BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG.

UNIT I: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

DC Circuits: Circuit Components: Conductor, Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor – Ohm’s Law -Kirchhoff’s Laws –
Independent and Dependent Sources – Simple problems- Nodal Analysis, Mesh analysis with Independent
sources only (Steady state). Introduction to AC Circuits and Parameters: Waveforms, Average value, RMS
Value, Instantaneous power, real power, reactive power and apparent power, power factor – Steady state
analysis of RLC circuits (Simple problems only)

INTRODUCTION – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS, CHARGE, CURRENT, VOLTAGE & POWER:

 Electric circuit: An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical components.
 Charge: Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (𝑪). There are two types of charge: positive (corresponding to a proton) and negative

−1.6 × 10−19 , and a single proton has a charge of +1.6 × 10−19 𝑪.

(corresponding to an electron). A single electron has a charge of

 Electric current: Current is the rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (𝑨).
𝒅𝒒
𝒊≜
𝒅𝒕
-------- (1.1)

And 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.

Key Point:
 DC Current: A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
 AC Current: An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.


𝟏 𝒎𝑨. Determine 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐.

Example: 1.1 In the wire of Fig. 1-1, electrons are moving left to right to create a current of

𝑰𝟏 = −𝟏 𝒎𝑨 and 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒎𝑨

Fig. 1-1

Example: 1.2 A billion (𝟏𝟎𝟗) electrons flow over a period of 𝟏 𝝁𝒔 from 𝑨 to 𝑩 in the wire
shown in Fig.1-2. Determine the average current 𝑰𝟏.

𝒒 = 𝒏. 𝒆 = 109 × (−1.6 × 10−19) = −1.6 × 10−10 𝑪

𝑞 1.6 × 10−10
𝐼1 = = − = −160 × 10−6
𝑡 1 × 10 −6
𝑰𝟏 = −160 𝝁𝑨

Fig. 1-2

measured in volts (𝑽).

 Electric potential (Voltage): Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element,

𝒅𝒘
𝒗≜
𝒅𝒒
-------- (1.2)

Where 𝒘 in joules (𝑱) and 𝒒 in coulombs (𝑪), and 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏.

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𝟔𝟎 𝑱
Example: 1.3 Find the potential difference between two points in an electrical system if

60 are expended by a charge of 𝟐𝟎 𝑪 between these two points.

𝒗 ===𝒒203𝑉
of energy
�
�

 Power: Power is the rate of change of energy.

𝒅𝒘 𝒅𝒘 𝒅𝒒
𝒑≜ =( )( ) = 𝒗𝒊
-------- (1.3)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒒 𝒅𝒕
where 𝒘 in joules (𝑱) and 𝒕 in seconds (𝒔), and 1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
1. Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of power. Passive

𝒑 = +𝒗𝒊. If the current enters through the negative terminal, 𝒑 = −𝒗𝒊.

sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element and

2. Law of conservation of energy: The algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must
be zero. (The sum of the absorbed power equals the sum of the supplied power).

∑ 𝒑=𝟎 -------- (1.4)

the product of power and time. The unit of energy is 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
Note: The power is rate of work done and the energy is total work done. Hence, the energy is given by

CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL NETWORKS:

 Broadly, network elements may be classified into four groups, viz. (i) Linear or nonlinear,
(ii) Bilateral or unilateral, (iii) Active or passive and (iv) Lumped or distributed.

 Linear and Nonlinear Elements: An element is said to be linear, if its voltage-current characteristic is

proportional to the voltage applied through it, and the relation is expressed as 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰 (𝐨𝐫) 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹.
at all times a straight line through the origin. For example, the current passing through a resistor is

A linear element or network is one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e. the principle of
homogeneity and additivity. An element which does not satisfy the above principle is called a nonlinear
element.

 Bilateral and Unilateral: In the bilateral element, the voltage-current relation is the same for current
flowing in either direction. In contrast, a unilateral element has different relations between voltage and
current for the two possible directions of current. Examples of bilateral elements are elements made of
high conductivity materials in general. Vacuum diodes, silicon diodes, and metal rectifiers are examples
of unilateral elements.

 Active and Passive: Energy sources (voltage or current sources) are active elements, capable of
delivering power to some external device. Passive elements are those which are capable only of
receiving power.

 Lumped and Distributed: A network in which all the network elements are physically separable is
known as lumped network. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors and
transformers. A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc. cannot be
physically separable for analysis purposes, is called distributed network. The best example of such a
network is a transmission line where resistance, inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are
distributed all along its length and cannot be shown as a separate element, anywhere in the circuit.

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OHM’S LAW
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage across conducting materials is directly proportional to the
current flowing through the material.

𝒗∝𝒊
𝒗 = 𝒊𝑹 -------- (1.5)
where the constant of proportionality 𝑹 is called the resistance.
 The unit of resistance is the ohm which is 𝟏 𝑽/𝑨 and abbreviated by a capital omega Ω.

Limitations:
 It is not applicable to the non linear devices such as diodes, zener diodes, voltage regulators etc.
 It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide. The law for such conductors

𝒗 = 𝒌𝒊𝒎
is given by;
-------- (1.6)
where 𝒌 and 𝒎 are constants.

1.2 BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

 An electric circuit is simply interconnection of the elements. Circuit analysis is the process of
determining voltage across (or the current through) the elements of the circuit.
 There are two types of elements found in electric circuit: passive and active element. An active element
is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not. Examples of passive elements are
resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and
operational amplifiers.

ϡ ENERGY SOURCES
 The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power to the
circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.
 An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is
completely independent of other circuit elements as shown in Fig. 1-3.
 An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.

Fig. 1-3 Symbols for independent:

(a) voltage source (b) current source.

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Fig. 1-4 Symbols for dependent:

(a) voltage source
(b) current source.

 Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1-4. Since the
control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the circuit,
and the source can be voltage or current. There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely
(as in Fig. 1-5) :

1. A current-controlled current source

(CCCS).
2. A voltage-controlled current source
(VCCS)
3. A voltage-controlled voltage source
(VCVS).
4. A current-controlled voltage source
(CCVS).

Fig. 1-5 The four different types of dependent sources: (a) current-controlled current source; (b)
voltage-controlled current source; (c) voltage-controlled voltage source; (d)
current-controlled voltage source.
In Fig. 1-5, 𝐾 is a dimensionless scaling constant, 𝑔 is a scaling factor with unit of 𝐴/𝑉; 𝑟 is a scaling
factor with unit of 𝑉/𝐴.

Example: 1.4 Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each component of the circuit in

𝒑𝟏 = (𝟐𝟎 )(−𝟓 ) = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾

Fig. 1-6.

(Supplied power)
𝒑𝟐 = (𝟏𝟐)(𝟓) = 𝟔𝟎 𝑾
(Absorbed power)
𝒑𝟑 = (𝟖)(𝟔) = 𝟒𝟖 𝑾
(Absorbed power)
𝒑𝟒 = (𝟖)(−𝟎. 𝟐𝑰) = 𝟖(−𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟓) =
−𝟖𝑾
Fig. 1-6 (Supplied power)

∑ 𝒑 = 𝒑𝟏 + 𝒑𝟐 + 𝒑𝟑 + 𝒑𝟒 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 +
𝟒𝟖 − 𝟖 = 𝟎

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ϡ PASSIVE ELEMENTS

 The resistance 𝑹 of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in
I. RESISTOR

ohms (Ω). The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area , depends on 𝑨 and its
length ℓ, as shown in Fig. 1-7 (a). It is represent as;

𝓵
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
-------- (1.7)

where 𝝆 is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters.

Fig. 1-7 (a) Resistor, (b) Electrical symbol for resistor

 A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance 𝑹, known as conductance and
denoted by 𝑮 (from ohm’s law):

𝟏 𝒊
𝑮= =
𝑹 𝒗
-------- (1.8)

Siemen (S) (1 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 /𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡)

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mho (Ʊ) or

 The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of 𝑹.

𝒗
𝟐
𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒊𝟐𝑹 =
-------- (1.9)

𝑹
II. CAPACITOR
 Capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field. A capacitor consists of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
 Capacitors are used extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and power systems. For
example, they are used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers and as dynamic memory elements in

 When a voltage source 𝒗 is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig. 1-8, the source deposits a positive
computer systems.

charge 𝒒 on one plate and a negative charge −𝒒 on the other. The capacitor is said to store the electric

 The amount of charge stored, represented by 𝒒, is directly proportional to the applied voltage
charge.

𝒗 and it is given by;

𝒒 = 𝑪. 𝒗 -------- (1.10)
where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.

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Fig. 1-8 (a) A capacitor with applied voltage 𝒗 (b) Electrical symbol for capacitor.

two plates, measured in 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑓).

 Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the

1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎= 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

 Current is the rate of change of charge.

𝒅𝒒 𝒅𝒗
𝒊= =𝑪
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
-------- (1.11)

 The voltage - current relationship is obtained by integrating the above equation:

𝒕 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 = ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒗(𝒕𝟎)
𝑪 𝑪
-------- (1.12)
−∞ 𝒕𝟎
( ) ( )
where 𝒗 𝒕𝟎 = 𝒒 𝒕𝟎 /𝑪 is the initial voltage across the capacitor at time 𝒕𝟎.

NOTE:
𝒕 𝒕
𝟎
∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 + ∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒗(𝒕𝟎) +
� �
� �

∫ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕
−∞−∞𝒕𝟎𝒕𝟎

 The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor:

𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗 (𝑪 ) = 𝑪 𝒗
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
-------- (1.13)

 The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore :

𝒕 𝒕 𝒅 𝒕
𝒗 𝒕
𝟏 𝑪𝒗𝟐|
𝒘 = ∫ 𝒑 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝑪 . 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑪 ∫ 𝒗. 𝟐 𝒕=−∞
𝒗 𝒅 𝒅𝒗 =
𝒕
−∞ −∞ −∞

Note that (−∞) = , because the capacitor was unchanged at 𝒕 = −∞. Thus ;

𝟏
𝒘 = 𝑪𝒗𝟐
𝟐
-------- (1.14)

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III. INDUCTOR
 Inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field. Inductors find numerous
applications in electronic and power systems. They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios,
TVs, radars, and electric motors.
 An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire as shown in Fig. 1-9.

Fig. 1-9 (a) Inductor, (b) Electrical symbol for inductor

 If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the inductor is
directly proportional to the time rate of change of the current.

𝒅𝒊
𝒗=𝑳
𝒅𝒕
-------- (1.15)

where 𝑳 is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor.

through it, measured in ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻).

 Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing

1 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟= 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒

 The current - voltage relationship is obtained by integrating the above equation:

𝒕 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒅𝒊 = 𝒗 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒊(𝒕𝟎)
𝑳 𝑳 𝑳
-------- (1.16)
−∞ 𝒕𝟎
where 𝒊(𝒕𝟎) is the total current for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑡0 and 𝒊(−∞) = 𝟎.

𝒅𝒊
 The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor:
𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊 = (𝑳 ) 𝒊
𝒅
-------- (1.17)

𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
 The energy stored in the inductor is therefore :
𝒅 𝒕
𝟏
𝒊
𝒘 = ∫ 𝒑 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ ) 𝒊. 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑳 ∫ 𝒊. 𝑳𝒊𝟐|
𝒅 𝒅𝒊 =
𝟐 𝒕=−∞
(��
𝒕
−∞ −∞ −∞
Note that (−∞) = 𝟎. Thus;

𝟏
𝒘 = 𝑳𝒊𝟐
𝟐
-------- (1.18)

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1.3 NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS

 Branch: A branch is a single two-terminal element in an electric circuit such as a voltage source or a
resistor.
 Node: A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
 Mesh (loop): A loop is a closed path in a circuit.

 The number of branches 𝒃, the number of nodes 𝒏, and the number of independent loops 𝒍 in a
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

𝒃=𝒍+𝒏−𝟏
network are related as:
-------- (1.19)

 The circuit in Fig. 1-10 has five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and
the three resistors.

Fig. 1-10 (a) Nodes, branches, and loops.

(b) The three-node circuit of Fig. 1-9 (a) is redrawn.

1.4 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS

A. KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:
 The algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is zero.

Fig. 1-11 (a) Currents at a node illustrating KCL.

 Consider the node shown in Fig. 1-11 (a). The algebraic sum of the four currents entering the node

𝒊𝑨 + 𝒊𝑩 + (−𝒊𝑪) + (−𝒊𝑫) = 𝟎
must be zero:
-------- (1.20)

(−𝒊𝑨) + (−𝒊𝑩) + 𝒊𝑪 + 𝒊𝑫 = 𝟎.
 However, the law could be equally well applied to the algebraic sum of the currents leaving the node:

currents going out : 𝒊𝑨 + 𝒊𝑩 = 𝒊𝑪 + 𝒊𝑫.

 In other words, KCL simply states that the sum of the currents going in must equal the sum of the

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B. KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

 The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.
 To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 1-11 (b). The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the
terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop.
 KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counter-clockwise trip around the
loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.

Fig. 1-11 (b) A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

 Thus KVL yields;

−𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒗𝟑 − 𝒗𝟒 + 𝒗𝟓 = 𝟎 ; 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒗𝟑 + 𝒗𝟓 = 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒗𝟒 -------- (1.21)

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠

which may be interpreted as;

1.5 ANALYSIS OF SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITS:

I. SINGLE LOOP CIRCUIT:
 All of the elements in a circuit that carry the same current are said to be connected in series. Consider a

Let 𝒊 be the current flowing through the circuit in clockwise direction.

single loop circuit shown in Fig. 1-12, which consists of two resistors and two voltage source in series.

Fig. 1-12 (a) A single-loop circuit with four elements.

(b) Current and voltage reference signs have been added to the circuit.

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II. SINGLE NODE-PAIR CIRCUIT:

 Elements in a circuit having a common voltage across them are said to be connected in parallel. Consider
a single node-pair circuit shown in Fig. 1-13, in which any numbers of simple elements are connected
between the same pair of nodes.
 First, assume a voltage across any element, assigning an arbitrary reference polarity. The reference node
is commonly called the ground node.
Fig. 1-13 (a) A single-node circuit with four elements.

(b) Current and voltage reference signs have been added to the circuit

III. SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED SOURCES:

 Several voltage sources in series may be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage equal
to the algebraic sum of the individual sources (Fig. 1-14 (a)). Parallel current sources may also be
combined by algebraically adding the individual currents, and the order of the parallel elements may be
rearranged as desired (Fig. 1-14 (b)).

Fig. 1-14 (a) Series-connected voltage sources can be replaced by a single source.
(b) Parallel current sources can be replaced by a single source.

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ϡ SHORT AND OPEN CIRCUITS

A. Short Circuit:
 When any two points in a network are joined directly to each other with a thick metallic conducting
wire, the two points are said to be short circuited, as shown in Fig. 1-15 (a).

 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance

approaching zero.

𝒗=𝒊×𝑹=𝟎𝑽
 For a short circuit,

Fig. 1-15 (a)

Key Point: Thus, voltage across short circuit is always zero though current flows through the short
circuited path.

B. Open Circuit
 When there is no connection between two points of a network, having some voltage across the two
points then the two points are said to be open circuited, as shown in Fig. 1-15 (b).

 An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance

approaching infinity
 For an open circuit,

𝒗
𝒊 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎
𝑹→∞ 𝑹

Fig. 1-15 (b)

Key Point: Thus, current through open circuit is always zero though there exists a voltage across open
circuited terminals.

NOTE:
 If we reduce a voltage source to zero volts, we have effectively created a short circuit (Fig. 1-15
(c)). If we reduce a current source to zero amps, we have effectively created an open circuit (Fig. 1-15
(d)).

Fig. 1-15 (c) A voltage source set to zero acts like a short circuit.
(d) A current source set to zero acts like an open circuit.

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C. Redundant Branches and Combinations:

 If in a circuit there are branches or combinations of elements which do not carry any current then such
branches and combinations are called redundant from circuit point of view.
 The redundant branches and combinations can be removed and these branches do not affect the
performance of the circuit. The two important situations of redundancy which may exist in practical
circuits are,
 Situation 1: Any branch or combination, across which there exists a short circuit, becomes redundant
as it does not carry any current.
 To understand this, consider the combination of resistances and a short circuit as shown in the Fig. 1-
16 (a) and (b).
Fig. 1-16 Redundant branches.

 In Fig. 1-16 (a), there is short circuit across 𝑅3. The current always prefers low resistance path hence
entire current 𝐼 passes through short circuit and hence resistance 𝑅3 becomes redundant from the

 In Fig. 1-16 (b), there is short circuit across combination of 𝑅3 and 𝑅4. The entire current flows
circuit point of view.

through short circuit across 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 and no current can flow through combination of 𝑅3 and
𝑅4. Thus that combination becomes meaningless from the circuit point of view. Such combinations can
be eliminated while analysing the circuit.

 Situation 2: If there is open circuit in a

branch or combination, it does not carry any
current and becomes redundant.
 In Fig. 1-17, there exist an open circuit in
branch BC, the branch BC and CD does not
carry any current and become
redundant from circuit point of view.

Fig. 1-17 Redundant branches.

1.6 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

 Consider the series combination of 𝑵 resistors shown in Fig. 1-18. The equivalent resistance of any
A. Resistors in Series:

number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual resistance.

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Fig. 1-18 (a) Series combination of 𝑵 resistors

(b) Electrically equivalent circuit.

Thus, the value of the equivalent resistance for 𝑵 series resistors is;

-------- (1.22)

 Consider the parallel combination of 𝑵 resistors shown in Fig. 1-19. A circuit containing 𝑵
B. Resistors in Parallel:

resistors in parallel, as in Fig. 1-19, leads to the KCL equation.

 The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of
the individual resistances.

Fig. 1-19 (a) Parallel combination of 𝑵 resistors

(b) Electrically equivalent circuit.

Apply KCL;

-------- (1.23)

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1.7 INDUCTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

 Consider the series combination of 𝑵 inductors shown in Fig. 1-20.

A. Inductors in Series:

Fig. 1-20 (a) A circuit containing 𝑵 inductors in series. (b) Electrically equivalent circuit.

 Apply KVL to the original circuit ;

-------- (1.24)

 Consider the parallel combination of 𝑵 inductors shown in Fig. 1-21.

B. Inductors in Parallel:

Fig. 1-21 (a) A circuit containing 𝑵 inductors in parallel.

(b) Electrically equivalent circuit.

 The combination of a number of parallel inductors is accomplished by writing the single nodal equation
for the original circuit, shown in Fig. 1-22,
 The equivalent inductance is given by ;

-------- (1.25)

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CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

 Consider the series combination of 𝑵 capacitors shown in Fig. 1-22.

A. Capacitors in Series:

Fig. 1-22 (a) A circuit containing 𝑵 capacitors in series.

(b) Electrically equivalent circuit.
 Apply KVL to the original circuit and the equivalent capacitance is given by ;
-------- (1.26)

 Consider the parallel combination of 𝑵 capacitors shown in Fig. 1-23.

B. Capacitors in Parallel:

Fig. 1-23 (a) A circuit containing 𝑵 capacitors in parallel.

 The value of the capacitor which is equivalent to 𝑵 parallel capacitors as

(b) Electrically equivalent circuit.
-------- (1.27)

1. For the single-node-pair circuit of Fig. 1-25, find 𝒗.

Solution:

By Ohm’s law: 𝒊𝟏 = 𝒗/𝟏; 𝒊𝟐 = 𝒗/𝟏𝟎

𝟓 − 𝒊𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 + 𝟔 = 𝟎 𝒗 𝒗
By KCL, the sum of the currents entering the upper node must be zero, so that:
⟹

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2. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1-27, determine the voltages 𝑽𝒅𝒇 and 𝑽𝒂𝒈.

Fig. 1-27
Solution:

Assume loop currents 𝒊𝟏 and 𝒊𝟐.

For loop 1:

𝟏𝟎
(clockwise direction)

−𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝒊𝟏 + 𝟑𝒊𝟏 + 𝟓𝒊𝟏 = 𝟎 ; 𝒊𝟏 = = 𝟏𝑨

𝟏𝟎

𝟏𝟎
For loop 2: (Counter clockwise direction)

𝟓𝒊𝟐 + 𝟐𝒊𝟐 + 𝟑𝒊𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎 ; 𝒊𝟐 = =𝟏𝑨

𝟏𝟎

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3. Find 𝑹𝒂𝒃 for the circuit in Fig. 1-28.

Fig. 1-28
Solution:

4. Determine the equivalent resistance of each of the networks shown in Fig. 1-29.

Fig. 1-29

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 19

Solution:

Calculate the equivalent resistance 𝑹𝒆𝒒 of the network shown in Fig. 1-30, if
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑𝑹𝟑 = 𝟒𝑹𝟒 etc., and 𝑹𝟏𝟏 = 𝟑 Ω.
5.

Fig. 1-30
Solution:

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6. Solve a) unknown resistors 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 b) unknown currents in various branches of the circuit shown in
Fig. 1-31, such that 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑨 & 𝒊𝟒 = 𝟑𝟎 𝑨.

Fig. 1-31
Solution:

Let the current in the branches AB, BC and CD be 𝒊𝟏, 𝒊𝟑 and 𝒊𝟓 respectively as shown in Fig.

𝒊𝟑 + 𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎 ; 𝒊𝟑 + 𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 ; 𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝒊𝟑 − − − (𝟏)
Apply KCL at node B:

𝒊𝟓 − 𝒊𝟒 − 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎 ; 𝒊𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝒊𝟑 − − − (𝟐)
Apply KCL at node C:

𝟎. 𝟏𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐𝑹𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎; 𝟎. 𝟏(𝟐𝟎 − 𝒊𝟑) + 𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎 ;

Apply KVL to the closed mesh ABGHA:

𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − − − (𝟑)

𝟎. 𝟑(−𝒊𝟑) + (−𝒊𝟐)𝑹𝟏 + 𝒊𝟒𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 ; −𝟎. 𝟑𝒊𝟑 − 𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 + 𝟑𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎− − − (𝟒)

Apply KVL to the closed mesh BCFGB:

𝟎. 𝟐(−𝒊𝟓) + 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + (−𝒊𝟒)𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 ; −𝟎. 𝟐(𝟑𝟎 + 𝒊𝟑) − 𝟑𝟎𝑹𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎 ;

Apply KVL to the closed mesh CDEFC:

𝟎. 𝟐𝒊𝟑 + 𝟑𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 − − − (𝟓)

𝟎. 𝟒𝒊𝟑 − 𝟑𝟎𝑹𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎𝟖 − − − (𝟔)

Subtracting Eqn. (4) and (3):

𝟎. 𝟔𝒊𝟑 = 𝟔 ; 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
Adding Eqn. (6) and (5):

Substituting the value of 𝑖3 in Eqn. (1) and (2):

𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝒊𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑨

Substituting the value of 𝑖3 in Eqn. (3) and (5):

𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ; 𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏 (𝟏𝟎) = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ; 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 Ω
𝟎. 𝟐𝒊𝟑 + 𝟑𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 ; 𝟎. 𝟐(𝟏𝟎) + 𝟑𝟎𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 ; 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟑 Ω

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7. Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals of the circuit in Fig. 1-33.

Fig. 1-33
Solution:

𝟔𝟎
𝟒𝟎 𝝁𝑭
𝝁𝑭 &
& 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝑭are
𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝑭 areininparallel,
series, their
theirequivalent capacitanceisis: :(𝟔𝟎
equivalentcapacitance 𝟒𝟎 ×
+ 𝟏𝟐𝟎)/(𝟔𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎) =
𝟐𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎 𝝁𝑭

𝟓𝟎 𝝁𝑭 & 𝟕𝟎 𝝁𝑭 are in parallel, their equivalent capacitance is : 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟕𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝑭

𝟔𝟎 𝝁𝑭 & 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝑭 are in series, their equivalent capacitance is : (𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎)/(𝟔𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎) =
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝟒𝟎 𝝁𝑭

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MESH CURRENT METHOD

 A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it. Mesh analysis applies KVL to find
unknown current in a given circuit. Mesh analysis is also known as mesh-current method.
 Mesh analysis is only applicable to a circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a
plane with no branches crossing one another; otherwise it is non-planar. A circuit may have crossing
branches and still be planar if it can be redrawn such that it has no crossing branches.

1. Assign mesh currents to the ′𝑛′ meshes.

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:

2. Apply KVL to each of the ′𝑛′ meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of mesh

3. Solve the resulting ′𝑛′ simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
currents.

4. The direction of the mesh current is arbitrary-(clockwise or counter clock-wise) and does not
affect the validity of the solution.
Supermesh
 Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or independent) may appear
complicated. So a new technique called supermesh is employed.
 A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in common.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

8. In the circuit shown below in Fig. 1-34. Obtain the load current.

Fig. 1-34

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Assume the three clockwise mesh currents 𝒊𝟏, 𝒊𝟐 and 𝒊𝟑.

Solution:

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟏: −𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟒𝒊𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐) = 𝟎 ∶ 𝟏𝟔𝒊𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐𝒊𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − −(𝟏)

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟐: 𝟔𝒊𝟐 + 𝟗(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟑) + 𝟏𝟐(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏) = 𝟎 ∶ −𝟏𝟐𝒊𝟏 + 𝟐𝟕𝒊𝟐 − 𝟗𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎 − −(𝟐)
𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟑: 𝟑𝒊𝟑 + 𝟏𝟓𝒊𝟑 + 𝟗(𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟐) = 𝟎 ∶ −𝟗𝒊𝟐 + 𝟐𝟕𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎 − −(𝟑)
𝟏𝟔 −𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟎

−𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟕 −𝟗 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟎 −𝟗 𝒊𝟑 𝟎
2𝟕

𝒊 𝟑 = 𝑰𝑳 = 𝟐 𝑨

9. Determine numerical values for each of the three mesh currents as labeled in the circuit diagram of Fig.
1-35.

Fig. 1-35

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟏: −𝟐 + 𝟏(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐) − 𝟑 + 𝟓(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟑) = 𝟎 ∶ 𝟔𝒊𝟏 − 𝟏𝒊𝟐 − 𝟓𝒊𝟑 = 𝟓 − −(𝟏)

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟐: 𝟗(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟑) + 𝟏(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏) + 𝟔𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎 ∶ −𝟏𝒊𝟏 + 𝟏𝟔𝒊𝟐 − 𝟗𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎 − −(𝟐)
𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟑: 𝟕𝒊𝟑 + 𝟓(𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟏) + 𝟑 + 𝟗(𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟐) = 𝟎 ∶ −𝟓𝒊𝟏 − 𝟗𝒊𝟐 + 𝟐𝟏𝒊𝟑 = −𝟑 − −(𝟑)
𝟔 -𝟏 -5 𝒊𝟏 𝟓

𝟏𝟔 -𝟗 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎
𝒊
-𝟏
-𝟓 -𝟗 21 −𝟑
𝟑

𝒊𝟏 = 𝟗𝟖𝟗. 𝟐 𝒎𝑨
𝒊𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝑨
𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟎 𝒎𝑨

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 24

10. Use mesh analysis as appropriate to determine the two mesh currents labeled in Fig. 1-36.

Fig. 1-36

Assume the two clockwise mesh currents 𝒊𝟏 and 𝒊𝟐.

Solution:

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟏:
𝟗𝒊𝟏 + 𝟏(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐) − 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎 ∶ 𝟏𝟎𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟐𝟔 − −(𝟏)
𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 − 𝟐:
𝟗𝒊𝟐 − 𝟐𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏) = 𝟎 ∶ −𝒊𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝒊𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 − −(𝟐)

𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 𝑨 and 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟕 𝑨

11.Determine values for the three mesh currents of Fig. 1-37.

Fig. 1-37

We note that a 𝟐 𝑨 independent current source is in the common boundary of two meshes, which leads
Solution:

us to create a supermesh whose interior is that of meshes 1 and 3 as shown in Fig.

Meshes 1 and 3 are supermesh: Applying KVL about this loop -Trace the outer path

−𝟏 + 𝟕(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐) + 𝟑(𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟐) + 𝟐𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎 ∶ 𝟕𝒊𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝒊𝟐 + 𝟓𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏 − −(𝟏)

𝟏𝒊𝟐 + 𝟑(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟑) + 𝟕(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏) = 𝟎 ∶ −𝟕𝒊𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝒊𝟐 − 𝟑𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎

and around mesh 2,

− −(𝟐)

𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐 − −(𝟑)
Finally, the independent source current is related to the mesh currents,

𝒊𝟏 = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟏𝟗 𝑨 , 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟓𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎𝑨 and 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟕𝟖𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎𝑨

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 25

12. Determine the power supplied by the 1 V source in Fig. 1-38

Fig. 1-38

Solution:

Meshes 1 and 3 are supermesh: Applying KVL about this loop -Trace the outer path

−𝟖 + 𝟐𝒊𝟑 + 𝟏(𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟏) + 𝟑(𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟏) = 𝟎 ∶ −𝟒𝒊𝟏 + 𝟑𝒊𝟐 + 𝟑𝒊𝟑 = 𝟖 − −(𝟏)

−𝟏 + 𝟒𝒊𝟏 + 𝟑(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟐) + 𝟏(𝒊𝟏 − 𝒊𝟑) = 𝟎 ∶ 𝟖𝒊𝟏 − 𝟑𝒊𝟐 − 𝟏𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏

and around mesh 1,

− −(𝟐)

𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟓𝒊𝟏 ∶ −𝟓𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 − 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟎 − −(𝟑)

Finally, the dependent source current is related to the mesh currents,

𝒊𝟏 = 𝟏𝟗 𝑨 ; 𝑷(𝟏𝑽) = 𝒊𝟏 × 𝟏 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟗 𝑾

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 26

NODE VOLTAGE METHOD

 Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage method. Nodal analysis is used to find the node
voltages. The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference or datum node. The
reference node is commonly called the ground node.
 Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.

1. Select a node as reference node. Assign voltages 𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3, … … … 𝑣𝑛−1 to the remaining
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

2. Apply KCL to each of the 𝑛 − 1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
nodes. Voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

branch currents in terms of node voltages.

3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

Supernode
 Applying node analysis to circuits containing voltage sources (dependent or independent) may appear
complicated. So a new technique called super node is employed.
 A super node is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected between
two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

For the circuit of Fig. 1-40, determine the nodal voltages 𝒗𝟏, 𝒗𝟐 and 𝒗𝟑.
Solved Problem

Fig. 1-40
Solution:
Redrawn circuit with reference node chosen and voltages labeled.

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 27

Node 1:

Apply KCL at Node 1: −𝒊𝟑 Ω − 𝒊𝟒 Ω + (−𝟑) + (−𝟖) = 𝟎

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 28

𝒗𝟏

− 𝒗𝟑
)−(
𝟒 )−𝟑−𝟖=
𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟑 𝟎
)+(
𝟒 ) = −𝟏

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 BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 29

Using node analysis, find the node voltages and the currents through all the resistors for the circuit shown in Fig.
1-42.

Fig. 1-40
Solution:

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 30

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 31

FUNDAMENTALS OF A.C. CIRCUITS

 Many a time, alternating voltages and currents are represented by a sinusoidal wave, or simply a
sinusoid. It is a very common type of alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage. The sinusoidal
wave is generally referred to as a sine wave.

 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

 Basically an alternating voltage (current) waveform is defined as the voltage (current) that fluctuates
with time periodically, with change in polarity and direction. In general, the sine wave is more useful
than other waveforms, like pulse, saw-tooth, square, etc.

 There are a number of reasons for this. One of the important reasons for concentrating on the
sinusoidal ac voltage is that, it is the voltage generated by utilities throughout the world. Other reasons
include its application throughout electrical, electronic, communication, and industrial systems.

 Another reason is that its derivatives and integrals are also sinusoids. A sinusoidal function is easy to
analyse. Lastly, the sinusoidal function is easy to generate, and it is more useful in the power industry.

 Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage in Fig. 1-41, plotted as a function of some
variable such as time (as below), position, degrees, radians, temperature, and so on.

Fig. 1-41 Alternating waveforms.

SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

TERMINOLOGY
 Cycle: Each repetition of a set of positive and negative instantaneous values of the alternating quantity

denoted as 𝑻𝟏, 𝑻𝟐, and 𝑻𝟑 in different appearance.

is called a cycle. Such repetition occurs at regular interval of time, as shown in Fig. 1-42. It is

Fig. 1-42 Defining the cycle and period of a sinusoidal waveform.

 Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time

 Peak value (Amplitude): The peak value of the sine wave is the maximum value of the wave during
positive half cycle or the maximum value of the wave during negative half cycle.

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 32

 Peak-to-peak value: The peak to peak value of a sine wave is the value from the positive to the
negative peaks, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.

 Time Period (𝑻): The time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform
 Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time interval.

 Frequency (𝒇): The number of cycles that occur in 𝟏𝒔. The frequency of the waveform of Fig. 1-43
(a) is 1 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑, and for Fig. 1-43 (b), 2 1⁄2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. If a waveform of
similar shape had a period of 0.5 𝑠 [Fig. 1-43 (c)], the frequency would be 2 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.

Fig. 1-43 Demonstrating the effect of a changing frequency on the

period of a sinusoidal waveform

 The unit of measure for frequency is the hertz (𝑯𝒛), where , 𝟏 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒛 = 𝟏𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆/ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅.
 Since the frequency is inversely related to the period—that is, as one increases, the other decreases by
an equal amount—the two can be related by the following equation:

𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
-------- (1.28)

Example: 1.5

Solution:
CHARACTERISTICS OF SINUSOIDS
 Consider the sinusoidal voltage ,

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 -------- (1.29)

𝑽𝒎 = the amplitude of the sinusoid

where;

𝝎 = the angular frequency in 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝝎𝒕 = the argument of the sinusoid

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 33

Fig. 1-44 A sketch of 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 (a) as a function of 𝝎𝒕 and (b) as a function of 𝒕.

 The sinusoid is shown in Fig. 1-44 (a) as a function of its argument and in Fig. 1-44 (b) as a function of
time. It is evident that the sinusoid repeats itself every 𝑻 seconds; thus, 𝑻 is called the period of the
sinusoid.
 From the two plots , we observe that ;

Thus; 𝝎𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 -------- (1.30)

𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 -------- (1.31)

LAGGING AND LEADING
 A more general form of the sinusoid;

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
includes a phase angle 𝝓 in its argument.
-------- (1.32)

 Eqn. (1-32) is plotted in Fig. 1-45 as a function of 𝝎𝒕, and the phase angle appears as the number of
radians by which the original sine wave is shifted to the left, or earlier in time.

Fig. 1-45 The sine wave 𝑽𝒎 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓) leads 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 by 𝝓 radian.

 Therefore, it is correct to describe 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 as lagging 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓) by 𝝓 rad, as leading

𝐬𝐢n (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓) by −𝝓 rad.

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 34

AVERAGE VALUE
 The average or mean value of a continuous dc voltage will always be equal to its maximum peak value
as a dc voltage is constant.
 For a symmetrical ac, the average value over a complete cycle is zero as both positive and negative half
cycles are exactly identical. Hence, the average value is defined for half cycle only.
 The average value of a time varying quantity is the average of the instantaneous value for a particular

In general, the average value of any function 𝒗(𝒕), with time period 𝑻, is given by;
time period.


𝟏 𝑻
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = ∫ 𝒗(𝒕). 𝒅𝒕
-------- (1.33)
𝑻 𝟎
 The instantaneous value of the sinusoidal voltage is expressed by, 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 . The
average value is given as;

𝝅
𝟏
𝟎

𝑽𝒎 𝟐𝑽𝒎 -------- (1.34)

𝝅 𝟎
𝝅

 The root mean square (𝑟𝑚𝑠) value of a sine wave is a measure of the heating effect of the wave. When
EFFECTIVE VALUE (OR) RMS VALUE

a resistor is connected across a dc voltage source, a certain amount of heat is produced in the resistor in
a given time. A similar resistor is connected across an ac voltage source for the same time; the value of
the ac voltage is adjusted such that the same amount of heat is produced in the resistor as in the case of
the dc source. This value is called the rms value.

effect. In general, the rms value of any function with period 𝑻 has an effective value given by
 That means the rms value of a sine wave is equal to the dc voltage that produces the same heating

𝑻
𝟏
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ ∫ [𝒗(𝒕)]𝟐 . 𝒅𝒕
-------- (1.35)
𝑻 𝟎
 For example the sinusoid current 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 , the effective or rms value is given by ;

𝟏 𝝅
𝑽𝒎

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ ∫ (𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕))𝟐 . 𝒅(𝝎𝒕) =

𝝅 𝟎 √𝟐
-------- (1.36)

PEAK FACTOR
 The peak factor of any waveform is defined as the ratio of the peak value of the wave to the rms value of
the wave. For sinusoidal waveform :

𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 (𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆) 𝑽𝒎

𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
-------- (1.37)
𝑹𝒎𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒎/√𝟐

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 35

FORM FACTOR
 The form factor of any waveform is defined as the ratio of the rms value to the average value of the
wave. For sinusoidal waveform :

𝑹𝒎𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒎/√𝟐

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏
-------- (1.38)
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟐𝑽𝒎/𝝅

1.8 PHASOR & PHASOR DIAGRAM

 Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than sine
and cosine functions.

number 𝒛 represented in three ways ;

 A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. A complex

𝒛=𝒙+𝒋𝒚 Rectangular form -------- (1.39)

𝒛 = 𝒓∠𝝓 Polar form -------- (1.40)
𝒛 = 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝝓 Exponential form -------- (1.41)
 Given a sinusoid, 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑹𝒆(𝑽𝒎𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕+𝝓) ) =
𝑹𝒆(𝑽𝒎𝒆𝒋𝝓 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 )
Thus; 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑹𝒆(𝐕𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 ) -------- (1.42)

where 𝐕 = 𝑽𝒎𝒆𝒋𝝓 = 𝑽𝒎∠𝝓 -------- (1.43)

 The process by which we change (𝒕) into 𝐕 is called a phasor transformation from the time
domain to the frequency domain.

 As a complex quantity, a phasor may be

expressed in rectangular form, polar
form, or exponential form. Since a
phasor has magnitude and phase
(“direction”), it behaves as a vector and

phasors 𝐕 = 𝑽𝒎∠𝝓 and

is printed in boldface. For example,

𝐈 = 𝑰 𝒎∠ − 𝜽 are graphically
represented in Fig. 1-46. Such a
graphical representation of phasors is
known as a phasor diagram.

𝐕 = 𝑽𝒎∠𝝓 and 𝐈 = 𝑰𝒎∠ − 𝜽.

Fig. 1-46 A phasor diagram showing

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 36

1.9 RESPONSE OF BASIC R, L, AND C ELEMENTS TO A SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR CURRENT

I. PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

resistor 𝑹 is connected across an alternating voltage

 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1-47 (a), in which a

source.

(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕.

 Let the sinusoidal voltage applied across the resistor be

 Ohm’s law can be applied as follows:

𝒗(𝒕) 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝑽𝒎
𝒊(𝒕) = = = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
Fig. 1-47 (a) Determining the

𝑹 𝑹 𝑹
sinusoidal response for a resistive
element.

𝑽𝒎
where ;

𝑰𝒎 =
-------- (1.44)

𝑹
In addition, for a given 𝒊(𝒕),

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝒊(𝒕). 𝑹 = (𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕)𝑹 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

𝑽𝒎 = 𝑰𝒎𝑹
where ; -------- (1.45)

 The rms value of voltage and curren t in terms of polar form: [𝑽 = � and 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎/√𝟐]
𝑽𝒎/√
𝐕 = 𝑽∠𝟎°
� -------- (1.46)

𝐈 = 𝑰∠𝟎°
 Fig. 1-47 (b) shows the phasor diagram of voltage --------
and current of Fig. 1-47 (a), reveals that for a(1.47)
purely
resistive element, the voltage across and the current through the element are in-phase, with their peak
values related by Ohm’s law.

Fig. 1-47 (b) Phasor diagram

II. PURE INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

inductor 𝑳 is connected across an alternating voltage

 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1-48 (a), in which an

source.

be (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕.

 Let the sinusoidal voltage applied across the inductor

 For an inductor ;

𝟏
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑳 𝒅𝒊(𝒕) (𝒐𝒓) 𝒊(𝒕) = ∫ 𝒗(𝒕). 𝒅𝒕
Fig. 1-48 (a) Determining
t
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 sinusoidal response for a
Inductive element.

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BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 37

𝟏 𝟏
𝒊(𝒕) = ∫ 𝒗(𝒕). 𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 . 𝒅𝒕
𝑳
𝑽𝒎 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 𝑳
= [− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕]
𝑽𝒎
( )=
𝑳 𝝎 𝝎𝑳
𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎°) = − 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎°)
𝝎𝒕
𝑽𝒎
where ;

𝑰𝒎 =
𝝎𝑳
-------- (1.48)

t in terms of polar form: [𝑽 = � and 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎/√𝟐]

 The rms value of voltage and curren
𝑽𝒎/√ �
𝐕 = 𝑽∠𝟎°
-------- (1.49)

𝐈 = 𝑰∠ and−current
𝟗𝟎° of Fig. 1-48 (a), reveals that
inductor, 𝑽 leads 𝑰 by 𝟗𝟎°, or 𝑰 lags 𝑽 by 𝟗𝟎°.
 Fig. 1-48 (b) shows the phasor diagram of voltage for an(1.50)
--------

 The quantity 𝝎𝑳 called the reactance (from the word reaction) of an inductor, is symbolically
Fig. 1-48 (b) Phasor diagram

represented by 𝑿𝑳 and is measured in ohms: that is,

𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎
= = 𝝎𝑳
-------- (1.51)
𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎/𝝎𝑳
𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 -------- (1.52)

III. PURE CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

capacitor 𝑪 is connected across an alternating

 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1-49 (a), in which a

voltage source.

inductor be (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕.

 Let the sinusoidal voltage applied across the

 For a capacitor ;

𝟏 𝒅𝒗(𝒕)
Fig. 1-49 (a) Determining the
𝒗(𝒕) = ∫ 𝒊(𝒕). 𝒅𝒕 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑪 sinusoidal response for a inductive

𝑪 𝒅𝒕
element.

𝒅𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑪 =𝑪
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
= 𝑽𝒎𝑪 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕)𝝎 = 𝑽𝒎𝝎𝑪
[𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎° − 𝝎𝒕)]
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟗𝟎°) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎° + 𝝎𝒕) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 38

𝝎𝒕

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 39

𝑰𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎𝝎𝑪
where ;
-------- (1.53)

t in terms of polar form: [𝑽 = � and 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎/√𝟐]

 The rms value of voltage and curren

𝑽𝒎/√ �
𝐕 = 𝑽∠𝟎°
-------- (1.54)

𝐈 = 𝑰∠𝟗𝟎°
inductor, 𝑰 leads 𝑽 by 𝟗𝟎°, or 𝑽 lags 𝑰 by 𝟗𝟎°.
 Fig. 1-49 (b) shows the phasor diagram of voltage and current of Fig. 1-49 (a), reveals that for an
-------- (1.55)

Fig. 1-49 (b) Phasor diagram

 The quantity 𝟏/𝝎𝑪 called the reactance (from the word reaction) of a capacitor, is symbolically
represented by 𝑿𝑪 and is measured in ohms: that is,

𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎𝟏
= =
-------- (1.56)
𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎𝝎𝑪 𝝎𝑪
𝟏
𝑿𝑪 =
-------- (1.57)

𝝎𝑪

 The ratio of phasor voltage to phasor current is defined as impedance 𝒁, i.e., 𝒁 = 𝑽/𝑰. The impedance
1.10 IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

impedance is called admittance 𝒀, i.e., 𝒀 = 𝑰/𝑽.

is also defined as the total opposition offered to flow of (sinusoidal) current. The reciprocal of

 When impedance is written in Cartesian form the real part is resistive 𝑹 and the imaginary part is the
reactance 𝑿. The sign of the reactance may be positive or negative. When positive 𝑿 is called inductive
reactance, and when negative 𝑿 is called capacitive reactance.
 When admittance is written in Cartesian form the real part is conductance 𝑮 and the imaginary part is
the susceptance 𝑩. The sign of the susceptance may be positive or negative. When positive 𝑩 is called
capacitive susceptance, and when negative 𝑩 is called inductive susceptance.

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 40

given an operating frequency of 𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄.

Example: 1.6 Determine the equivalent impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1-50,

(b) The elements are replaced by their impedances at 𝝎 = 𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔.

Fig. 1-50 (a) A network that is to be replaced by a single equivalent impedance.

POWER IN SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE

 For any system such as in Fig. 1-51, the power delivered to a load at any instant is defined by the
product of the applied voltage and the resulting current.

Fig. 1-51 Sinusoidal source and passive linear circuit.

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 41

 We assume that the sinusoidal voltage : 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓𝑽) is applied to a network and the
resultant sinusoidal current is ; 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓𝑰)
𝟏
∴ 𝑷 = [𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓𝑽)][𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓𝑰)] = 𝑽𝒎𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰)
or in terms of the effective values: 𝟐

𝑷 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) where ; 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒎/√𝟐 and 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰𝒎/√𝟐

 The average power is the product of two terms. The product 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 is known as apparent power
𝑺. The factor (𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) is called power factor.
 The apparent power (in volt-ampere, 𝑽𝑨) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.
 The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.

𝑷𝑭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) -------- (1.58)

 If 𝒁𝑻 = 𝑹 + 𝒋 𝑿 = |𝒁𝑻|∠ , then 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) = 𝑹/|𝒁𝑻|.

 In rectangular form, complex power 𝑺 is given by ;

COMPLEX POWER

𝑺 = 𝑷 + 𝒋𝑸
where 𝑷 is the average power and the imaginary part of the complex power is symbolized as 𝑸
-------- (1.59)

 The dimensions of 𝑸 are the same as those of the real power 𝑷, the complex power 𝑺, and the
and is termed the reactive power.

apparent power |𝑺|. The unit of 𝑸 is defined as the volt-ampere-reactive (abbreviated VAR).
 The triangle formed by 𝑷, Q and 𝑺 is called power triangle as shown in Fig. 1-52.

Fig. 1-52 (a) Power triangle (b) Impedance triangle.

Complex power 𝑺 = 𝑷 + 𝒋𝑸
Key point:

Apparent power 𝑺 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝑰

Real power 𝑷 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) = 𝑽𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓
Reactive power 𝑸 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) = 𝑽𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 42

SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A RLC series circuit consists of = 𝟕𝟓 Ω , 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑯 and 𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝑭. The circuit is excited by
a sinusoidal source of 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝑽, 𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛. Determine the voltage across various elements. Calculate the
current and power.

Solution:

𝑹 = 𝟕𝟓 Ω , 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑯 and 𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝑭

𝑽 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓∠𝟎° 𝑽 , 𝒇 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝒁𝑹 = 𝑹 = 𝟕𝟓 Ω
𝒁𝑳 = 𝒋𝝎𝑳 = 𝒋 (𝟐𝝅𝒇)𝑳 = 𝒋 𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟐𝟑 Ω
𝒋 −𝒋
𝒁𝑪 = − = = −𝒋 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟔𝟐 Ω
𝝎𝑪 (𝟐𝝅𝒇)𝑪

Fig. 1-53

Total impedance 𝒁𝑻 = 𝟕𝟓 + 𝒋 𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟐𝟑 − 𝒋 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟔𝟐 = 𝟕𝟓 + 𝒋 𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟔𝟏 Ω = 𝟖𝟐.

𝟐𝟖𝟗∠𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟗° Ω By Ohm’s law 𝑰 = 𝑽/𝒁𝑻 = (𝟏𝟏𝟓∠𝟎°)/(𝟖𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟗∠𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟗°) = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟓∠

− 𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟗° 𝑨

Voltage across R : 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟖𝟏𝟐𝟓 ∠ − 𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟗°

𝑽 Voltage across L : 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰. 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 ∠𝟔𝟓. 𝟕𝟏° 𝑽

Voltage across C : 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑰. 𝒁𝑪 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟑𝟑∠ − 𝟏𝟏𝟒.

𝟐𝟗° 𝑽 Power calculation: 𝝓 = 𝝓𝑽

Power factor: 𝑷𝑭 = (𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟎 − (−𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟗°)) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝟒. 𝟐𝟗°) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟒

Real power 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝟖𝟓 𝑾

Reactive power 𝑸 = 𝑽𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝑽𝑨𝑹 Apparent power 𝑺 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝑽𝑨

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 43

2. A RLC parallel circuit is shown below in Fig. 1-54 (a).

(a) Find the total impedance and total admittance.

(b) Determine the current through the various elements in the circuit.
(c) Calculate the total power in watts delivered to the circuit.
(d) Draw the phasor diagram.

Fig. 1-54 (a)

Solution:

𝑹 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 Ω , 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟓 Ω
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟎∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° 𝑽
𝒁𝑳 = 𝒋𝝎𝑳 = 𝒋𝑿𝑳 = 𝒋 𝟐. 𝟓 Ω

Total impedance 𝒁𝑻 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 Ω ⃦ 𝒋 𝟐. 𝟓 Ω = (𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝒋𝟏. 𝟔) Ω = 𝟐∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑°

Ω Total admittance 𝒀𝑻 = 𝟏/𝒁𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓∠ − 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° S

By Ohm’s law ; Total current 𝑰 = 𝑽/𝒁𝑻 = (𝟐𝟎∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° )/(𝟐∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑°) = 𝟏𝟎∠𝟎° 𝑨

Current through R : 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑽/𝑹 = 𝟔∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° 𝑨

Current through L : 𝑰𝑳 = 𝟖 ∠ − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕° 𝑽

=
𝑽
�
𝑳
�

Power factor: 𝑷𝑭 = (𝝓𝑽 − 𝝓𝑰) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° − (𝟎°)) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑°) = 𝟎. 𝟔

Power calculation:

Real power 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 × (𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑°) = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑾

The total power in watts delivered to the circuit is ;

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 44

the current 𝑰𝑹 and leads the current 𝑰𝑳 by 90°.

Phasor diagram: The phasor diagram of Fig. 1-54 (b) indicates that the applied voltage V is in phase with

𝑰 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝑳

= (𝟔∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° 𝑨) + (𝟖 ∠ − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕° 𝑨) = 𝟏𝟎∠𝟎° 𝑨

Fig. 1-54 (b) Phasor diagram

3. A RLC series circuit is shown in Fig. 1-55. Determine the voltage across various elements. Calculate the
current. Draw the phasor diagram.

Fig. 1-55

𝑽 = 𝟓𝟎∠𝟎° 𝑽
Solution:

𝒁𝑹 = 𝑹 = 𝟑 Ω
𝒁𝑳 = 𝒋𝑿𝑳 = 𝒋 𝟕 Ω
𝒁𝑪 = −𝒋 𝑿𝑪 = −𝒋 𝟑 Ω

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 45

Total impedance 𝒁𝑻 = 𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟕 − 𝒋 𝟑 = 𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒 Ω = 𝟓∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° Ω

By Ohm’s law 𝑰 = 𝑽/𝒁𝑻 = (𝟓𝟎∠𝟎°)/(𝟓∠𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑°) = 𝟏𝟎∠ − 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° 𝑨

Voltage across R : 𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎∠ − 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° 𝑽

Voltage across L : 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰. 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟕𝟎∠𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕° 𝑽

Voltage across C : 𝑽𝑪 = 𝑰. 𝒁𝑪 = 𝟑𝟎∠ − 𝟏𝟒𝟑.

𝟏𝟑° 𝑽

Phasor diagram: The phasor diagram of Fig. 1-55 (b) indicates that the current I is in phase with the
voltage across the resistor, lags the voltage across the inductor by 90°, and leads the voltage across the

𝑽 = 𝑽𝑹 + 𝑽𝑳 + 𝑽𝑪
capacitor by 90°.

= (𝟑𝟎∠ − 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° ) + (𝟕𝟎∠𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕°) + (𝟑𝟎∠ − 𝟏𝟒𝟑. 𝟏𝟑°) = 𝟓𝟎∠𝟎° 𝑽

Fig. 1-55 (b) Phasor diagram

4. Calculate 𝑽𝒙 in the circuit of Fig. 1-56.

Fig. 1-56

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

BE3251 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGG. 46

Solution:

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 – 𝟏: 𝟓 𝑰𝟏 + (𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒)(𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐) − 𝟐𝟎∠ − 𝟗𝟎° = 𝟎

 (𝟖 + 𝒋 𝟒) 𝑰𝟏 − (𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒) 𝑰𝟐 = −𝒋 𝟐𝟎 − − (𝟏)

𝑴𝒆𝒔𝒉 – 𝟐: (𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒)(𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏) + 𝟒 𝑰𝟐 + (−𝒋 𝟏𝟑)𝑰𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

 − (𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒)𝑰𝟏 + (𝟏𝟕 − 𝒋 𝟗)𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎 − − (𝟐)

Frame the mesh matrix:

𝟖+𝒋𝟒 −(𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒) −𝒋 𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝟏
−( [ =
𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒) 𝟏𝟕 − 𝒋 𝟗 𝑰𝟐
0

𝟖 + 𝒋 𝟒 −(𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒)
Use Cramer’s rule:

∆= = 𝟏𝟕𝟗 − 𝒋 𝟐𝟖
−(𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒) 𝟏𝟕 − 𝒋 𝟗

∆𝟐= 𝟖 + 𝒋 𝟒 −𝒋2𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎 − 𝒋 𝟔𝟎
−(𝟑 + 𝒋 𝟒) 𝟎

∆𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟗∠ − 𝟐𝟖° 𝑨
𝑰𝟐 ∆
=

𝑽𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟏𝟗∠ − 𝟐𝟖°𝑽

UNIT 1: BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS