Dr.

BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

MODULE-4 POLYMERS & GREEN FUELS

Polymers: Introduction, Molecular weight - Number average, weight average and
numerical problems. Preparation, properties and commercial applications of Kevlar.
Conducting polymers–synthesis and conducting mechanism of polyacetylene and
commercial applications. Preparation, properties and commercial applications of
graphene.
Green Fuels: Introduction, construction and working of solar photovoltaic cell,
advantages, and disadvantages. Generation of energy (green hydrogen) by electrolysis of
water and its advantages.

Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.
The term "polymer" derived from the ancient Greek word polus, meaning "many, much" and meros,
meaning "parts, and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed of multiple repeating units, from
which originates a characteristic of high relative molecular mass and attendant properties. The term was
coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius. Because of their broad range of properties, both synthetic and
natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life.
Polymers are natural and synthetic compounds with very high molecular weights (ranging from
10000 to 100000). Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural
biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function.
Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as
monomers. Polymers are natural and synthetic compounds with very high molecular weights (ranging
from 10000 to 100000).
Polymers possess wide range of properties due to their long ranging properties, they can be used
to manufacture of wide variety of articles. Most of them are economical and are very useful. Examples
of high polymers are cellulose, starch, glycogen, proteins and etc; Their consequently large molecular
mass relative to small molecule compounds produces unique physical properties, including toughness,
viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals.
Important commercial polymers are:
Resins: These are the base materials used in the manufacturing of plastics by mixing with fillers,
plasticizers, lubricants, coloring agents and stabilizers.
Plastics: The materials which soften at certain temperature and harden at
characteristic temperature are known as plastics.
Elastomers: These consist of zigzag or helical chain of molecules, undergo elastic changes when
subjected to external source, but regain their original shape when the force is withdrawn.
Fibers: Fibers are long thin thread like polymer chain, which do not stretch or undergo deformation like
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

elastomers. The molecular chains are arranged in parallel, spiral, helical pattern.
Basic definitions:
Polymer: A polymer is a large molecule formed by the repeated covalent linkage of small units called
monomers". OR
A polymer is a large molecule of high molecular weight obtained by the chemical interaction of many
small molecules of low molecular weight of one or more type. The process of manufacture of a polymer
is called the polymerization.

Ex: Starch, Polyvinyl chloride, Polyethylene, Nylon 6, 6 and etc

Monomers: Small molecules of low molecular weight, which combine to give a polymer, are called
monomers. or
Monomer is defined as a simple molecule or single unit representing in a polymer with two or more
binding sites either unsaturation or having two or more than two functional groups through which it
forms covalent linkages with other monomeric units to form the
macromolecule".
Polymerization: Is the process of conversion of low molecular weight substances into high molecular
weight substances with or without the elimination of by products such as HCl, H2O, NH3 etc.

Polymerization: Polymerization is the process of formation of a polymer by the repeated covalent

linkage of monomeric units". Based on source
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Classification of polymers: Based on source, Polymers have three types as follows;

Natural Polymers
Semi-Synthetic Polymers
Synthetic Polymers

Natural polymers:
These are the polymers obtained naturally by plants and animals.Ex: Silk, wool, natural rubber,
protein, starch, cellulose, etc.
Semi-Synthetic Polymers
These polymers are developed from natural polymers and are chemically modified. For
example, cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, etc.
Synthetic (artificial) polymers:
These are artificially prepared polymers also known as manmade polymers. Ex: PVC, Nylon 6.6,
Polythene, Phenol, Formaldehyde, Resin etc.
Synthetic polymers possess wide ranging properties. They may be elastic or rigid, soft or hard,
transparent or opaque. Some possess the strength of steel, but are very light and chemically inert. These
properties have made them indispensable materials in engineering and technology. The progress in the
field of electronics and electrical engineering is closely associated with that of
synthetic high polymers.

Homopolymers: If all the monomeric units are same in a polymer called homo polymer Ex:
Polyethylene.

Heteropolymer: If the monomeric units are different in a polymer chain called hetero polymer. Ex:
Nylon 6, 6.

Number Average and Weight Average:

Number Average: The number average molecular weight is defined as the total weight of polymer
divided by the total number of molecules.

Mn¯ =∑niMi
∑ni
(Where n1, n2 etc are number of particles havingmass M1, M2 etc.)
That means

Mn¯=n1 M1 + n2 M2 + ------
n1 + n2+ ----
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Weight average molecular weight (Mw¯): Molecular weight of each particle is multiplied by total
weight of this species. These factors are added for all the size species and divided by the sum of
weights ofall individual sizes.

Mw¯ = ∑niMi2
∑niMi

That means
Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 +
n1 M1 + n2 M2 +-----
Polydispersity index:

In order to have an idea about the homogeneity of a polymer, the term polydispersity index is
used. Itis the ratio of mass average molecular mass to the number average molecular mass.

PDI=Mw/Mn.

For natural polymers, PDI is usually equal to one, which means that they are monodisperse. Such
polymers are more homogeneous.

Synthetic polymers on the contrary generally have PDI >l which means that they are less
homogeneous.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. A polymer of polypropylene is found to have the following data, calculate the number average and
weight average molecular masses of the polymer. (Atomic mass of C=12, H=1, neglect the molecular
mass of R)

a. R-[-CH2-CH=CH3-]400-R 20%

b. R-[-CH2-CH=CH3-]500-R 30%

c. R-[-CH2-CH=CH3-]600-R 50%

2. A polymer sample contains l,2,3 and 4 molecules having molecular weights 105, 2x105, 3x105 and
4x105 respectively. Calculate the number average and weight average molecular masses of the polymer.
Also calculate polydispersity index (PDI) of the polymer and comment on the nature of polymer.

3. In a sample of polymer, 100 molecules have molecular mass 103 g/mol, 250 molecules have
molecular mass 104 g/mol and 300 molecules have molecular mass 105 g/mol. Calculate the number
average and weight average molecular masses of the polymer. Calculate PDI and comment on it.
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

4. In a polymer sample, 20% of molecules have molecular mass 15000 g/mol, 35% of molecules have
molecular mass 25000 g/mol, remaining molecules have molecular mass 20000 g/mol, calculate the
number average and weight average molecular masses of the polymer, and PDl.

5. A polymer sample contains, 5 molecules having a molecular weight of 2000, 4 molecules having a
molecular weight of 3000 and 3 molecules having a molecular weight of 4000. Calculate the number
average and weight average molecular weight.

6. A polymer has the following composition 100 molecular mass 1000g/mol, 200 molecules of
molecular mass 2000g/mol and 500 molecular mass 5000g/mol. Calculate the number and weight
average molecular weights and PDI.

Types of polymerization:
Polymerization occurs basically by two different modes. They are
1.Addition polymerization (chain polymerization) and
2.Condensation polymerization (step growth).
i. Addition polymerization: Addition polymerization is brought about by linking together simple
unsaturated molecules such as alkenes or substituted alkenes without the elimination of any by products.
Eg: Ethylene to polyethylene nCH2 = CH2 → [- CH2 -CH2-]n
Addition polymerization is initiated using small amount of substances called initiators. One of the
important initiator is Ziegler-Natta catalyst {TiCI4 + Al(C2H5) 3}. The initiators impart regular structure to
the polymer.
ii. Condensation polymerization: Condensation polymerization is brought about by linking together
different monomer molecules accompanied by the elimination of small molecules
like H2O, NH3 and HCI. Thus the resulting material is a copolymer.
Eg: Condensation between a dicarboxylic acid [HOOC-X-COOH] and a dihydric alcohol [HO-Y-OH] to
give polyester with the elimination of water. n[HOOC-X-COOH] + n[HO-Y-OH]→ HO-[-OC-X-COO-
Y-O]n-H +(2n-1)H2O

CONDUCTING POLYMERS
"An organic polymer with highly delocalized 𝝅-electron system, having electrical
conductance of the order of a conductor is called a conducting polymer".
An organic polymer with highly delocalized pi-electron system, having electrical conductance of
the order of a conductor is called a conducting polymer". The concept of conductivity of conjugated
olymers is now extended from polyacetylene to the number of conjugated such polymers as polypyrrole,
polythiophene, polyphenylene and polyanilene.
Conducting polymers are found to be highly promising materials for various applications with
inherent advantages such as flexibility, ease fabrications, stability, ease of j processability. And above all
with the low cost conducting polymers are considered to be better than conventional conducting
inorganic materials.
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

The conducting polymers are synthesized by doping, in which charged species are introduced in
organic polymers having 𝜋-back bone. The important doping reactions, are;
Oxidative doping (P doping),
Reductive doping (n-doping) and
Protonic acid doping (p-doping):
1. Oxidative doping (p-doping): In this process, 𝜋 -back bone of a polymer is partially oxidized using a
suitable oxidizing agent. This creates positively charged sites on polymer back bone, which are current
carriers for conduction.
The oxidizing agents used for this process are iodine vapour, I2 in CCl4, perchloric acid and
benzoquinone. Ex: Synthesis of conducting polyacetylene.
2. Reductive doping (n-doping): In n-doping, 𝜋 -back bone of a polymer is partially reduced by a
suitable reducing agent. This creates negatively charged sites on polymer back bone. These sites are
responsible for conduction. The most common reducing agent used for n-doping is a solution of sodium
naphthalidein tetrahydrofuran. Ex: Synthesis of conducting polyacetylene.
3. Protonic acid doping (p-doping): In this technique, current carrying charged species ( -ve/+ve) are
created by the protonation of imine nitrogen. Ex: synthesis of polyaniline.

Synthesis of conducting polyacetylene:

When acetylene gas is bubbled through heptane/toluene solvent containing Ziegler-Nata catalyst,
Polyacetylene solid film is formed at the gas-liquid interface. Cis polymer forms at low temperature (-78
°C). Isomerization to the more stable trans form takes place on rising the temperature of the film.
Conductivity of doped cis films is two or three times greater than the trans analogues.

[The Ziegler-Natta catalysts usually contain many mixtures of halides belonging to

Transition metals like titanium, vanadium, chromium, zirconium and organic derivatives
of non transition metals especially that of alkyl aluminium compounds. Ex: A mixture of titanium
tetrachloride (TiCl4) and triethylaluminium (Al(C2 H5) 3), A mixture of tetrabutoxy titanium
(Ti(OBu) 4) and triethylaluminium (Al(C2 H5) 3)
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Conduction mechanism of polyacetylene:

Reductive doping (n-doping):
The conductivity of these polymers is believed to be a result of the creation of charge-transfer
complexes between the polymer and halogen. Charge transfer occurs from the polymer to the
acceptor compound; the polyacetylene chain acts as a cation and the acceptor as an anion.
In the first step, polymer chain is partially reduced by using a mild reducing agent such as Na-
napthalide in tetrahydrofuran (THF) as solvent. In this case, one electron is added to polymer
chain forming a free radical anion which is called as polaron.
Similarly, in the second step another free radical-anion is formed which is called as bipolaron.
The radicals migrate towards each other and combine to form one double bond .
This bipolaron on rearrangement gives a conducting polymer with two negative chargers as
carriers of electric current. Negative charges are compensated by Na+ ions and polymer as a
whole is electrically neutral. Since negative charges are the carriers of electric current, this type
of doping is called as n doping.

Oxidative doping (p-doping): In this process, pi-back bone of a polymer is partially oxidized using a
suitable oxidizing agent. This creates positively charged sites on polymer back bone, which are current
carriers for conduction.
The oxidizing agents used in p-doping are iodine vapor, iodine in CCl4, HBF4, perchloric acid and
benzoquinone.
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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

The removal of an electron from the polymer pi-back bone using a suitable oxidizing agents leads to the
formation of delocalized radical ion called polaron. A second oxidation of a chain containing polaron
followed by radical recombination yields two charge carriers on each chain. The positive charges sites
on the polymer chains are compensated by anions I3- formed by the oxidizing agent during doping. The
delocalized positive charges on the polymer chain are mobile, not the dopant anions.
Thus, these delocalized positive charges are current carriers for conduction. These charges must move
from chain to chain as well as along the chain for bulk conduction On doping polyacetylene using iodine
in CCl4, for partial oxidation, the conductivity increases from 10-5 S.cm-1 to 103-105 S.cm-1.
Commercial applications:
 Polyacetylene as a conductive organic polymer led to many developments in materials science.
 Doped polyacetylene offers a good electrical conductivity, hence can be used as electrode material in
light weight rechargeable batteries.
 l3-dopped acetylene can also be used in biosensors.
 Fabrication of organic thin transistors.
 Non-volatile memory devices based on organic transistors.
 Fabrication of organic photovoltaic cells.
 Fabrication of organic light-emitting devices (OLED).
 Conducting polymer actuators and Micropumps.
Focused upon polymer membranes that incorporated electronically conducting polymers and
piezoelectric polymers.
Kevlar (Para aramid)
Kevlar (-NH-C6H4-NH-CO-C6H4-CO-)n Kevlar is an aramid, a term invented abbreviation for
aromatic polyamide. The chemical composition of Kevlar is poly para phenylene terephthalamide, and is
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

more properly known as a para-aramid. It was the first organic fibe with. sufficient tensile strength and
structural rigidity to be used in advance composites.
synthesis
Kevlar is synthesized in solution of N-methyl pyrrolidone and calcium chloride from monomers
1, 4-phenylene-diamine (para- phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride through a condensation
reaction with the liberation of HCl as a by product.

Properties:
1. It is about five times as strong as steel.
2. High tensile strength.
3. High modulus of elasticity and low weight.
4. High chemical inertness.
5. Very low coefficient of thermal expansion
6. High fracture toughness (impact resistance) and flame resistance.
Commercial applications:
1. Used as reinforcement in tyres and rubber mechanical goods.
2. Industrial applications are as cables, brake linings and body armor.
3. Used in plastic reinforcement for boat hulls, airplanes and bicycles.
4. Used as an inner lining for some bicycle tyres to prevent punctures.
5. Used in making helicopter rotor blades, cricket bats and hockey sticks.

Synthesis of graphene oxide by Hummers method: Graphene oxide is synthesized by Hummers

method through oxidation of graphite.
1. Graphite flakes (2 g) and NaNO3 (2 g) are mixed in 50 mL of conc. H2SO4 in a 1000 mL volumetric
flask kept under at ice bath (0-5°C) with continuous stirring.
2. The mixture is stirred for 2 hrs at this temperature and potassium permanganate (6 g) is added to the
suspension very slowly. The rate of addition is carefully controlled to keep the reaction temperature
lower than 15°C.
3. The ice bath is removed, and the mixture is stirred at 35°C until it became pasty brownish and kept
under stirring for 2 days.
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4. It is then diluted with slow addition of 100 ml distilled water. The reaction temperature is rapidly
increased to 98°C with effervescence, and the color changed to brown color.
5. Further this solution is diluted by adding 200 ml distilled water stirred continuously.
6. The solution is finally treated with 10 ml H2O2, to terminate the reaction by appearance of yellow
color.
7. For purification, the mixture is washed by rinsing and centrifugation with 10% HCl and then
deionized water several times.
8. After filtration and drying under vacuum at room temperature, the graphene oxide (GO) is obtained as
a powder form.

Properties of Graphene oxide:

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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

 Graphene is a two-dimensional, crystalline allotrope with a hexagonal lattice structure made from pure
carbon atoms.
 GO has high optical transparency, the best heat conductivity at room temperature and the ability to be
flexible all within a strong, nano-sized material.
 The graphene system also exhibits no band gap, due to overlapped 𝜋-electrons, allowing for an easy
movement of electrons.
 Graphene is one of the strongest materials ever discovered with a tensile strength of 1.3 x 1011 Pa.
 The repeating sp2 hybridized backbone of graphene molecules allow for its flexibility.
 In terms of its elasticity, graphene has found to have a spring constant between 1-5 N/m, with a Young's
modulus of 0.5 TPa.
Properties:

 In contrast to graphene having high electrical conductivity (6500 Sm-1 ) GO is an electrically insulating
or semiconducting material having electrical resistivity around 1.64 × 10-4 because of disruption of sp2
bonding orbital of graphene due to presence of oxygen functionality
 Low thermal conductivity of 0.5–1 W m−1 K−1 making it not an ideal option for most applications
requiring good thermal properties
 It is hydrophilic and easily dispersed in water and organic solvents.
 Functionalization of graphene oxide can change graphene oxide’s properties.
 High surface area
Applications:
1. Graphene Oxide is used is in the production of transparent conductive films after being deposited on any
substrate. Such coatings could be used in flexible electronics, liquid crystal devices, chemical sensors,
touch screen devices, LEDs
2. GO is used as electrode materials in batteries and double-layered capacitors, as well as fuel cells and
solar cells due to its extremely high surface area.
3. Drug-delivery systems: GO is used as drug delivery systems for anticancer drugs because it does not
target healthy cells, only tumors, and has a low toxicity.
4. As GO is a fluorescent material it is used for bio sensing applications.
5. Although GO shows poor performance in anode materials of Li-ion batteries, they have been used in the
cathode materials successfully and also in dye-sensitized solar cells.
6. GO shows good sensing abilities due to active surface and high surface area.
7. Chemically active nature and porous structure of graphene oxide have been utilized for the enhancement
of membrane properties and separation performance.
8. The fluorescent behavior of GO material is used for the optical biosensing applications to detect
different biological molecules, such as cancer biomarkers glucose, H2O2, dopamine, food toxins, and
metal ions.
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Green energy: Introduction

Solar energy is an essential source of renewable energy. Utilization and conversion solar energy
utilization can be of two types
1. Direct solar power.
2. Indirect solar power.

Direct Solar Power: Direct solar power involves only one step transformation into a usable form.
Example 1. Photovoltaic cells: It convert solar energy to electrical energy.
Example 2. Solar Thermal collector. Sunlight hits the dark absorber surfaces of a solar thermal collector
and surface warms the heat energy may be carried away by a fluid circuit.
Indirect solar power: Indirect solar power involves more than one transformation to reach usable form.
Example, (i) plants convert solar energy to chemical energy when they are burnt.
(ii) Fossils fuels are obtained from plants which produce heat energy that can later be burned as fuel to
generate electricity.
(iii) Ocean thermal energy production uses the thermal gradient that is present across ocean depths to
generate power. This temperature difference is ultimately due to the energy of the sun.
Photovoltaic cells
Photo-voltaic cells: Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are semiconductor devices that convert sunlight into
direct current. As long as light is shining on the solar cell it generates electrical power. When the light
stops electricity stops. Solar cells are generally classified into three generations depending on time and
categories of materials which are used for their fabrication.
1. The most common solar cells available in the market are the first-generation solar cells which
comprise single and polycrystalline silicon.
2. Second-generation solar cells were introduced as a response to high material usage and cost of
silicon solar cell. To reduce the material usage the maximum film thickness for this generation was
brought down to a few nanometers to tens of micrometers.
3. Third generation solar cell- dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), perovskite, organic solar cells, photo
chemical cells, QDs,

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating excitons (bound electron-hole pairs), unbound electron-hole pairs
(via excitons)
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
The Solar cells or Photovoltaic cells are made out of semiconductors which have the capacity to absorb
light. When n-type and p-type semiconductor are bought together a semiconductor diode is formed. The
semiconductor diode separates and collects the carriers and conducts the generated electrical current
preferentially in a specific direction.
Solar photovoltaic cell-Silicon
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Construction
1. A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is composing of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer of
Phosphorous doped (n-type) silicon on the top and boron doped (p-type) silicon at the bottom. Hence a
p-n junction is formed between the two.
2. A metallic grid above the diode forms one of the electrical contacts and allows the light to fall on the
semiconductor.
3. The anti-reflexive layer (Silicon nitride or TiO2) present in between the metallic grid increases the
transformation of sunlight to a semiconductor. The other metallic layer at the back of the semiconductor
forms another electrical contact.

Working
The solar cell works on the principle of photoelectric effect which is phenomenon in which electrically
charged particles are released from or within a material when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation. The
effect is often defined as the ejection of electrons from a metal plate when light falls on it.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of photon. The photon carries a certain amount of energy. It is given
by the Planck Constant equation is E=hc/λ, where h is called Planck constant C is the velocity of light
and λ is wavelength of the radiation.
When light radiation falls on the p-n junction diode, electron – hole pairs are generated by the absorption
of the radiation. The electrons are drifted to and collected at the n-type end and the holes are drifted to p-
type end. When these two ends are electrically connected through a conductor, there is a flow of current
between the two ends through the external circuit. Thus photoelectric current is produced.

Fig: Si Solar cell

Advantages of photovoltaic systems

1. High reliability: Photovoltaic systems are still highly reliable even under harsh conditions.
Photovoltaic arrays ensure continuous, uninterrupted operation of critical power supplies.
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

2. Strong persistence: Most modules in a PV system have a warranty period of up to 25 years and remain
operational even after many years.

3. Low maintenance costs: Photovoltaic systems require only regular inspections and occasional repairs,
which are extremely low cost compared to conventional fuel systems.

4. Zero fuel consumption: Photovoltaic systems do not require fuel and can eliminate associated
procurement, storage and transportation costs.

5. Noise pollution is small: The photovoltaic system can operate quietly with minimal mechanical
movement.

Disadvantages of photovoltaic systems

1. High startup cost: Each PV installation should be economically evaluated and compared to existing
alternatives. At present, the construction cost of photovoltaic systems is relatively high, but with the
reduction of photovoltaic system construction costs and the rise of traditional energy prices, photovoltaic
systems will have strong economic competitiveness.

2. Available solar radiation instability: For any solar system, weather changes will greatly affect the
amount of electrical energy output. Therefore, the system design needs to be adjusted according to
changes in climate and location.

3. Have energy storage requirements: Some photovoltaic systems use batteries as energy storage
devices. This increases the footprint, cost and complexity of the system.

4. Efficiency needs to be improved: In order for PV systems to reflect cost-effectiveness, we need to use
an efficient method to distribute the energy generated during use. However, they are now often used to
power alternative inefficient appliances.

Hydrogen energy

Hydrogen is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The interest in
hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its ability to power fuel cells in zero-emission
vehicles, its potential for domestic production, and the fuel cell's fast filling time and high efficiency.
Hydrogen fuel is a zero carbon fuel burned with oxygen; provided it is created in a zero carbon way. It
can be used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines.
Regarding hydrogen vehicles, hydrogen has begun to be used in commercial fuel cell vehicles, such as
passenger cars, and has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is also used as a fuel
for spacecraft propulsion. In the early 2020s, most hydrogen is produced by steam methane
reforming of fossil gas. Only a small quantity is made by alternative routes such as biomass gasification
or electrolysis of water or solar thermochemistry.
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Types of hydrogen fuel: It takes energy to produce molecular hydrogen. The source of energy and the
production method used to make molecular hydrogen determines whether it’s classified as grey
hydrogen, blue hydrogen or green hydrogen.

Grey
hydrogen
Grey hydrogen is hydrogen produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen
accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today. The two main production
methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both of these processes release CO2. If the
carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey
hydrogen. Grey hydrogen is not considered a low-carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen
Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered
(stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS). Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide
instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel. The two main
production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification, both with carbon capture and
storage. Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen, but is expensive since carbon capture
technology is used.
Green hydrogen
Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources. Green hydrogen is
considered low or zero-emission hydrogen because it uses energy sources such as wind and solar which
don’t release greenhouse gases when generating electricity. Green hydrogen is made when water (H2O)
is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). Water splitting is also known as electrolysis, and requires
an energy input. The method of supplying electricity to split water is an expensive process, but much
more environmentally-friendly compared to the production of grey hydrogen.
Advantage:
1. Renewable and Readily Available
2. Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce any CO2 emissions
3. The refuelling process for hydrogen fuel cells is easy and takes about three minutes
4. The energy density of hydrogen fuel cells is very high
Disadvantage:
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1. It is expensive
2. Highly Flammable
3. Storage and transportation of hydrogen is more complex
4. This hydrogen production process is costly and emits carbon dioxide

Application: Hydrogen fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including transportation,
material handling and stationary, portable, and emergency backup power.

Methods of production of hydrogen: There are several ways to produce hydrogen:

1. Natural Gas Reforming/Gasification: Synthesis is created by reacting natural gas with high-
temperature steam. The carbon monoxide is reacted with water to produce additional hydrogen. This
method is the cheapest, most efficient, and most common. The process called gasification is created by
reacting coal or biomass with high-temperature steam and oxygen in a pressurized gasifier.

2. Electrolysis: An electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. If the electricity is produced
by renewable sources, such as solar or wind, the resulting hydrogen will be considered renewable as
well, and has numerous emissions benefits.

3. Fermentation: Biomass is converted into sugar-rich feedstocks that can be fermented to produce
hydrogen. Several hydrogen production methods are in development stage:

4. High-Temperature Water Splitting: High temperatures generated by solar concentrators or nuclear

reactors drive chemical reactions that split water to produce hydrogen.

5. Photobiological Water Splitting: Microbes, such as green algae, consume water in the presence of
sunlight and produce hydrogen as a by-product.

6. Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Photoelectrochemical systems produce hydrogen from water

using special semiconductors and energy from sunlight.

Generation of energy (green hydrogen) Electrolytic processes

Electrolysis of water is the process of using electricity to decompose

water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by a process called electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way
can be used as hydrogen fuel.
Construction:
 The electrode materials often used are based on nickel because of its low cost, high activity
 Concentrated solutions of potassium hydroxide are generally used as the electrolytic solution because
they have very high conductivities and fewer corrosion problems compared with other alkaline
electrolytes.
 protons exchange membrane (PEM)
 Dr. BALAJOTHI B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Fig: Electrolytic processes

Working:

Advantage
1. Renewable and Readily Available
2. Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce any CO2 emissions
3. The refuelling process for hydrogen fuel cells is easy and takes about three minutes
4. the energy density of hydrogen fuel cells is very high
Disadvantage:
1. It is expensive
2. Highly Flammable
3. Storage and transportation of hydrogen is more complex

Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis or Polymer electrolyte

membrane
 Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis is the electrolysis of water in a cell equipped with a solid
polymer electrolyte (SPE) (specialty plastic material.)
 Anode : Ir / Pt Cathode : Pt
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ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

 Solid polymer electrolyte is the responsible for the conduction of protons, separation of product gases,
and electrical insulation of the electrodes.
 Water reacts at the anode to form oxygen and positively charged hydrogen ions (protons).
 The electrons flow through an external circuit and the hydrogen ions selectively move across the PEM to
the cathode.
 At the cathode, hydrogen ions combine with electrons from the external circuit to form hydrogen gas.

-
e
H2 O

H2 gas O2 gas

Advantages: Catalyst

 High current density

 High voltage efficiency
 Good partial load range
 Rapid system response
 Compact system design
 High gas purity
 Dynamic operation
Disadvantages:

 High cost of components

 Acidic corrosive environment
 Low durability
 Commercialization