring instrument is more difficult but more important than assessing its
Reliability. In order for the research to yield beneficial results, the measuring
instrument must measure what it claims. The use of a validated measuring
instrument ensures that the findings obtained as a result of the analyses are
valid.

Types of Validity
Content Validity. Bollen (1989) defined content validity as ―a qualitative
type of validity where the domain of the concept is made clear and the
analyst judges whether the measures fully represent the domain (p.185).

33
Content Validity refers to the connections between the test items and the
subjects-related tasks. The test should evaluate only the content related to
the field of study in a manner sufficiently representative, relevant, and
comprehensible.
Construct Validity. It implies using the construct correctly (concepts, ideas,
notions). Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept
and a specific measuring device or procedure. For example, a test of
intelligence nowadays must include measures of multiple intelligences,
rather than just logical mathematical and linguistic ability measures.
Face Validity. Like content validity ,face validity is determined by a review
of the items and not through the use of statistical analyses . Unlike content
validity , face validity is not investigated through formal procedures.
Instead ,anyone who looks over the test ,including examinees, may develop
an informal opinion as to whether or not the test is measuring what it is
supposed to measure . While it is clearly of some value to have the test
appear to be valid ,face validity alone is insufficient for establishing that the
test is measuring what it claims to measure.
Criterion Related Validity. Also referred to as Instrumental validity, it
states that the criteria should be clearly defined by the teacher in advance. It
has to take into account other teacher’s criteria to be standardized and it
also needs to demonstrate the accuracy of a measure or procedure which
has already been demonstrated to be valid.

Reliability (Sürücü & Maslakçı, 2020). Reliability refers to the stability of the
measuring instrument used and its consistency over time. In other words,
Reliability is the ability to measure instruments to give similar results when
applied at different times. Of course, it is unlikely that the same results will
be given every time due to differences at the time the measuring instrument
is applied, as well as changes in the population and the sample. However, a
strong positive correlation between the results of the measuring instrument
is an indication of Reliability. The Reliability of the measuring instrument is an
essential consideration for the results of the study to be healthy. Therefore,
researchers should ensure that measuring instrument used is reliable.
Different methods are used to determine the Reliability of the scales used in
empirical research. Among these, the most frequently applied methods are
test-retest reliability, alternative forms, and internal consistency tests.
Internal consistency tests can be applied in three different ways (split-half,
item-total correlations, and alpha reliability coefficient). In scale development
studies, researchers can test the Reliability of the scales they develop by
doing one or more of the test-retest Reliability, alternative forms, and
internal consistency tests. On the other hand, the researchers who used the
scale previously developed and whose Reliability was tested; they just need
to do one of the internal consistency tests. The most preferred internal
consistency tests are the alpha reliability coefficient.
Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient. The most popular method used in research
to test internal consistency is the determination of the alpha coefficient. In

34
the literature, different calculations have been developed for the alpha
coefficient. Despite this diversity in the literature, the Cronbach's alpha
coefficient, which was developed by Cronbach (1951) and is named after the
researcher who developed the coefficient, is generally accepted in the
literature. According to Calmorin (2007), the questionnaire is reliable if the
computed reliability coefficient equals 0.80 or more but not more than 1.0.

SAMPLING (Sharma, 2017)

Sampling is a technique (procedure or device) employed by a researcher to
systematically select a relatively smaller number of representative items or
individuals (a subset) from a pre-defined population to serve as subjects
(data source) for observation or experimentation as per objectives of his or
her study. For example, if, by using some systematic device, you pick up a
group of 100 undergraduates from out of a total of 1500 on the rolls of a
college for testing their physical fitness, you have selected a desired sample
from a particular population. Researchers usually use sampling for it is
impossible to be testing every single individual in the population. Although it
is a subset, it is representative of the population and suitable for research in
terms of cost, convenience and time. Still, every researcher must keep in
mind that the ideal scenario is to test all the individuals to obtain reliable,
valid and accurate results. If testing all the individuals is impossible, that is
the only time we rely on sampling techniques.
True to the science of research and statistics, the sampling procedures must
be carried out in consideration of several important factors such as (a)
population variance, (b) size of the universe or population, (c) objectives of
the study, (d) precision in results desired, (e) nature of the universe i.e.
homogeneity or heterogeneity in the constituent units, (f) financial
implications of the study, (g) nature and objectives of the investigation,
(h)techniques of the sampling employed, (i) accuracy needed in making
inference about the population being studied, and so on.
Types of Sampling Techniques
1. Probability Sampling: - Probability sampling is any sampling scheme in
which the probability of choosing each individual is the same (or at least
known, so it can be readjusted mathematically). These are also called
random sampling. They require more work, but are much more accurate.
2. Non-Probability Sampling: - Non-probability sampling technique is totally
based on judgement.

Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling. In this technique, each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected as subject. The entire
process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected

35
independently of the other members of the population. Pros of Simple
Random Sampling
 One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of
assembling the sample. It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a
sample from a given population since every member is given equal
opportunities of being selected.
 Another key feature of simple random sampling is its
representativeness of the population. Theoretically, the only thing that
can compromise its representativeness is luck. If the sample is not
representative of the population, the random variation is called
sampling error.
 An unbiased random selection and a representative sample are
important is drawing conclusions from the results of a study.
Remember that one of the goals of research is to be able to make
conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained from
a sample. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by
simple random sampling, it is reasonable to make generalizations from
the results of the sample back to the population.

Systematic Sampling. Suppose that the N units in the population are

numbered 1 to N in some order. To select a sample on N units, we take a unit
at random from the first K units and every kith unit thereafter. For instance, if
K is 15 and if the first unit drawn is number 13, the subsequent units are
numbers 28, 43, 58 and so on. The selection of the first unit determines the
whole sample. This type is called an every kith systematic sample. Pros of
Systematic Sampling
 Spreads the sample more evenly over the population.
 Easier to conduct than a simple random sample.

Stratified Sampling. A method of sampling that involves the division of a

population into smaller groups known strata. In stratified random sampling,
the strata are formed based on members shared attributes or characteristics.
A random sample from each stratum is taken in a number proportional to the
stratum’s size when compared to the population. These subsets of the strata
are then pooled to from a random sample. Pros of Stratified Sampling
 The aim of the stratified random sample is to reduce the potential for
human bias in the selection of cases to be included in the sample. As a
result, the stratified random sample provides us with a sample that is
highly representative of the population being studied, assuming that
there is limited missing data.
 Since the units selected for inclusion in the sample are chosen using
probabilistic methods, stratified random sampling allows us to make
generalizations (i.e. statistical inferences) from the sample to the
population. This is a major advantage because such generalizations are
more likely to be considered to have external validity.

36
Cluster Sampling or Multi-Stage Sampling. The naturally occurring
groups are selected as samples in cluster sampling. All the other probabilistic
sampling methods (like simple random sampling, stratified sampling) require
sampling frames of all the sampling units, but cluster sampling does not
require that. Once the clusters are selected, they are compiled into frames.
Now, various probabilistic researches and observations are performed on
these frames and require conclusions are drawn. Pros of Cluster Sampling
 Economy: - The two major concerns of expenditure when it comes to
sampling are travelling and listing. They are greatly reduced when it
comes to cluster sampling. For example: Compiling research
information about every house hold in the city would be a very difficult,
whereas compiling information about various blocks of the city will be
easier. Here travelling as well as listing efforts will be greatly reduced.
 Reduced Variability: - When you considering the estimates by any other
method of probabilistic sampling, reduced variability in results are
observed. This may not be an ideal situation every time. Increased
variability in results is observed in cluster sampling.
 Feasibility: - Again, as I mentioned before, cluster sampling is such a
method of probabilistic sampling that takes into account large
populations. Since these groups are so large, deploying any other
sampling technique would be very difficult task. Cluster sampling is
very feasible when you are dealing with large population.

Non-Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling. With proportional quota sampling, the aim is to end up
with a sample where the strata (groups) being studied (e.g. males vs.
females students) are proportional to the population being studied. If we
were to examine the differences in male and female students. Pros of Quota
Sampling
 Quota sampling is particularly useful when you are unable to obtain a
probability sample, but you are still trying to create a sample that is as
representative as possible of the population being studied. In this
respect, it is the nonprobability based equivalent of the stratified
random sample. Unlike probability sampling techniques, especially
stratified random sampling, quota sampling is much quicker and easier
to carry out because it does not require a sampling frame and the strict
use of random sampling techniques (i.e. probability sampling
techniques). This makes quota sampling popular in undergraduate and
master’s level dissertations where there is a need to divide the
population being studied into strata (groups).
 The quota sample improves the representations of particular strata
(groups) within the population, as well as ensuring that these strata
are not over-represented. For example, it would ensure that we have
sufficient male students taking part in the research (60% of our sample
size of 100; hence, 60 male students). It would also make sure we did
not have more than 60 male students, which would result in an

37
 overrepresentation of male students in our research. The use of quota
sample, which leads to stratification of a sample (e.g. male and female
students), allows us to more easily compare these groups (strata)

Purposive Sampling. Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental,

selective or subjective sampling, reflects a group of sampling techniques that
rely on the judgement of the researcher when it comes to selecting the units
(e.g. people, case/organizations, events, pieces of data) that are to be
studied. These purposive sampling techniques include maximum variation
sampling, homogeneous sampling and typical case sampling; extreme
(deviant) case sampling, total population sampling ad expert sampling. Pros
of Purposive Sampling
 Whilst the various purposive sampling techniques each have different
goal, they can provide researchers with the justification to make
generalizations from the sample that is being studied, whether such
generalizations are theoretical, analytic and logical in nature. However,
since each of these types of purposive sampling differs in terms of the
nature and ability to make generalizations you should read the articles
on each of these purposive sampling techniques to understand their
relative advantages.
 Qualitative research designs can involve multiple phases, with each
phase building on the previous one. In such instances different types of
sampling techniques may be required at each phase. Purposive
sampling is useful in these instances because it provides a wide range
of non-probability sampling techniques for the researcher to draw on.
For example critical case sampling may be used to investigate whether
a phenomenon is worth investigating further, before adopting an
expert sampling approach to examine specific issues further.

Self-Selection Sampling. Self-selection sampling is appropriate when we

want to allow units or cases, whether individuals or organizations to choose
to take part in research on their own accord. The key component is that
research subjects volunteer to take part in the research rather than being
approached by the researcher directly. Pros of Self-selection Sampling
 This can reduce the amount of time necessary to search for
appropriate units (or cases); that is, those individuals or organizations
that meet the selection criteria needed for your sample.
 The potential units or cases are likely to be committed to take part in
the study, which can help in improving attendance and greater
willingness to provide more insight into the phenomenon being
studied.

Snowball Sampling. In sociology and statistics research, snowball sampling

or chain sampling, chain-referral sampling is a non-probability sampling
technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among
their acquaintances. Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling

38
snowball. As the sample builds up, enough data is gathered to be useful for
research. This sampling technique is often used in hidden populations which
are difficult for researchers to access. Pros of Snowball Sampling
 It can be difficult to identifying units to include in your sample, perhaps
because there is no obvious list of the population you are interested in.
For example, there are no lists of drug users or prostitutes that a
researcher could get access to, especially lists that could be
considered representative to the population of drug users or
prostitutes.
 There may be no other way of accessing your sample, making snowball
sapling the only viable choice of sampling strategy.

ETHICAL ISSUES (Cresswell, 2014)

In addition to conceptualizing the writing process for a proposal, researchers
need to anticipate the ethical issues that may arise during their studies
(Berg, 2001; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011; Punch, 2005; Sieber, 1998).
Research involves collecting data from people, about people (Punch, 2005).
Writing about these anticipated ethical issues is required in making an
argument for a study as well as being an important topic in the format for
proposals. Researchers need to protect their research participants; develop a
trust with them; promote the integrity of research; guard against misconduct
and impropriety that might reflect on their organizations or institutions; and
cope with new, challenging problems (Israel & Hay, 2006). Ethical questions
are apparent today in such issues as personal disclosure, authenticity, and
credibility of the research report; the role of researchers in cross-cultural
contexts; and issues of personal privacy through forms of Internet data
collection (Israel & Hay, 2006).
Ethical issues in research command increased attention today. The ethical
considerations that need to be anticipated are extensive, and they are
reflected through the research process. These issues apply to qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods research and to all stages of research.
Proposal writers need to anticipate them and actively address them in their
research plans. Accordingly, it is helpful to address them as they relate to
different phases of inquiry. Attention needs to be directed toward ethical
issues prior to conducting the study; beginning a study; during data
collection and data analysis; and in reporting, sharing, and storing the data.

39
40
Ethical Principles
The Ethical Consideration (of a Dissertation and/or Thesis) should be
the last sub-section of Chapter III (after Data Analysis and Interpretation
Procedures).
The write up in a paragraph format should include but not limited to
the following (as applicable and relevant to the study):
1. Conflict of Interest. Declaration and management of conflicts arising from
financial, personal, and/or familial, of the researcher(s), sponsor, and/or
study site
2. Privacy and Confidentiality. Measures and safeguards done by the
researcher to protect privacy and confidentiality of information of
participants, institutions, groups, and/or other entities involved in the
research study. This should include, but not limited to, data protection
plans, anonymization plans, and data de-identification.
3. Informed Consent Process. Application of the principle of respect for
persons, institutions, groups, and/or other entities involved in the
research study to provide consent, how and when it will be secured, who

41
 will provide consent in the case of special populations (e.g. minors), and
those who are not legally competent to consent, etc.
4. Vulnerability. Involvement of vulnerable populations and impact on
informed consent. Vulnerable groups include children, the elderly, ethnic
and racial minority groups, the homeless, prisoners, people with incurable
disease, people who are politically powerless, or junior members of a
hierarchical group.
5. Assent. Feasibility of obtaining assent vis à vis incompetence to consent.
Applicability of the assent age brackets in minors: Under 7 y/o (no assent
but with parental consent); 7 – 12 y/o (verbal assent (provide script) &
parental consent); 12 – under 18y/o (co-signed informed consent with
parents).
6. Recruitment Process. Detailed manner of recruitment process of the
research participants including the appropriateness of identified recruiting
parties
7. Risks. Level of risk (including physical, psychological, social, and
economic) and measures to mitigate these risks, including plans for
adverse event management
8. Benefits. Potential direct benefit to participants; the potential to yield
generalizable knowledge about the participants’ condition or problem.
Non-material compensation to participant (health education or other
creative benefits) where no clear, direct benefit will be received by the
participant
9. Incentives or Compensation. Amount and method of compensations (for
travel expenses, loss of income, etc.), financial incentives or
reimbursement of study-related expenses planned and designed by the
researcher (s).
10. Community Considerations. Impact of the research on the community
where the research occurs and/or to whom findings can be linked
including issues like stigma or draining of local capacity, sensitivity to
cultural traditions, and involvement of the community and its leaders in
decisions about the study
11. Other Ethics-Related Issues. Other ethical issues that may arise but not
mentioned hereof.

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