Atomic Structure in the presence of electric and magnetic

field depend upon.

Discovery of electron, study of
required cathode rays.  Magnitude of negative charge
and particle: greater than charge
A cathode ray tube is made-up of glass
on the particle, greater is the
containing two thin pieces of metal called
interaction with the electrical and
electrode sealed in it. The metal wires
magnetic field and greater is the
are connected to a battery of high
deflection.
voltage.
 Mass of the particle: lighter the
A gas is taken in the discharge tube at particle, greater the deviation.
low pressure and high voltage some  Strength of electric or
invisible radiations are emitted from magnetic field: The deflection
cathode and they move towards anode increases with the increase in
positive terminal. These rays are called voltage or the strength of magnetic
cathode rays or cathode rays particles field.
(electron). When these rays pass through  When only one electric field is
the anode, they strike the zinc screen applied, the electron deviates from
developing a bright spot. their part and hit the point. Even
only magnetic field is applied, the
Properties of cathode rays.
electron deviates and commit the
 travel in a straight line with high Point C By carefully balancing the
speed. electric and magnetic field
 They produced heating effect. strength, the electrons are made to
 They cause ionization of gas fall on the point B.
through the gas is their passes.  E/M of electron= -1.6022x10^-19
 They produce X-ray when strike  Mass=9.1094x10^-31
against the surface of hard metal  The mass of an electron is nearly
like tungsten. 1/1837th the mass of a hydrogen
 They affect the photographic atom
plates.
Discovery of protons
 They possess penetrating effect,
the nature of cathode ray. By using the discharge tube with
 Do not depend upon the nature of perforated cathode, Goldstein discovered
gas taken in the discharge to you. that along with cathode rays, these were
 They are deflected by electric and a simulation emission of rays from anode
magnetic field. For each cathode to cathode. The rays are called anode
ray, the ratio of east to mass is rays or canal rays. In the discharge tube,
constant. the atom of gas loose negatively charged
electron. Those atoms thus acquire a
Charge to mass ratio of electron
positive charge. Positively charged
JJ Thomson measured the E by M ratio of particle produced from hydrogen gas
the electron using cathode ray tube and were called protons.
applying electric and magnetic field
Properties of anode rays or canal
perpendicular to each other as well as to
rays or proton.
the part of electrons the amount of
deviation of the particle from their path  They travel in a straight line.
  They are made-up of material Drawbacks of this model
particle.
 It could not explain the result of
 They start from an anode and
scattering experiment carried
move towards cathode.
out by Rutherford.
 The nature of anode rates depends
 The model failed to explain how a
on the nature of gas taken in the
positive charge holds negative
discharge tube.
charge electron in an atom. Hence
 For different gases taken in the
it failed to explain the stability of
discharge tube, E by M ratio of the
an atom.
positive rays are different. The
 These there were no place for
experiment revealed that when h2
neutrons in this model this model.
gas is taken in the discharge tube,
 Fail to account for the position of
the particle present in the anode
nucleus in an atom.
rays are minimum mass which
means lightest positively charged Rutherford Nuclear model of atom.
particle. The charge on these
Rutherford performed the alpha ray’s
particles is found to be same as an
experiment in which he bombarded very
of an electron.
thin gold foil with alpha particle. He
 e/m=9.58x10^4 cg-1
selected gold foil because he wanted a
 mass=1.67x10^-27
very thin foil and since gold is the most
Discovery of neutrons malleable metal, he can obtain a very
thin gold foil, the presence of alpha
James Chadwick combined certain light
particle at any point around the thin foil
elements like beryllium with alpha
of gold After striking it were detected
particles and found the presence of
with the help of a circular fluorescent zinc
highly penetrating radiation and these
sulfide screen.
radiations are not deflected by electric
and magnetic field. They consist of Observations
chargeless particle and were named
 Most of the alpha rays pass
neutrons.
through the gold foil without
Mass=1.674x10-27 kg showing any reflection. Because
of the large empty space in the
Atomic models
atom,
Different atomic models were proposed  most of the alpha particles could
to explain the distribution of these not pass through easily without
charged particles in atoms. any deflection.
Thomson Model of Atom.
According to Thomson and atom is a
positively charged sphere having
electrons embedded in it such that an
atom is electrically neutral. The mass of
an atom is distributed uniform. This
model was also known as watermelon
model, plum pudding model or Raisin
pudding model.
  A few of alpha particles were  This model of the atom also failed
deflected by small angle to explain the existence of
because there is heavy positive definite lines in the hydrogen
charge at the center of the spectrum
atom. Which cause repulsion. It is
also known as nucleus. Atomic number Z
 A few alpha particles one of Atomic number denotes the number of
20,000 were deflected by angle protons or the number of electrons
of 180 degree. in neutral atom.
Conclusion. Mass number (A)
 The volume occupied by The mass number is total number of
nucleus is negligibly smaller to protons and neutrons present in
total volume of atom. The size of nucleus of an atom of an element.
the nucleus is very small. And
compared to the size of atom, Protons and neutrons are present in
 Nucleus is surrounded by nucleus of an atom and they are
electrons that revolve around the collectively known as nucleons. The
nucleus with high speed in circular total number of nucleons system as the
path called orbit, mass number is equal to number of
 The positively charged and most protons.
of the mass of the atom is Neutrons in atom=A-Z
concentrated in the nucleus.
 The electrons and nucleus are held
together by electrostatic force of
attraction.
 The magnitude of the positive Isotopes, isobars and isotones.
charge on the nucleus is different Isotopes: the atom of the same element
for different atom which have the same atomic number
 The negative electrons surrounding but different mass number. Example
the nuclear balance, the positive Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen.
charge of the nucleus thus atom is
electrically neutral.  Isotopes of an element differ in
the number of neutron present
Drawbacks in the nucleus.
 This atomic model failed to explain  They have the same chemical
the stability of atoms. property and different masses
 According to the model, electrons and different physical
revolve around the positively properties
charged nucleus. It's not possible 
for the long run as we know atoms
are stable while any particle in a
circular orbit would undergo .
acceleration. During acceleration
charged particles would radiate
energy. Revolving electrons will
lose energy and finally fall into
the nucleus.
Isobars: the atom of different element (ii) All these electromagnetic radiation do
which have the same mass number not require any
but different atomic number. Example medium and can travel in vacuum.
(iii) Velocity of all electromagnetic
Argon and Calcium. radiation is
Isotones: atom of different element 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum.
(iv) Energy of an electromagnetic wave is
which have the same number of
directly
neutrons. Example calcium, nitrogen proportional to intensity and it is
and oxygen. Have different physical independent of
and chemical properties. frequency.
(v) They also show diffraction and
interference and
therefore, Maxwell concluded light to be
Development leading to goals
wave nature.
atomic model.
But Maxwell theory couldn’t explain the
Dual behavior of electromagnetic results of
radiation, wave nature and particle photoelectric effect and black body
nature radiations.

Nature of light and electromagnetic Corpuscular theory –(Newton)

radiations. According to this theory,

 JC Maxwell suggested that when  light is propagated in the form of

electrically charged particle invisible small particle, that is light
moves under acceleration, as particle nature.
alternating electrical and  The particle nature of light explains
magnetic field are produced and some of the experimental fact like
transmitted. reflection and refraction of the
 These fields are transmitted in the light, but it has failed to explain
form of waves called phenomena of interference and
electromagnetic waves and diffraction.
electromagnetic radiations.  Diffraction is the process by which
Electromagnetic radiation does not a beam of light or a custom of
need any medium. Propagation waves is spread out as result of
example, visible, UV, IR, X-ray, passing through a narrow
etcetera. apparatus or across an edge,
 Two theories were proposed to (bending of waves around the
explain the nature and propagation obstacle)
of light.  Interference. It is the phenomena
in which two waves superimpose to
former resultant wave of greater or
Characteristics of Electromagnetic lower or say same amplitude.
Radiations:
(i) In these electromagnetic radiation Wave theory of light
electrical and Electromagnetic wave theory.
magnetic field oscillates perpendicular to
each other This theory was explained by JC Maxwell
and it also propagates perpendicular to to understand the nature of
both field.
electromagnetic radiation. This feature of
this theories are
 light is a form of electromagnetic
radiation.
 Lights are radiation consisting of
electrical and magnetic field. Frequency: The number of waves is
Perpendicular to each other. passes through a given point in one
 These radiations do not require any second it is dominated by mue. The SI
medium for propagation. unit of frequency is hertz
 The radiation processes wave
character and travel with the Velocity. The distance traveled by a
velocity of light 3x10^8. wave in one second is known as
 Based on the above experiments, velocity of the speed of wave. It is
the radiation are called denoted by C. The SI unit is meter per
electromagnetic radiation or second. The velocity of electromagnetic
waves. radiation in vacuum is constant,
commonly known as the speed of light.
Order of wavelength in
Electromagnetic spectrum: The wave
Cosmic rays < γ – rays < X-rays < number,
Ultraviolet rays < Visible < the number
 Infrared < Micro waves < Radio of
waves. wavelengths
ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM per unit
length is
The arrangement of various types of generated
electromagnetic radiations in the order of by nue bar. It is reciprocal of wavelength.
their increasing or decreasing The SI unit of wave number is in meter.
wavelength or frequencies
is known as electromagnetic spectrum. Amplitude: The height of the Crest or
The wavelength decreases in the the depth of the trough of a wave is
following order. donated by A. Amplitude determines the
Radio waves > microwaves > Infrared strength or intensity or brightness of
> Television waves > Visible > radiation.
Ultraviolet > X-rays > g-rays > cosmic
rays Electromagnetic spectrum.

Characteristics of wave motion. The arrangement of different type of

electromagnetic radiation in the order of
Wavelength: The distance between two increasing wavelength is known as
consecutive Crest or trough it is electromagnetic spectrum.
donated by the little Lambda. The
wavelength is measured in the terms of
meter, centimeters, angstroms,
nanometer, picometer.
The radiation having highest wavelength holes in its oil, can act as a near
will have the lowest frequency and vice black body. The black body is also
versa. not an perfect the nature of
radiation depends upon the
Limitation of electromagnetic wave
temperature of.
theory
 The body at a given temperature
It failed to explain the intensity of radiation increases
with frequency, reaches a
 the phenomenon of black body
maximum and then decreases. The
radiation,
density of radiation is greatest at
 photoelectric effect,
the medium level wavelength and
 the change in heat of solid as a
restart the highest and the lowest
function of temperature,
wavelength as the temperature
 the line Spectra of atom with
increases the peak of maximum
special reference to hydrogen.
intensity. Shift towards shorter
 These phenomena could not be
wavelength.
explained only of electromagnetic
waves. Because it is this particle
nature.

Particle nature of electromagnetic

radiation.
Photoelectric effect.
Black body radiation.
 This effect was observed by Hertz.
 Black body radiation was explained The phenomena of
by Max plan. When solids are ejection of electron from
heated they emit radiation having the surface of a metal from light or
different wavelength. When an iron suitable frequency strikes on it is
rod is irradiated, emits radiation known as photoelectric effect.
and these radiation changes as the  The emitted electrons are known as
temperature changes. The color of photoelectrons only a few metals
iron rod changes from dull red to such as calcium rubidium and
orange, then yellow and then white potassium which has low ionization
and finally blue, (the radiation energy the energy required to
emitted goes from a high frequency remove the loosely bonded
to lower frequency.) electrons from the outer most shell
 When radiant energy fall on a of the isolated gases atom is called
surface of a body, a part of it is ionization. Hence alkali metal group
absorbed, a sort of it is reflected in metals are called alkali metals are
the remaining energy transmitted. used in photoelectric cells. These
The ideal body, when it’s absorbed electrons are ejected from the
radiation of all fragrance is known metal surface as soon as the beam
as black body. The radiation of light strikes the surface for each
emitted by such bodies known as metal pieces.
black body radiation,  Minimum frequency of light needs
 A hollow sphere coated inside with to eject the electron. This
platinum black, which has small
 frequency is known as the
threshold frequency.
Planks. Quantum theory of radiation.
 The kinetic energy of the electron
ejected electrons is directly To explain the particle nature of
proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation, Planck
incident radiation and independent introduced this theory. The postulate of
of its intensity. The number of this theory are these.
electrons ejected is proportional to
 The emission of radiation from a
intensity of the brightness of the
body is due to the vibration of the
light.
charged particle in the body.
 The remaining part of energy of a
 The radiant energy is not emitted
photon is used to increase the
or absorbed continuously but
kinetic energy of the ejected
discontinuously in the form of small
electron
packet of energy called quanta. In
the case of light, quantum of
energy is known as photon.
 The amount of energy associated
with the quantum of radiation is
proportional to the frequency of
light
where h is planks
constant=6.626x10^-34 Js
 The total amount of energy emitted
or absorbed by body will be some
whole number of multiple of

quantum ie
Atomic Spectra
 Splitting of light into series of color
brand is known as dispersion and
the series of color band obtained is
known as spectrum.
 If in a spectrum one color merges
into other without any offset.
Spectrum is known as continuous
spectrum
 when gases or vapors of chemical
substances heated light is emitted
if this light is passed through a
prism of line of spectrum is
obtained which is discontinued
spectrum.
  The pattern of nine obtained for
each element is unique. Hence the
9 spectrum is also regardless as
the fingerprint of atom. This
discontinuous spectrum consisting
of distinct. As well as line, where
the dark areas in between is called
line spectrum or an atomic
spectrum, there are two types of
atomic spectrum.
Emission Spectra: The spectrum of
radiation emitted by a substance that
has absorbed energy is known as Rydberg Equation
emission Spectra. To produce an emission R=109677
Spectra, energy supplied to a sample by
heating or radiating it.
Absorption Spectra: which is like a
photographic negative of emission
Spectra. Continuous of radiation is
Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom
passed through a sample which absorb
radiation of certain wavelength, the To overcome the drawbacks of Rutherford
missing wavelength which correspond to ‘s model of an atom bohr proposed a
the radius of by the matter lever dark model of an atom which was based upon
space in the bright is Continuous the Planck’s quantum theory of radiation.
spectrum. The postulate of those model of an atom
are
Line spectrum of hydrogen.
 The electron revolve around the
When hydrogen gas at low temperature
nucleus will definite velocity in
is taken in a discharge tube and light is
certain fixed circular path called
emitted on passing electric discharge is
orbits or sharing.
examined with a spectroscope. The
 These shells are numbered as 123
spectrum obtained is known as emission
for a term desk KLMN from the
spectrum of hydrogen. The spectrum
nucleus. EN > EM > EL > Ek
consists of large number line in the UV,
 Each orbit is associated with a
visible and IR region. It consists of 6
different amount of energy and a
series
fixed radius.
 As long as the electron remain in a
particular outfit, it does not. lose
are gains energy. These orbits are
called stationary states.
 The energy of electron in an orbit
does not change with time. This
accounts for the stability of atom.
 The centrifugal force of the
revolving electron in the stationary
orbit is balanced by the
 electrostatic attraction between
the electron and the nucleus.
 The electron can revolve only in
orbit whose angular momentum
are an integral multiple of h/2pie
 It helped in calculating the energy
of the electron in a particular orbit
of the hydrogen atom

The energy of the lowest state is -

2.18x10^-18 J called Ground state.

 The energy of an electron changes

only when it moves from one orbit
to another.
 Outer orbit has higher energies
while inner orbit have lower
energies, the energies absorbed
when electrons move from inner
orbit to outer orbit, the energy is
emitted. When the electrons are
from outer orbit to inner orbit, the
energy emitted. Absorbed in the
transition is equal to the difference
between the energy of the two
orbits, the energies emitted or
absorbed in the form of quanta.
Merits
 It could explain the stability of the
atom. The electron revolving in the
stationary orbit do not lose or gain
energy and hence an atom is
stable.
 It successfully explained the atomic
Spectra of hydrogen.
 The maximum number of line
produced when electrons jump
from n th level to the ground level
is
 The energy of an electron in an
atom is negative. The negative sign
of energy means that energy of
electron in an atom is lower than
the energy of a free electron at
rest.
 A free electron at rest is an electron
that is at significantly far from the
nucleus and its energy is assumed
to be 0. Has the electron move
closer to the nucleus, it loses
energy due to the attractive force
of nucleus inside. Energy decreases
 The velocity of electron in any orbit
and takes energy value less than 0,
was determined by bores model.
which means negative value.
 The negative sign also indicates
that the electron is bound to the
nucleus when electron is attracted
by the nucleus and is present in the
orbital n Energy is emitted, the
energy of electron is lower.
 Bohr could explain the calculation
of radius of the orbit for a hydrogen
atom radius of nth orbit

Limitation of Bohr’s atom model

 Bohr’s theory failed to explain the
Spectra multiple electron atom.
 It could not explain the final detail
observed in the spectrum.
 It couldn’t explain the splitting of
spectral line into a group of fine
 The radius of first stationary state lines under influence of magnetic
(n=1) 5.29pm is called Bohr radius field and electric field
 Bohrs model also helped  Bohrs theory does not provide any
calculating the energy of the clue to Explain the shape of
electron and the radius of orbit of molecules Arising out of directional
hydrogen like species. bonding between atom
 The species which contain only one  Bohr assume that an electron is an
electron are called hydrogen like atom is located at definite distance
species. from nucleus and its revolving with
 the definite velocity around. This is etcetera, dual characters, all material
against the Heisenberg’s particles in motion possesses wave
uncertainty principle. characteristics. The de Broglie relation is
derived by combining mass energy
relationship proposed by Max Planck and
Einstein.

Towards quantum mechanical model.

The electron moving with high speed
 Two important development which possesses both wave nature and particle
contributed significantly to the nature. Then wave associated with
quantum mechanical model were material particle are known as matter
dual nature of matter and wave or particle wave. The wavelength
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. associated with ordinary object are short
because of the large masses and their
Dual nature of matter.
wave properties cannot be detected
De Broglie suggested that just as light
exhibited waves and particle property
both all the microscopic particles such as Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.
electron, protons, atoms, molecules,
Heisenberg stated the uncertainty Equation known as screen Schrodinger
principle, which is the consequence of wave equation.
dual behavior of matter and radiation. It
stated that it is impossible to determine
simultaneously the exact position and
the exact momentum or velocity of a
microscopic particle. With absolute
accuracy. we can determine the position
of particle Very accurately, but then the
determination of its velocity becomes
less accurate, and vice versa. The
certainty in one factor introduces the
uncertainty in the other

one of the major achievements of

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is not
Schrodinger wave equation is that it
applicable to those objects which cannot
successfully interpreted the experimental
change their position by themselves
information of the atoms and molecules.
when light falls on them. It is applicable
The wave function gives the amplitude of
for microscopic particle. This principle
the electron wave.
rules out the existence of definite path or
trajectories of electron and other similar Schrodinger wave equation for
particle, the concept of orbit. Has been hydrogen atom.
ruled out by this theory.
Important features of quantum
Quantum mechanical model of atom mechanical model of atom.
The branch of science that takes into  The energy of electron in atom is
account the dual may behavior of matter quantized at when they can have
is called quantum mechanics. Quantum only a certain value.
mechanics was developed independently  The existence of quantized
by Heisenberg and Schrodinger. electronic energy level is direct
Schrodinger described the wave motion result of wave like properties of
of electron in three-dimensional space electron and are allowed solutions
and the nucleus biomathematics. of Schrodinger wave equation
  both the exact position. And
exactly velocity of Electron in an
atom cannot be determined
simultaneously. We can only find
the probability of the position of
the electron. These probable
regions where the electron have
more than 95% of chance of
existence are known as orbitals.
 The electron in an atom is placed in
atomic orbital. In each orbital the
electron has a definite energy and
orbital cannot accommodate more
than two electrons.
 The electrons are filled in various
orbital in the increasing order of
energy. All the information about
an electron is stored in the orbital. Quantum numbers.
 The probability of finding an
electron at the point within an Principal quantum numbers (N)
atom is proportional to the square  It determines the main energy shell
of wave. Function that at that point. or the energy level in which the
The wave function squared is electron is present.
known as the probability density,  It also indicates the average
and it is always positive. distance of electron from the
Orbitals. nucleus.
 It also gives the energy of an
The three-dimensional space around the electron and idea about the radius
nucleus where the maximum probability of the orbit.
of finding an electron is known as  As the in-value increases, the
orbitals. distance of electron from the
nucleus also increases. The size of
the atom can also be predicted.
Azimuthal quantum number denoted
by alphabet (L)
 It determines angular momentum
of the electron and hence it is also
known as the orbital angular
momentum or subsidiary quantum
number.
 It gave three-dimensional shape of
orbital. L can have values from 0 to
N–1
 The value of L give the subshell or
sub level in an given principal
 energy shell to which an electron
belongs.
The angular momentum of electron is
given by the equation

Energy of orbitals.
The energy of various orbital in hydrogen
Magnetic quantum number (M).
atom depends upon the value of principal
 It describes the behavior of an quantum number within a shell or the
electron in a magnetic field. hydrogen orbital are same energy The
 It gives the different orientation of orbital having the same energy are called
orbital in shape. degenerate orbitals.
 determines the number of orbital
The 1S orbital in hydrogen atom
present in any subset.
correspond the most stable condition or
 It can have values ranging from -l
state and it’s called the ground state for
to +l and a total number of values
multi electron atom. The energy of the
will be 2L + 1.
orbital depends upon the value of north
and the order of energy of R or orbitals in
Spin quantum number. multi electrons.

 It described the spin orientation of Electric configuration of atoms.

an electron. Since the electron is in
The distribution and arrangement of
an orbital, can spin either in
electron in different orbital in the
clockwise or an anticlockwise
increasing order of their energy is called
direction. It can have only two
electric configuration. The filling of
values, either plus half or minus
orbitals is governed by the following
half. Plus, half represent clockwise,
principle.
spin minus half represent
anticlockwise spin and orbital Aufbau principle.
cannot accommodate more than
It said that in the ground state of the
two electron and these two
atom; the orbital is filled in order in their
electrons should have opposite
increasing energy.
spins.
Pauli exclusion principle.
Nodes
It stated that no two electrons in an atom
There are two types of nodes, Radial
can have the same set of values for all
nodes and angular node.
four quantum numbers.
A radial node is a spherical region
Hand rule of maximum multiplicity.
around the nucleus where the probability
of finding the electron is zero. That It said that electron pairing will not take
means a function square is equal to 0. place in orbital of same energy until each
orbital is singly filled.
Module correction
1. The minimum real charge on any
particle which can exist is 1.6 x
10^-19C
2. The e/m ratio of anode is constant
3. In Rutherford experiment the beam
which was used was helium nuclei
4. The distance b/w 2nd and 1st Bohr
orbit of hydrogen atom is 1.587 x
10^8cm
5. In abhor orbit the ratio of total if the frequency of incident light is
potential energy and total energy more than the threshold frequency,
of electron is +2 18. an intense and a weak demo
6. The boar’s theory is not applicable of monochromatic radiation differ
for he +2 in having numbers of photon and
7. Planks idea of radiation being not an energy of photons.
continuous of particles called 19. Wavelength- red > yellow >
quantum explains instantaneous blue > violet
ejection of electron from cathode. 20. Angular momentum is non
8. In the absence of external zero for 2p orbital
magnetic field f sub shell has 7 21. S quantum number will affect
degenerate orbitals if we remove one electron from mg
9. Sub shell present in n shell are 4s, 22. 2p and 3p orbitals have equal
4p, 4d, 4f orbital angular momentum
10. Subshells have a ranking 23. The ratio of volume of
order of increasing energy, which is nucleus with volume of atom is
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 10^-15
4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 24. The energy requires to
and 7p, with energy increasing dislodge electron from excited
from left to right isolated h atoms is <= 3.4 eve
11. The d5 electronic 25. De Broglie equation has
configuration contains 5 unpaired significance for electrons protons
electrons. This is the maximum and neutrons
possible number of unpaired 26. In h atom-
electrons in d orbitals. Hence, this 27. Kinetic energy of electron is
configuration shows maximum maximum in the first orbital
magnetic moment value. 28. Radius of the second orbit is
12. According to Planck quantum four times the radius of the first
theory quantum which has orbit
wavelength from 3800 A to 7600 A 29. Various energy levels are
is known as photon unequally spaced
13. Possible spectral lines= (n2- 30. Radial determine size of an
n1) (n2-n1+1)/2 orbital
14. E=mc^2 and E=hv both 31. Q(q) contains l and m
relates to photons as both wave 32. Atomic helium gives line of
motion and as a stream of particles spectrum
15. There is no electron ejection
regardless of intensity of the
radiation, unless the frequency
exceeds the threshold value, which
is the characteristics of metal
16. maximum kinetic energy of DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
ejected electron arrays linearly with Dalton proposed the atomic theory on
the frequency of incident radiation. the basis of the law of
17. Even at low intensity conservation of mass and law of definite
electrons are ejected. Immediately, proportions. He also
proposed the law of multiple proportion
as a logical consequence
of this theory. The salient features of this
theory are:
(a) Each element is composed by
extremely small particles
called atoms.
(b) Atoms of a particular element are all
like but differ with
the atoms of other elements.
(c) Atom of each element is an ultimate
particle, and has a
characteristic mass but is structureless.
(d) Atom is indestructible i.e. it can
neither be created nor
destroyed by simple chemical reactions.
(e) Atom of an element takes part in
chemical reaction to
form molecule.
(f) In a given compound, the relative
number and kind of
atom is same.
(g) Atoms of different elements combine
in fixed ratio of
small whole numbers to form compound
atoms (now
called molecules).
Merits and Demerits of Dalton’s
Theory
(i) Merits:
(a) Dalton’s theory explains the law of
conservation of
mass and some other laws of chemical
combination.
(b) Atoms of elements take part in
chemical reaction is
true till today.
(ii) Demerits:
(a) There is no mention of atomic weights
of elements.
(b) He could not explain that why do
atoms of same
element combined with each other.
(c) The law of definite proportion fails if
different isotopes
are used