Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

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Results in Materials
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Synergistic impacts of fly ash and sugarcane bagasse ash on performance of

polyvinyl alcohol fiber-reinforced engineered cementitious composites
Noor Yaseen a, b, Umbreen Sahar a, Alireza Bahrami c, *, Muhammad Mazhar Saleem a,
Muhammad Ayyan Iqbal a, Iffat Saddique d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
b
Directorate General Small Dams, Irrigation Department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
c
Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, University of Gävle, 801 76 Gävle,
Sweden
d
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Disposal of waste materials in fertile land is one of the pressing environmental issues, disrupting human, animal,
Sugarcane bagasse ash and plant life. This has led researchers to process and use such waste materials in ecofriendly construction
Fly ash products like mortar and concrete. Their usage as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) would reduce
Cementitious composite
the quantity of cement utilized in the manufacturing of cement-based materials, lowering carbon dioxide
Polyvinyl alcohol fiber
Compressive strength
emissions related to cement production. In this regard, this study examines the feasibility of replacing high-
Flexural strength volume of ordinary Portland cement in engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) with two widely employed
Water absorption waste materials, sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and fly ash (FA) as SCMs. Five different mixes were produced,
Microstructural analysis each containing a fixed amount of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers at a dosage of 1.5% by volume of the mix and a
constant cement content of 50% by weight of the binder (Cement + FA + SCBA). However, FA was replaced with
SCBA in these mixes up to 100% by the combined weight of the waste materials (FA + SCBA) in increments of
25% (i.e., FA100-SCBA0, FA75-SCBA25, FA50-SCBA50, FA25-SCBA75, and FA0-SCBA100). The results showed
that the compressive and flexural strengths of ECCs with increasing the levels of SCBA were reduced. Interest­
ingly, the 28-day compressive strength of ECC incorporating 50% FA and 50% SCBA was still as high as 25.58
MPa, which satisfied the minimum compressive strength requirement of ASTM C270, making the newly pro­
duced ECC suitable for use in normal construction works and repairs. The same optimum mix (FA50-SCBA50)
produced an average density of 1867.96 kg/m3 as a result of substituting a significant amount of the binder with
SCBA, demonstrating that it has evolved into a lightweight ECC. Furthermore, the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the
mixes decreased, whereas the water absorption increased as the proportion of SCBA to FA increased. According
to the microstructural analysis, unreacted SCBA particles were mostly responsible for the detrimental effects of
rising the SCBA levels on properties of ECCs. Based on the aforementioned results, this research concluded that
SCBA, when combined with FA, could be a viable alternative for replacing regular cement up to 50% by weight in
the production of cost-effective and environmentally friendly ECCs.

Author contributions visualization, N.Y., U.S. and A.B.; supervision, U.S., A.B. and M.M.S.;
project administration, U.S. and A.B.
Conceptualization, N.Y., U.S. and A.B.; methodology, N.Y. and A.B. ;
software, N.Y., A.B. and M.A.I; validation, N.Y., U.S., A.B. and M.M.S.; 1. Introduction
formal analysis, N.Y., U.S., A.B. and M.M.S.; investigation, N.Y., U.S., A.
B., M.M.S. and I.S.; resources, N.Y., U.S. and A.B.; data curation, N.Y. With the advent of technology, the use of concrete and other cement-
and A.B.; writing—original draft preparation, N.Y. and A.B.; wri­ based materials as a construction product has significantly increased,
ting—review and editing, N.Y., U.S., A.B., M.M.S., M.A.I. and I.S.; however, challenges remain. One of the major challenges faced by

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Bahrami).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinma.2023.100490
Received 6 October 2023; Received in revised form 8 November 2023; Accepted 9 November 2023
Available online 15 November 2023
2590-048X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 1. Methodology of current study.

concrete is its low tensile strength, which is almost ten times lower as phenomenon causes an increase in the tensile strength and enhances the
compared to its compressive strength [1]. Conventional cement-based ductility of cementitious composites [11]. Steady-state crack analysis
materials are problematic owing to their brittleness and low tensile reveals that in case of PVA-ECC, a minor crack can transfer its energy to
strength. In addition, the formation of cracks in conventional the matrix, which causes the production of another minor crack,
cement-based materials poses a major threat to its stability and dura­ resulting in a phenomenon of multiple cracking with the formation of
bility. The idea of engineered cementitious composites (ECCs), micro crack widths, which ultimately reduces the possibility of spalling
fiber-reinforced cement-based materials that can bend and self-heal or corrosion, making it more durable than normal cement-based mate­
under tension, has been developed [2]. The flexural performance of rials [12]. Moreover, the minor cracks formed by the presence of the
cement-based materials can be improved by using different fibers during PVA fibers can impart self-healing properties to the cementitious matrix,
mixing, which reduce the number and size of cracks and improve the thus improving the durability of the composite [11].
strength and durability [3,4]. Different types of fibers have been in use Although ECCs are expensive per cubic yard compared to conven­
in ECCs such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polypropylene (PP), and some tional concrete, they are more durable, extending the life of construction
natural fibers [5]. Due to the high tensile performance of ECCs, they can [13]. Unlike conventional concrete, in which coarse aggregates act as
be utilized in structural composites where high crack control is required. fillers, the mix of ECCs is exclusive of such aggregates, thus demanding
ECCs have the potential to be used in a variety of structural applications more cement to fill the matrix of ECCs [14,15]. Owing to an increase in
because of their superior characteristics than conventional the cement content, the cost of the design mix increases, making it un­
cement-based materials. ECCs can be employed in seismic- and economical. In addition, regular cement in conventional cement-based
blast-resistant structures, as well as in the retrofitting and repair of materials has a greater possibility of shrinking. Also, the manufacture
existing structures like bridges and dams [6–9]. of cement gives rise to more carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, endan­
The presence of the PVA fibers enhances the properties of ECCs by gering the environment worldwide [16]. In fact, the cement and con­
improving their modes of failure, as such fibers act as a bridge across the crete industry is a major contributor to climate change, emitting 8% of
matrix cracks [10]. These micro cracks absorb energy and utilize it to the world’s CO2[17]. One of the eco-friendly solutions for reducing the
propagate alternatively instead of widening minor cracks. This cement consumption is to partially replace it with supplementary

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Table 1 material’s properties.

Chemical composition of cementitious materials (%). Although, FA and SCBA have both been extensively explored in
Material CaO MgO SiO2 SO3 Al2O3 Fe2O3 LOI terms of their respective uses in construction materials, there is little
information available on their combined application [27,28]. Moreover,
Cement 62.32 2.75 20.53 2.47 5.10 2.96 1.58
FA 4.05 1.21 71.30 1.48 6.92 3.15 2.89 there is less attention paid to the use of SCBA in the production of ECCs
SCBA 5.72 2.79 67.38 0.73 2.87 1.03 16.56 [41]. This was the driving force for the current research, which inspired
us to examine the combined use of FA and SCBA in PVA-ECCs. This will
make the construction more affordable and environmentally friendly,
Table 2 supporting the objectives of sustainable development.
Physical properites of cementitious materials. In order to simultaneously contribute to (1) enhancement in per­
formance of cementitious composite, (2) waste management, and (3)
Property Cement FA SCBA ASTM standard
reduction in cost and CO2 emission on account of reduced cement con­
Specific gravity 3.13 2.4 1.9 ASTM C188 sumption, this study was attempted to investigate the synergistic effects
Fineness (%) 89.8 85.6 63.4 ASTM C184
of FA with SCBA in the development of PVA-ECCs. In all the experi­
ments, the PVA and cement contents were kept constant at 1.5% by
volume and 50% by weight of the binder, respectively. The concentra­
Table 3 tions of FA and SCBA were varied to determine their optimum mix ratio
Physical properties of PVA fibers. by performing physico-mechanical tests, including the compressive
Property Value or Remark strength, flexural strength, water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity
Designation RMS 702X6 (UPV), and density tests. The microstructure of ECCs was evaluated
Color White using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with energy
Diameter (microns) 27 dispersive spectroscopy (EDS).
Length (mm) 6
Aspect ratio (l/d) 222.2
Tensile strength (MPa) 1800 2. Materials and methods
Strain (%) 5.8
Density (kg/m3 ) 1300 2.1. Materials

The methodology opted for this study is presented in Fig. 1. Ordinary

cementitious materials (SCMs), which can be industrial by-products or
Portland cement was used as the main binder for the preparation of
agricultural wastes. The use of such waste products as partial re­
ECCs. Other used materials were PVA fibers, SCBA, FA, sand, super­
placements of cement makes the construction eco-friendly and
plasticizer or high-range water reducer (HRWR), and water. The
cost-effective. The increasing disposal of waste and CO2 emissions from
cementitious materials’ chemical composition and their physical prop­
the cement and concrete industry have led researchers to investigate
erties, as determined through X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and as per ASTM
alternatives that can combat these environmental challenges. In this
standards, are given in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The specific gravity
regard, there are many industrial wastes which possess pozolanic
and fineness of the cementitious materials were determined in accor­
properties and therefore can be used as partial replacements of cement
dance with ASTM C188 [42] and ASTM C184 [43], respectively. For the
in the production of concrete and other concrete-associated materials.
fineness test, a 50 g of specimen was sieved through a 75 μm (No. 200)
Among other SCMs, fly ash (FA) has been widely utilized as a partial
sieve. FA was provided from Sahiwal power plant. Based on the chem­
substitute for cement in cement-based materials [15,18–23] and as a
ical composition of FA, it was classified as Class-F according to ASTM
precursor in alkali-activated materials [24–29]. However, the avail­
C618 [44]. Raw SCBA was collected from Pattoki Sugar Mills. SCBA was
ability of FA may not be guaranteed in future because the energy sector
deemed to have been adequately burnt under controlled conditions in
has been shutting down coal-burning power plants, necessitating the
the sugar mill’s cogeneration combustion boilers for power production.
search for novel, practical, and eco-friendly FA substitutes [30]. Like
After passing SCBA through a 300-μm (No. 50) sieve to exclude large
other countries such as Brazil, USA, and China, Pakistan produces a lot
particles, the specimen was placed under a fan to eliminate the moisture
of sugarcane each year, as its economy is primarily based on agriculture.
content that could evaporate quickly. No further processing (i.e.,
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is generally regarded as a by-product of
grinding or burning) was performed on SCBA to make its use more
the sugarcane industry, and thankfully, it comes at no cost because it is
feasible and sustainable. From Table 1, it can be seen that the loss on
freely available from sugar mills in Pakistan. SCBA has been used by
ignition (LOI) for SCBA was higher than the allowable limit as per ASTM
many researchers, either alone or in combination with other waste
C618 [44]. The higher LOI of SCBA was the direct indication of the
materials in the manufacture of building materials [31]. Because SCBA
presence of unburnt carbon fibers [32]. SCBA had the specific gravity
contains mainly amorphous silica (SiO2), it possesses considerable po­
value of 1.9 as compared to cement and FA (Table 2), which is consistent
tential to be utilized as a pozolanic material [32–34]. Extensive research
with other studies [32,45]. SCBA had a lower fineness rating (63.4%)
studies have demonstrated that SCBA plays active role in the pozolanic
than cement and FA, indicating that a considerable amount of the SCBA
reaction with calcium hydroxide (CH) produced during cement hydra­
particles could not pass through the 75-μm (No. 200) sieve utilized.
tion [35]. The incorporation of SCBA up to an optimum dosage has
Natural sand from a local source, Lawrencepur, was used as fine
indicated positive impact on the mechanical and durability properties of
aggregates in the mixes. Sand particles of two different sizes were
cement mortar and concrete [34,36–39]. The influence of 5–30% SCBA
employed to achieve properties comparable to those of silica sand. The
on the mechanical characteristics of concrete was documented by
required amount of sand was passed through 1-mm (No. 18) sieve. The
Ganesan et al. [34]. Their findings revealed that 20% SCBA improved
sand was then passed through a 0.6-mm (No. 30) sieve and 0.15-mm
the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of concrete by
(No. 100) sieve. 90% of the total required sand was obtained from the
18% and 7%, respectively, at 28 days. However, SCBA can also reduce
fraction retained on 0.6-mm (No. 30) sieve, whereas the remaining 10%
the strength of composite owing to the untreated large sized ash parti­
comprised the fraction retained on 0.15-mm (No. 100) sieve. Finally,
cles [40]. In these situations, where the treatment of SCBA (such as
both fractions were mixed to achieve the required amount of sand. The
grinding or burning at higher temperatures) is unfavorable for increased
PVA fibers used in this research work were procured from Kuraray
sustainability, it can be combined with other conventional pozzolans,
company in Japan. The physical properties of the PVA fibers are listed in
such as FA, to partially replace cement while preserving the composite
Table 3. Regular potable water was utilized in all the mixes. Chemrite-

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Table 4
Characteristics of superplasticizer or HRWR.
Property Value or Remark

Product Chemrite-NN, a liquid superplasticizer for production of free

description flow
Type Polynapthalene-based concrete admixture
Form Brown liquid
Test standards Chemrite-NN complies with ASTM-494, Types A and F

Table 5
Details of constant parameters used in mix design.
Parameter Value

Binder (b) = Cement + FA + SCBA 1270 kg/m3

Cement by percentage of binder 50%
Water-to-binder ratio (w/b) 0.25
Sand-to-binder ratio 0.35
PVA by volume of mix 1.5%
HRWR by weight of binder 1%
Fig. 2. Compressive strength test.

Table 6 aspect of the economy in mind without compromising the mechanical

Details of mix design of PVA-ECCs (kg/m3). and durability performances of ECCs, a fixed content of 1.5% PVA fibers
Mix designation Cement FA SCBA Water Sand HRWR PVA
(volume-based) was used in this study. Other studies have also assessed
1.5% PVA by volume instead of the typically used 2% volume fraction
FA100-SCBA0 635 635 0 318 445 13 98
[49]. A fixed water-to-binder (w/b) ratio of 0.25 was utilized in all the
FA75-SCBA25 635 476 159 318 445 13 98
FA50-SCBA50 635 318 318 318 445 13 98 experiments. In addition, the amount of superplasticizer or HRWR was
FA25-SCBA75 635 159 476 318 445 13 98 kept constant for all the mixes at 1% by weight of the binder.
FA0-SCBA100 635 0 635 318 445 13 98 Hobart A-200 mortar mixer was employed for the mixing purpose.
The raw materials (cement, FA, SCBA, and sand) were poured into the
mixing bowl and then dry mixed for 2 minutes at low mixing speed of
Table 7 107 revolutions per minute (rpm). Water was added to the mix, and the
Details of experimental tests conducted on specimens. mixing continued for further 1 minute at the same low speed. HRWR was
Test Test method Size of Number of Test age added to the mix, and the mixer was operated at an intermediate speed
specimens specimens (days) (198 rpm) for 2 minutes. Thereafter, the PVA fibers were put into the
Compressive ASTM C109/ 50 mm × 50 40 7, 28 mix for 3 minutes while the mixing proceeded at the same intermediate
strength C109M-02 mm × 50 mm speed. To obtain a more uniform mixture, the mixer was stopped and
Flexure ASTM 40 mm × 40 40 28 restarted at a high speed (361 rpm). It is worth noting that upon the
strength C348-20 mm × 160 mm addition of water, HRWR, and PVA fibers, the mixer was paused to
Water ASTM 50 mm × 50 15 28
remove any attached material from the sides and bottom of the mixing
absorption C1403-00 mm × 50 mm
UPV ASTM 50 mm × 50 40 28 bowl. After mixing, the mortar cubes and prism were cast and demoded
C597-16 mm × 50 mm after 24 hours. To prevent leaching from one type of mix into another,
Density ASTM C39- 50 mm × 50 40 7, 28 the demolded specimens were placed in separate curing chambers and
Section 7.4.1 mm × 50 mm
were water cured until testing.
SEM and EDS – 8 mm × 8 mm 5 28
× 3 mm
2.3. Methods

NN was employed as a superplasticizer or HRWR, and its characteristics Table 7 demonstrates the details of the tests conducted to evaluate
are summarized in Table 4. the properties of hardened ECC mixes, ASTM standards, sizes and
number of the specimens, and the number of days after which the tests
were performed.
2.2. Mix design
2.3.1. Compressive strength
The mix design in this study included three types of binders: cement,
The compressive strength test was carried out on 50 mm × 50 mm ×
FA, and SCBA. The total amount of the binder was divided into 50% of
50 mm cubes after a curing period of 7 and 28 days based on ASTM C109
the binder for cement and the remaining 50% for the combined use of FA
[50]. The test is shown in Fig. 2. For each mix, eight specimens were
and SCBA. Five ECC mix proportions were prepared in which FA was
tested to report the average value for the compressive strength at the
replaced with SCBA from 0 to 100% of the combined proportion of FA
respective test ages. The compressive strength was determined using Eq.
and SCBA at intervals of 25%, as 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. The
(1).
used constant parameters are given in Table 5, and the mix proportions
of ECCs are presented in Table 6. ECC is preferred over any other P
fc′ = (1)
common type of high-performance reinforced cement concrete because A
it uses a relatively moderate percentage of fibers (2% by volume of the
mix or less in general) and offers higher tensile strength, which makes it where f’c is the compressive strength in MPa, P is the maximum load in N
more structurally sound and economically viable [46]. According to the at which the specimen was failed under the compression, and A is the
literature, with a PVA volume fraction of 2%, optimum mechanical and cross-sectional area of the cubic specimen in mm2.
durability performances of PVA-ECCs are achieved [47,48]. Keeping the

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 3. Three-point test method following ASTM C348-20: (a) flexural strength test at laboratory, (b) schematic view.

2.3.2. Flexural strength obtain the maximum accuracy of the results. The flexural strength was
A three-point flexural strength test was done on 40 mm × 40 mm × calculated according to Eq. (2).
160 mm prisms at 28 days of curing according to ASTM C348-20 [51],
ft = 0.0028Pf (2)
which was utilized to determine the flexural strength of hydraulic
cement mortars (Fig. 3). Eight specimens were tested for each mix to
where ft is the flexural strength in MPa and Pf is the total maximum load

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

display unit indicated the time in microseconds taken by the waves to

travel across the specimen. UPV was then determined utilizing Eq. (4).
L
UPV = (4)
t

where UPV is in m/s, L is the length of the specimen between center of

transducers in m, and t is the transit time in s.

2.3.5. Density
The density test was done on 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm cubes after
curing for 7 and 28 days, in accordance with ASTM C39 [54]. The di­
mensions of each specimen were measured, and the volume was calcu­
lated. Each specimen was weighed using a balance, and the density was
calculated according to Eq. (5).
M
D= (5)
Fig. 4. UPV test setup and execution. V

where D is the density of the specimen in kg/m3, M is the mass of the

specimen in kg, and V is the volume of the specimen in m3.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Compressive strength

The compressive strength results at 7 and 28 days of curing are

illustrated in Fig. 5. The inclusion of the PVA fibers provided the cubes
with lateral and radial reinforcements against the applied loading, and
the PVA fibers developed a strong bond with the matrix due to their
hydrophilic behavior, which is a major factor in the development of the
compressive strength of ECCs [55,56]. Regarding the pozolanic action,
SiO2 from FA was combined with CH and formed additional calcium
silicate hydrates (C–S–H), which contributed significantly to the
compressive strength of ECCs [57–59]. Owing to the increased fineness
of the FA particles as a result of their maximum content in the
Fig. 5. Effect of replacing FA with SCBA on 7-day and 28-day compressive
FA100-SCBA0 mix, the volume of voids decreased, leading to a dense
strengths of PVA-ECCs.
matrix and a higher compressive strength [60,61]. The addition of SCBA
to cement-based products creates nucleation sites for more cement hy­
in N. dration because of its amorphous nature. Many researchers have re­
ported considerable values of compressive strength using higher
2.3.3. Water absorption contents of SCBA as a partial replacement of cement. For example, up to
For the water absorption test, cubes of 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm 25% replacement of cement with SCBA was made in a study [62], and
were prepared following ASTM C642-97 [52]. Three cubes were tested the resulting compressive strength achieved with 25% SCBA was 40
for each mix to obtain the average water absorption value. This test was MPa. However, in another study, up to 30% SCBA in the binary mixes
performed after 28 days of water curing. Specimens were removed from and up to 50% substitution of cement in the ternary mixes were
the curing chamber, their surfaces were dried with an absorbent cloth to considered, and it was found that the specimens with 33% SCBA and 7%
a saturated surface dry condition, and then their saturated weights were silica fume demonstrated improvements in the compressive strength
measured, reporting them as saturated surface dry weights. After taking compared to all other mixes, including the control (i.e., with 100%
these weights, the specimens were kept in an oven and their oven-dried cement) [63]. The dense microstructure of the produced C–S–H, high
weights were recorded until the oven-dry weights on successive days specific area, and low intruded pore volume were credited in these
became constant. The water absorption of the specimens was deter­ research works as the causes of the high strength even with 33% SCBA.
mined using Eq. (3). It can be seen that the compressive strength at 28 days has decreased
(MS − Mo ) with the increase in the replacement ratio of SCBA. At 7 days, the
w.a = ×100 (3) compressive strength of FA100-SCBA0 was 34.27 MPa, which was
Mo
reduced to 2.05 MPa for FA0-SCBA100. The reduced compressive
where w.a is the water absorption in %, MS is the surface-dry mass of the strength of specimens with high content of SCBA was strongly related to
specimen in g, and MO is the over-dry mass of the specimen in g. the SCBA’s lower specific gravity, as can be seen in Table 2. Because the
pores become wider when SCBA is used in large quantities, they
2.3.4. UPV continue to grow in size and lose their ability to withstand the
The UPV test was conducted on ECC cubes of 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 compressive load per unit area, which is the cause of the downward
mm as per ASTM C597-16 [53]. The UPV test was performed on the trend in the compressive strength [40,64]. Similar results were obtained
specimens before they were crushed under compression. For the UPV by Zareei et al. [62]. The decrease in the strength is also attributable to
test, transmitting and receiving transducers were firmly attached to the the fact that excessive SiO2 is leached out of the matrix when the amount
sides of the specimens. While selecting the sides in contact with the of utilized SCBA is greater than that required to react with the freed lime
transducers, special care was taken to avoid honeycombing and irreg­ during the hydration process [65]. Other factors that contributed to the
ularities. The test specimen and equipment are depicted in Fig. 4. The reduced strength of the specimens with high quantities of SCBA are its

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 6. Failure modes of PVA-ECCs.

synergistic utilization of up to 50% SCBA by the combined weight of FA

and SCBA (or 25% by weight of the whole binder) is in line with its
abundance across the world. The optimum content of 25% SCBA by
weight of the binder in ECCs investigated in this study is also consistent
with the recommendations of Katare and Madurwar [68].
Overall, the PVA-ECC cubes in this research work did not display
crushing failure under the compression as opposed to an ordinary
mortar cube where such failure is more common. The PVA-ECC cubes
with high amount of FA (FA100-SCBA0) exhibited a ductile failure
under the compression as can be observed from Fig. 6 (a). However, with
the increase in the SCBA content, the failure mode changed to a less
ductile one. The failure modes resulted for the FA100-SCBA0 and FA50-
SCBA50 specimens (Fig. 6(a and b)) were quite consistent with other
studies [69,70]. On the other hand, the specimen with high volume of
SCBA (FA0-SCBA100 in Fig. 6 (c)) indicated bulging failure. Because the
increased content of lightweight and porous SCBA could not intrinsically
Fig. 7. Effect of replacing FA with SCBA on 28-day flexural strength of tolerate the applied loading, the cube’s bulging could have been induced
PVA-ECCs. by the lateral and radial stiffening of the PVA fibers in response to
resisting the imposed loading.
higher LOI and lower fineness value (Tables 1 and 2), as well as the
dilution effect that occurs when high volume of SCBA replaces other 3.2. Flexural strength
cementitious materials. LOI of material refers to loss of volatile sub­
stances such as water, CO2, and organic matter. The greater the LOI of Fig. 7 depicts the flexural strengths of the PVA-ECC prisms after 28
SCBA (16.56% in this case, as shown in Table 1), the more unburnt or days of curing. FA100-SCBA0 had the highest flexural strength, while
partially burned organic matter in the ash, and hence the lower the FA0-SCBA100 had the lowest. The trend for the flexural strength was
strength. This is well supported by Chusilp et al. [66], where they re­ similar to that observed for the compressive strength. Similar results for
ported that the increased LOI and percentage contents of SCBA reduced the flexural strength were obtained in previous research as well [71]. As
the compressive strength of mortar. The lower fineness (63.4%, as can presented in Fig. 8 (a), a flexural failure mode was witnessed in the
be seen in Table 2) also contributed to the reduced strength when SCBA PVA-ECC prisms initiated by multiple micro cracks in the mid-length of
was used in high proportion. Cordeiro et al. [35] concluded that the the prisms, which is at the point of the maximum moment. After a
reactivity of SCBA was mainly dependent on the fineness, affecting the certain deflection and development of additional micro cracks, a single
strength of mortar. When comparing different types of cementitious macro crack appeared (either on the left or right of the black vertical
mortars, it is common practice to assess their performance based on their middle lines), ultimately leading to the loss of the flexural capacity. This
compressive strength as specified by ASTM C270 [67]. This standard ductile behavior of the prisms is attributed to the development of a
provides guidelines for the minimum compressive strength re­ strong bond between the internal matrix of the composite and the PVA
quirements of a few mortar types such as M (17.2 MPa), S (12.4 MPa), N fibers, resulting in a phenomenon called slip hardening or multiple
(5.2 MPa), and O (2.4 MPa) types, allowing for their appropriate use in cracking. After the appearance of the initial micro cracks, the PVA fibers
various construction applications. By specifying the minimum continued to resist the applied loading until the peak flexural load was
compressive strength of different mortar types, ASTM C270 ensures that achieved, after which ‘fiber pullout’ or ‘fiber fracture’ (Fig. 8 (b))
users can select the appropriate mortar for their specific project needs, resulted in the ultimate failure of the specimens. Similar results were
considering factors such as load-bearing capacity and durability re­ reported in multiple studies performed on the evaluation of the ECCs
quirements. From the results found in this study, it can be seen that the performance [72–74]. Even while the PVA fibers played a substantial
cementitious mortar with equal proportions of FA and SCBA (50% FA part in the high flexural strength of FA100-SCBA0, the FA’s contribution
and 50% SCBA) has exceeded the minimum 28-day compressive cannot be discounted. FA contributes to the pozzolanic activity of OPC,
strength requirement of 17.2 MPa for all types of mortars specified by whereby SiO2 from FA combines with CH to form a C–S–H gel, which is
ASTM C270, i.e., M, S, N, and O types. Even, the compressive strength of the primary strength-giving agent in cementitious composites [75].
FA25-SCBA75 was also higher than the minimum threshold of 5.2 MPa Furthermore, the unhydrated particles of FA bridge the cracks, thereby
for type N mortar. Thus the mortar with equal proportion of FA and enhancing the flexural strength of PVA-ECCs [59].
SCBA (FA50-SCBA50) can be recommended for use in normal con­ Results showed that the flexural strength of the PVA-ECC prisms
struction works and repairs and other applications including masonry decreased with an increase in the SCBA content. The irregular and
units such as foundation walls, sewers, and load-bearing walls. This porous structure of the SCBA particles, as well as the difficulty of coarser
particles to fill internal voids, led to a fall in packing density, which in

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Fig. 8. (a) Flexural failure mode of representative prisms; (b) High resolution camera image of a prism specimen with PVA.

Fig. 9. Effect of replacing FA with SCBA on 28-day water absorption of PVA-ECCs.

Fig. 10. Effect of replacing FA with SCBA on 28-day UPV of PVA-ECCs. Fig. 11. Effect of replacing FA with SCBA on 7-day and 28-day densities of
PVA-ECCs.

turn resulted in a decrease in the flexural strength. Moreover, it is widely

accepted that when SCBA or other SCMs are employed in greater 3.3. Water absorption
quantities than required for effective pozolanic reaction, the strength is
greatly reduced due to the cementitious materials dilution effect. Earlier Water absorption tests were conducted on the PVA-ECC cubes after
research on the impact of SCBA on the mechanical characteristics of 28 days of curing, and the results are illustrated in Fig. 9. FA100-SCBA0
cementitious composites has demonstrated similar behavior [62,76]. exhibited 11.3% water absorption compared to FA0-SCBA100, which

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 12. SEM images of PVA-ECCs with different magnifications (images magnified by 1000X on the left side and 3000X on the right side for each composition).

had the highest water absorption of 31.43%. The literature states that composites, which is the reason for the low water absorption of
the PVA fibers result in an increase in the porosity of the matrix, FA100-SCBA0 [75]. The water absorption of the ECC cubes increased
consequently degrading the resistance to the water permeability [72, with the SCBA content. This result is supported by the fact that the
77]. Since the PVA content was kept constant at 1.5% by volume of the replacement of cementitious materials with SCBA creates pores and
mix, it did not contribute to the later change in the water absorption of voids in the internal matrix owing to the porous and amorphous nature
the mixes. Contrary to this, while there has been some contradiction in of the SCBA particles; hence, the water demand for the ECC specimens
the results of studies performed on the permeability of concrete blended increased with the increase in the SCBA content [62,79].
with FA, research studies mention that the high fineness of FA slightly
reduces the porosity of concrete [60,78]. Moreover, calcium alumina
3.4. UPV
silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) gel, resulting from the reaction of alumina
(Al2O3) and SiO2 from FA with CH, decreases the void ratio of the
UPV tests were done to determine the porous nature of the internal

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 12. (continued).

cement sand matrix after 28 days of curing, and the results are displayed the two factors which largely affect the density. The current findings are
in Fig. 10. The reason for higher UPV of FA100-SCBA0 was the quality of consistent with those of Mehmood et al. [28] who reported that for
FA as a micro filler [27,60]. The fine particles of FA filled the voids, composites containing a high proportion of SCBA (relative to FA and
resulting in a dense structure that provided sound waves with a solid metakaolin), the 28-day density was as low as 1440 kg/m3. Although in
medium to travel through. However, with the increase in the SCBA light of previous studies, the inclusion of the PVA fibers increased the
content, UPV decreased due to higher porosity of the specimens [62]. porosity of the ECC matrix [72,77,87], the fineness of the FA particles
Upon an increase in the SCBA content, voids were created in the spec­ allowed them to fill the gaps in the structure of ECC and resulted in a
imens, leading to a honeycombed structure; hence, the sound waves higher density of FA100-SCBA0 [60,61]. In contrast, the reason for the
took more time to travel through those voids, which ultimately decrease in the density with high SCBA contents is that, as the number of
decreased UPV [80,81]. ECCs with SCBA up to 50% by the combined pores increased with the increase in the porous SCBA particles, the
weight of FA and SCBA possessed the UPV values greater than the weight of the specimens decreased in the same volume of the specimen,
threshold value of 3600 m/s for good-quality concrete [82]. This in­ resulting in a reduction in the overall mass per unit volume of the
dicates that when FA and SCBA are proportioned equally, their syner­ specimen [62,79]. This, in turn, has resulted in the development of
gistic action is sufficient to create good-quality cementitious composites. lightweight construction products. The specimen with 50% FA and 50%
SCBA with a density of 1867.96 kg/m3 is close to 1880 kg/m3 for
3.5. Density lightweight concrete, according to ACI Committee 213 [88]. Much more
effective utilization of the maximum amount of SCBA in ECCs can be
The density of the PVA-ECC cubes was calculated after 7 and 28 days achieved through the optimization of the strength and density re­
of curing. The density of ECC cubes decreased with increasing the SCBA quirements. Based on the findings of the current study, one can opt for
concentration, as can be seen in Fig. 11, due to the larger sizes of the ECCs incorporating an equal amount of FA and SCBA with a compressive
SCBA particles and their porous structure [83,84]. For instance, at 7 strength of 25.58 MPa and density of 1867.96 kg/m3, at a 28-day curing
days of testing, the density of FA100-SCBA0 was 2099.18 kg/m3 which period, leading to lightweight and economical construction.
was reduced by 32% to 1417.77 kg/m3 for FA0-SCBA100. Similarly, at
28 days, the density of FA100-SCBA0 was 2087.22 kg/m3 which was 3.6. Microstructural analysis
reduced to 1529.97 kg/m3 for FA0-SCBA100, i.e., a decrease of 26%.
The lower densities for the high volume-based SCBA specimens were SEM with EDS of the fractured specimens was carried out to assess
attributed to the lower specific gravity and fineness of SCBA compared the microstructure of the produced cementitious composites. The SEM
to cement and FA (Table 2), as also elaborated by Ahmat et al. [85] and images with different magnifications are shown in Fig. 12(a–e). The SEM
Salini et al. [86] that the specific gravity and fineness of materials are analysis provided the necessary information to assess the variation in the

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 13. EDS results of PVA-ECCs.

physico-mechanical properties of the specimens. The morphologies of The EDS results for five ECC mixes are depicted in Fig. 13. The ele­
the specimens demonstrated the presence of hydration products, mainly ments of interest for the present study are calcium (Ca), oxygen (O),
in the form of CH. However, the formation of C–S–H was not clearly silicon (Si), and aluminum (Al). Although carbon (C) is a major element
observed in the SEM images while it is generated as a result of the in terms of the PVA portions, it was not reflected in the EDS results
pozolanic reaction in addition to the hydration reaction. This needs because no fiber was selected at the time of generating map data [55].
further research to validate formation of C–S–H in addition to CH pro­ The elements Ca and O signify the presence of CaO, which is mainly
duced during the cement hydration. The hydration products were found in cement, indicating that CH was formed during the hydration of
accompanied by a number of additional products, which may have cement [12], whereas Si and O imply the existence of SiO, a major
resulted due to natural carbonation [89]. The presence of CH leads to the component of FA and SCBA, which may have led to formation of addi­
formation of weak areas in the internal matrix [37,57,90]. In tional C–S–H during the hydration.
FA50-SCBA50, the presence of CH cloaked the strength-imparting
cement hydration products, resulting in a decrease in the compressive 4. Conclusions
and flexural strengths. As the amount of SCBA increased in the mixes,
the microstructure revealed the existence of the SCBA porous and This research work focused on investigating the effect of the partial
fibrous particles and other unreacted phases, which increased the water replacement of cement with FA and SCBA on the performance of ECCs.
absorption and decreased the density of ECCs. The negatively impacted The major conclusions drawn from this study are as follows:
properties of the composites as a result of rising the SCBA levels could be
attributed to the existence of the porous structure and seemingly un­ • The compressive strength of ECCs decreased with increasing the
known unreacted phases, as identified in the matrix microstructure. replacement of FA with SCBA. However, it is worth mentioning that a

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 13. (continued).

compressive strength (25.58 MPa) greater than 17.2 MPa at 28 days FA and 25% SCBA, and 100% FA exhibited the flexural strengths of
of curing was achieved for the specimens with 50% FA and 50% higher than 4 MPa. Therefore, it can be established that the ECCs
SCBA, which can be used in normal construction and repair appli­ produced in this study enhanced the flexural behavior of concrete
cations. Therefore, this optimized replacement ratio makes PVA- even at a lower percentage of the PVA fibers (~1.5%).
ECCs sustainable and more economical without compromising the • By increasing the SCBA content, the water absorption increased due
compressive strength. to the increased porosity resulting from the porous SCBA particles.
• All five ECC mixes exhibited multiple-cracking behavior under three- • UPV decreased with an increase in the SCBA content in the PVA-ECC
point flexural loading. The flexural strength decreased with the mixes. However, we were still able to obtain ECCs with 50% FA and
replacement of FA with SCBA; however, at optimized replacement 50% SCBA contents, lying in the good-quality range according to the
ratios, ECC mixes yielded an ultimate flexural strength greater than UPV classification, i.e., UPV above 3000 m/s in general.
the flexural strength of normal concrete, which generally ranges • By increasing the SCBA content, the density of the ECC specimens
from 3 to 5 MPa. The specimens with 50% FA and 50% SCBA, 75% decreased, which in turn resulted in a higher strength-to-weight ratio

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N. Yaseen et al. Results in Materials 20 (2023) 100490

Fig. 13. (continued).

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