Computer Networks

ESE: 3 Mark Q&A

1. Explain how network devices such as routers, switches, and hubs are used to
interconnect devices in a computer network.
Network devices like routers, switches, and hubs are used to connect and manage
devices in a network, allowing communication between them.
A router connects two or more networks and forwards data between them. It’s like a
bridge between your local home network and the internet. It makes decisions on the best
path for data packets to travel based on the network’s IP addresses.

A switch connects multiple devices within the same network and directs data only to the
device it’s intended for, unlike a hub which sends data to all connected devices. A
switch improves network efficiency and reduces data collisions.
A hub is a simpler device that connects multiple devices in a network but sends data to
all connected devices regardless of the destination. This can cause network congestion,
which is why hubs are less commonly used today.

Example: In a home network, the router connects you to the internet, the switch
connects various devices like computers and printers, and a hub might be used for
connecting old devices to the same network.

2. Investigate the key differences between wired and wireless computer

networks in terms of security, data transfer speeds, and infrastructure
requirements.
Wired networks use physical cables like Ethernet to connect devices. These networks
are generally more secure because it’s harder to tap into the physical wires. The data
transfer speed is also faster, and there is less interference.

Wireless networks, on the other hand, use radio signals (e.g., Wi-Fi) to connect devices.
They are generally less secure due to the ease with which signals can be intercepted,
though security can be improved with encryption (like WPA2). Wireless networks often
have slower speeds and are more susceptible to interference from other devices.

Infrastructure requirements for wired networks are more demanding, as they

require cables, switches, and routers to be physically installed.
Wireless networks need access points and routers to provide signal coverage.

Example: A home Wi-Fi network is wireless, providing flexibility for devices to

connect anywhere, while an office may use wired connections for faster and more
secure data transfer.

3. Explain the key differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models in terms of
the layers and their functions.
The OSI model and TCP/IP model are both used to describe network communications
but differ in terms of structure and functionality.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model has 7 layers:

Physical: Deals with the transmission of raw bits over a physical medium.
Data Link: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error
correction.
Network: Handles routing of data between devices across networks. Transport:

Ensures reliable data transfer, including error recovery. Session: Manages sessions

between applications.

Presentation: Ensures data is in a readable format (e.g., encryption).

Application: Provides end-user services and interfaces with software.

The TCP/IP model has 4 layers:

Network Interface (Physical + Data Link in OSI)

Internet (Network layer in OSI)

Transport (Same as OSI)

Application (Session, Presentation, and Application in OSI)

The TCP/IP model is more practical and widely used, as it’s the framework
for the internet.
 4. Imagine you are setting up a local area network (LAN) for a company.
Explain why you would choose a hybrid topology over a pure bus or ring
topology.
When setting up a LAN for a company, a hybrid topology is often the best choice
because it combines the advantages of multiple topologies.
A pure bus topology is simple and inexpensive but has limitations. It can get slow if
too many devices are added, and if the main cable (the bus) fails, the entire network
goes down.
A ring topology connects devices in a circular fashion, where data travels in one
direction. It’s more efficient than a bus but can be disrupted if one device or connection
fails.
A hybrid topology combines the strengths of both and ensures higher reliability. For
example, the company might use star topology in departments (where each device
connects to a central hub) and connect those departments in a bus configuration. This
way, if one department has an issue, the rest are unaffected.

Example: In a large company, each department can use a star topology to connect
computers to a central switch, while the departments themselves can be connected
through a bus or ring topology, ensuring stability and scalability.

5. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using fiber optic cables in

comparison to copper-based cables (twisted pair or coaxial) for long-distance
communication.
Fiber optic cables offer several advantages over traditional copper-based cables,
especially for long-distance communication.

Advantages of fiber optics:

High speed: Fiber optics can transmit data at much higher speeds compared to copper
cables.
Longer distance: Signals in fiber optic cables degrade less over distance, allowing for
longer-range transmissions without signal loss.
No interference: Fiber optics are immune to electromagnetic interference, which is a
problem for copper cables.
 Disadvantages of fiber optics:

Cost: Fiber optics are more expensive to install and maintain than copper cables.
Fragility: Fiber cables are more fragile and can be easily damaged compared to copper.
Advantages of copper cables:
Cheaper: Copper cables like twisted pair are more affordable and easier to install.

Mature technology: Copper cables have been used for many years and are well-
understood.
Disadvantages of copper cables:

Slower speeds: Copper cables have lower data transfer speeds and are affected by
interference.

Limited range: The signal strength degrades quickly over long distances, requiring
repeaters.

Example: Fiber optics are used for long-distance internet connections, like between
cities, while copper cables (like twisted pair) are still common for local office networks.

6. Analyze the differences in the behavior and use of radio waves, microwaves,
and infrared waves for wireless communication systems. How do each of these
types of waves impact range and data transfer?
Wireless communication uses radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves, which
have different characteristics:
Radio waves: These waves can travel long distances and pass through obstacles like
walls. They are used in technologies like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, and can cover large areas.
However, the data transfer rate can be slower compared to other waves.

Microwaves: These waves have a higher frequency than radio waves, allowing them to
carry data at higher speeds. They are used for point-to- point communication, such as
satellite links and mobile phone towers. Microwaves need a clear line of sight between
the transmitter and receiver, so their range can be affected by physical obstacles.
Infrared waves: Infrared waves are used for very short-range communication, such as
in remote controls or IR sensors. They require direct line-of-sight and can only transmit
data over short distances, typically within a room.
Example: Radio waves power your home Wi-Fi, microwaves are used for mobile
phone communication, and infrared is used in your TV remote.

7. Explain how infrared communication works in short-range applications,

such as remote controls and wireless data transfer, and why it is suited for these
purposes.
Infrared (IR) communication uses light signals in the infrared spectrum to send data
over short distances. It is commonly used in devices like remote controls, TVs, and
wireless data transfer.

How it works: IR devices emit light signals that carry information (such as a button
press on a remote control). The signal is received by a corresponding device, which
decodes the information.

Why it’s suited for short-range: IR signals do not pass through solid objects and are
absorbed by walls, which makes them suitable for devices that need direct line-of-sight
communication. Their short-range and low power consumption are also key benefits for
devices like remote controls.
Example: Your TV remote uses infrared communication to send signals to your TV to
change channels or adjust volume. It works well in a controlled environment where
both devices can "see" each other.

8. What are the basic principles behind infrared communication? How does it
provide secure and low-range data transfer in devices like IR sensors?
Infrared communication relies on infrared light, which is invisible to the human eye.
The basic principle involves modulating data (such as a signal representing "1" or "0")
onto infrared light, which is then transmitted by an IR LED.

Low range: IR has a limited range because the signal strength weakens quickly as it
travels, making it suitable for short-range applications.
Security: Infrared is secure because the signal cannot easily pass through walls,
meaning unauthorized interception is more difficult. It also
requires a clear line of sight, making it hard to tap into the communication.

Low power consumption: Infrared communication requires very little power, making it
ideal for small devices like IR sensors in security systems or remote controls.

Example: When you use your smartphone to control a TV, it uses infrared
communication to send signals. Because it requires line-of-sight, it’s difficult for
someone to intercept or "sniff" the signal.

9. What is Byte Stuffing? Illustrate it with a diagram.

Byte Stuffing is a technique used in data transmission to prevent confusion between
data and special control characters. When a reserved character (such as an escape byte
or end-of-frame marker) appears in the data, the system inserts a special byte (called
escape byte) before it to distinguish between data and control characters.

Example:
If the data contains a special character, we add a special escape byte before it to
prevent confusion.
Data: A B END C
Byte Stuffing: A B ESC END C
Here, the escape byte (ESC) prevents the character "END" from being
misinterpreted as the end of the data frame.

10. Explain the concept of Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) in error detection.
How does it work in ensuring data integrity during transmission?
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is an error detection technique used in data
communication. It helps detect changes in data during transmission due to noise or
signal errors.

Before sending, the sender treats the data as a binary number and divides it by a
predefined binary divisor. The remainder is added to the data and sent to the receiver.
At the receiver’s end, the received data (data + remainder) is divided by the same
divisor. If the remainder is zero, the data is correct. If not, an error is detected.
CRC is powerful and used in many protocols like Ethernet and storage systems to
ensure data integrity.

Example: It’s like checking a product with a barcode—if the scanner finds a mismatch,
it knows something is wrong.

11. Explain how Selective Repeat protocol is better than Go Back N Protocol.

Both Selective Repeat and Go Back N are used in reliable data transfer
protocols, but Selective Repeat is more efficient.
In Go Back N, if a single packet is lost or corrupted, the receiver discards it and all
packets that come after it. The sender must retransmit all those packets, which wastes
bandwidth.

In Selective Repeat, only the specific missing or incorrect packet is resent. The receiver
stores correct packets even if some are missing.
This makes Selective Repeat faster and more efficient, especially on networks with
high delay or frequent errors.

Example: If you send homework and only one page is wrong, Go Back N resends the
whole file, but Selective Repeat resends just the wrong page.

12. State the differences between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA. CSMA/CD

(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

and CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance) are access control methods used in networks.

CSMA/CD is used in wired Ethernet networks. Devices listen before sending data. If a
collision is detected (two devices sending at once), the devices stop, wait for a random
time, and resend.

CSMA/CA is used in wireless networks like Wi-Fi. Since collisions are hard to detect
wirelessly, it avoids them by sending a signal (like RTS/CTS) before actual data.
Example: CSMA/CD is like shouting in a room and stopping if others shout too.
CSMA/CA is like asking permission before speaking.

13. Distinguish between Connection-oriented and Connectionless Services.

These are two types of communication services:

Connection-oriented service (like TCP) establishes a connection before

data is sent. It ensures that data arrives in order and without loss. It
provides reliable communication.
Connectionless service (like UDP) sends data without establishing a connection. It is
faster but does not guarantee delivery or order.
Example: Watching a YouTube video uses connectionless service (UDP) for speed,
while downloading a file uses connection-oriented service (TCP) to avoid errors.

14. Explain NAT with neat diagram.

NAT (Network Address Translation) is a process that allows multiple

devices on a private network to access the internet using a single public
IP address.

Devices inside a home or office network have private IPs (e.g., 192.168.1.2). When they
access the internet, the router with NAT replaces the private IP with the public IP.

The router keeps a table to match responses from the internet to the right internal
device.
Example: You, your phone, and your laptop all use the same public IP to access the
internet.

15. Explain the ICMP protocol and its role in error reporting and
diagnostics in a network.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used by network devices

like routers and hosts to send error messages and operational information.
It does not send user data, but reports problems with delivery, such as “destination
unreachable” or “time exceeded.”

One of the most common uses of ICMP is the ping command, which helps test
whether a device is reachable and how long it takes to respond.
Example: If a packet cannot reach its destination, ICMP sends an error message back
to the sender.

16. Explain Closed Loop Congestion Control policy.

Closed loop congestion control refers to controlling congestion by using

feedback from the network.
When congestion is detected (e.g., packet loss or delay), the sender slows down
transmission to reduce load on the network.
Later, as the congestion clears, the sender gradually increases its speed again.
This dynamic approach helps keep the network stable and efficient.

Example: Like driving in traffic—when traffic is heavy, you slow down; when roads
clear, you speed up again.

17. Explain TCP 3-way handshaking.

TCP 3-way handshaking is the process of establishing a reliable connection
between a client and server.
SYN: The client sends a synchronize (SYN) message to the server.
SYN-ACK: The server responds with a synchronize-acknowledge (SYN- ACK).
ACK: The client sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back to the server.

Once this process completes, the connection is established and data can be exchanged.
Example: Like introducing yourself in a conversation: you say hello (SYN), the
other replies hello back (SYN-ACK), and you confirm (ACK).
 18. Explain the key differences between TCP and UDP in terms of reliability
and connection management.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable and connection- oriented protocol.

It ensures that data is delivered in order, without duplication or loss. It uses
acknowledgments, flow control, and retransmission.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is unreliable and connectionless. It sends data without
ensuring that it reaches the destination. There’s no handshake or retransmission.
Example: TCP is used for downloading files or emails. UDP is used for video calls
and live streaming where speed is more important than perfect accuracy.

19. Apply the concept of the delayed acknowledgment timer in a network

scenario and explain its effect on performance.
In TCP, delayed acknowledgment is a technique where the receiver waits a short time
before sending an ACK, hoping to send data and acknowledgment together.

This reduces the number of small packets (ACKs) on the network and improves
efficiency.
However, if both sender and receiver wait, it may introduce small delays
in communication, especially in interactive applications.

Example: In chatting, delayed ACK might slightly delay message delivery but saves
network bandwidth.

20. Analyze the advantages and limitations of the Slow Start algorithm
in high-bandwidth networks.
Slow Start is a TCP congestion control algorithm that increases data transmission rate
slowly after a new connection.
Advantages:
Prevents network congestion by gradually increasing data load. Avoids packet loss

during the early stage of a connection.

Limitations:
In high-speed networks, it takes longer to reach the full transmission speed, which
can delay performance.

It may slow down the start of large file transfers.

Example: Like starting a car slowly in traffic—it’s safe but slower.

21. Classify the different types of DNS resource records and describe their
functions.

DNS uses different types of resource records (RRs) to store domain- related
information:

A Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address (e.g., example.com

→ 192.0.2.1).

AAAA Record: Maps to an IPv6 address.

CNAME: Canonical Name – points one domain to another (e.g., www.example.com →
example.com).
MX Record: Mail Exchange – specifies mail servers for the domain.

NS Record: Name Server – indicates the authoritative name servers for the domain.
TXT Record: Stores text information, like SPF records for email security.
Each record type serves a specific purpose to support the proper function of internet
services.

22. Compare the roles of authoritative name servers and recursive name
servers in DNS resolution.
A recursive name server acts like a helper that takes a domain name request (e.g.,
www.google.com) and finds the IP address by querying multiple other servers. It keeps
asking until it finds the final answer.
An authoritative name server holds the actual records (like A, MX, etc.) for a specific
domain. When queried, it gives the final, correct IP address.
Example: If your browser wants to visit www.college.edu, your ISP’s recursive server asks other DNS
servers until it reaches the authoritative server for college.edu, which returns the real IP.

23. Conclude whether HTTP or SMTP is more suited for real-time applications, justifying your
choice with examples.
HTTP is more suited for real-time applications than SMTP.

HTTP allows fast, interactive communication between a client and server, especially with modern versions
like HTTP/2 and HTTP/3, which support multiplexing and low latency.

SMTP is designed for email delivery, not real-time interaction. It uses a store-and-forward mechanism,
which introduces delays.
Example: A chat application uses HTTP/WebSockets for live messaging. But email clients like Outlook
use SMTP for sending mail, which is not instant.

24. Elaborate on the role of Telnet in remote access, FTP in file transfer, and DHCP in
dynamic IP address allocation.
Telnet is a protocol used to remotely access another computer over a network. It opens a command-line
interface to control the remote machine. However, it's not secure, so SSH is preferred now.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to upload and download files between computers. It's useful for
managing website files or sharing large files over a network.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically assigns IP addresses to

devices on a network. This saves time and avoids manual IP configuration.
Example: When your phone connects to a café’s Wi-Fi, DHCP gives it an IP. If the café owner updates
their website via FTP and manages the server with Telnet, all three are in use.