The Concept of Word Formation

Word formation process is basically how new words are created and become part
of the language. In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. In
other words, it refers to the ways in which new words are made on the basis of
other words or morphemes.
Types of Word Formation:
1. Derivation: In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word
on the basis of an existing word. For e.g. the word happiness and unhappy
are derived from the word happy. Similarly, the word determination has
been derived from determine.

Derivation is the process of forming a new word by means of affixation

(prefix, inflix and suffix).

2. Compounding: A compound is a lexeme (a word) that consists of more than

one other lexeme (word). It is categorized in two ways:

An endocentric compound consists of a head and modifier. For e.g. the

English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the
modifier, which shows that house is intended for a dog.

Exocentric compounds do not have a head and their meaning often cannot
be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For e.g. the English
compound white- collar is neither a kind of collar not a white thing.

For e.g.
One word is added to another word to form compound words.
Atom bomb
Waiting list
Home work
Low paid
Dining room
Fire place
 Cup cake
Email
E-ticket
3. Blending: A blend is a word formed by joining parts of two words after
clipping.
For e.g.
When parts of two separate words are combined to form a new word , it is
Blending.
Motel – motor+hotel
Telecast – television+broadcast
Brunch – breakfast+lunch
Smog – smoke+fog
Chunnel – channel+tunnel
Biopic - biography+picture
Clash – clap+crash
Sportscast – sports+broadcast
Shopaholic – shop+alcoholic
Workaholic- work+ alcoholic

4. Acronym: An acronym is a word made up from the first letter of the words
that make up the name of something.
For e.g.
NASA (is a name whose full form is)- National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (Acronym)
RADAR- Radio Detection and Ranging

5. Calque/ Borrowing: Borrowing is just taking a word from another language.

The borrowed words are called loan words or calque. A loan word is a word
directly taken into one language from another language with little or no
translation. English has many loan words.
For e.g.
Biology, boxer, ozone- Taken from German language
Jacket, yoghurt, Kiosh- Taken from Turkish language
Pistol, robot- Taken from Czech language

6. Neologism/ Coinage: It is the invention of totally new words either

deliberately or accidentally. This is a very rare and uncommon method to
 create new words, but in the media, people try to outdo each other with
more and better words to name their products. Often these trademark
names are adopted by the masses and they become “everyday words of a
language”. Coinage also refers to the extension of a name of product from
a specific reference to a more general one.
For e.g.
Xerox, Kodak, google, nylon, band-aid
In other words, Coinage are words that somebody creates and people start using
it. One category of neologism is Eponym. These are words that are based on the
name of a person or a place.
For e.g.
Watt- this word has been taken from the name of a discoverer
Jeans- this word has been taken from Italian city Jenewa
Sandwich- this word has been taken from a person who makes his meal between
two slices of bread.
7. Back- Formation: It refers to the process of creating a new lexeme (word)
by removing actual or supposed affixes. In other words, back- formations
are shortened words created from longer words.
For e.g.
The word resurrection was borrowed from Latin, the word resurrect was
then back formed hundreds of years later from it by removing –ion suffix.

8. Reduplication: It is the process of forming new words either by doubling an

entire word or part of a word. English makes use of reduplication very
rarely.
For e.g.
Humpty- dumpty
Hustle- bustle
Hotch- potch
Gin- gin

9. Clipping: It is a word formation process which consists of reduction of a

word. Clippings are also known as shortenings. It has four types:
 Back clipping or apocopation is the most common type in which the
beginning of the word is retained.
For e.g.
Ad- advertisement
Doc- doctor
Memo- memorandum

Fore- clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part.

For e.g.
Phone- telephone
Chute- parachute
Varsity- university

Middle- clipping or syncope retains the middle part.

For e.g.
Flu- influenza

Complex- clipping: In this clipped forms are used in compounds. One part
of the original compound most often remains intact.
For e.g.
Cablegram- cabletelegram
Op art- optical art
Org man- organization man
Exercise1

1. ACCEPT - I'm sorry, but this arrangement is totally to us.

2. ACCEPT - I've just received their letter of so we can go ahead.

3. ACT - The unions have threatened to take industrial .

4. ACT - It's been a very day on the Stock Exchange.

5. ACT - The R&D department seems full of at the moment.

6. ADD - We'll be bringing out several to our product line.

7. ADD - There's an bonus if I exceed my sales target by more than 10%.

8. ANALYSE - We'll need a detailed cost before giving the final approval.

9. ANALYSE - Most think we're in for a difficult time.

10. APPLY - Unfortunately we can't interview every .

11. APPLY - I sent in my letter of and they phoned me the next day.

12. APPLY - The regulations are not when there are fewer than 10
employees.

13. CONNECT - My flight didn't leave until 10 o'clock.

14. CONNECT - We sent them a letter in with their offer of an agency.

15. CONNECT - She has some useful in the hotel trade.

Root words from Foreign Languages

A root word is the most basic form of a word. In English grammar, a root is a word
or portion of a word from which other words grow, usually through the addition
of prefixes and suffixes. By learning root words, we can expand our vocabulary
and become a better English speaker.
Learning just one root word can help us understand several words in English. So,
by learning just 20 or 30 root words, we can expand our English vocabulary to
include hundreds of new words. A root can be any part of a word that carries
meaning: the beginning, middle or end. Prefixes, bases, and suffixes are types of
roots. The prefix appears at the beginning of a word, the base in the middle and
the suffix at the end.
Most English root words came from the Greek and Latin languages. The root of
the word "vocabulary," for example, is voc, a Latin root meaning "word" or
"name." This root also appears in such words as "advocacy," "convocation,"
"evocative," "vocal," and "vowel."

Greek Root Words

The table below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Greek roots.
Root Meaning Examples
anti against antibacterial, antidote, antithesis
ast(er) star asteroid, astronomy, astronaut
aqu water aquarium, aquatic, aqualung
auto self automatic, automate, autobiograph

biblio book bibliography, bibliophile

bio life biography, biology, biodegradable
chrome color monochromatic, phytochrome
chrono time chronic, synchronize, chronicle
doc teach document, docile, doctrinal
dyna power dynasty, dynamic, dynamite
geo earth geography, geology, geometry
gno to know agnostic, acknowledge
graph write autograph, graphic, demographic
hydr water dehydrate, hydrant, hydropower
kinesis movement kinetic, photokinesis
logos word, study astrology, biology, theologian
narc sleep narcotic, narcolepsy

Latin Root Words

The table below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Latin roots.
Root Meaning Examples
ab to move away abstract, abstain, aversion
acer, acri bitter acrid, acrimony, exacerbate
audi hear audible, audience, auditorium
bene good benefit, benign, benefactor
brev short abbreviate, brief
circ round circus, circulate
dict say dictate, edict, dictionary
duc lead, make deduce, produce, educate
fund bottom founder, foundation, funding
gen to birth gene, generate, generous
hab to have ability, exhibit, inhabit
jur law jury, justice, justify
lev to lift levitate, elevate, leverage
log, logue thought logic, apologize, analogy
luc, lum light lucid, illuminate, translucent
manu hand manual, manicure, manipulate
mis, mit send missile, transmit, permit
omni all omnivorous, omnipotent, omniscent

Exercise- Find the root word.Take away the suffix to find the root word

 Useless –use (solved example)

 Movement
 Slowly
 Entrepreneurship
 Cafeteria
 Attachment
 Magician
 Direction
 Colorful
ANSWER KEY
1 use 2 move 3 slow 4 Entrepreneur 5 cafe 6 attach 7 magic 8 direct
9 color

Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes

Prefixes are added to the beginning of an existing word in order to create a new
word with a different meaning. A prefix is a letter or a group of letters that
attaches to the beginning of a word and helps to indicate or modify its meaning.
An easy example would be the word ‘prefix’ itself! It begins with the prefix pre-,
which means ‘before’.

Here is a list of the most common prefixes:

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

ante- before antenatal, anteroom, antedate
anti- against, opposing antibiotic, antidepressant, antidote
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
circum- around circumstance, circumvent, circumnavigate

co- with co-worker, co-pilot, co-operation

de- off, down, away devalue, defrost, derail, demotivate
from
dis- opposite of, not disagree, disappear, disintegrate,
disapprove
em-, en- cause to, put into embrace, encode, embed, enclose, engulf

epi- upon, close to, epicentre, episcope, epidermis

after
ex- former, out of ex-president, ex-boyfriend, exterminate

extra- beyond, more than extracurricular, extraordinary, extra-

terrestrial
fore- before forecast, forehead, foresee, foreword,
foremost
homo- same homosexual, homonuclear, homoplastic

hyper- over, above hyperactive, hyperventilate

il-, im-, in-, not impossible, illegal, irresponsible, indefinite
ir-
im-, in- into insert, import, inside
infra- beneath, below infrastructure, infrared, infrasonic,
infraspecific
inter-, intra- between interact, intermediate, intergalactic, intranet
macro- large macroeconomics, macromolecule
micro- small microscope, microbiology, microfilm,
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
microwave
mid- middle midfielder, midway, midsummer
mis- wrongly misinterpret, misfire, mistake,
misunderstand
mono- one, singular monotone, monobrow, monolithic
non- not, without nonsense, nonentity, nondescript
omni- all, every omnibus, omnivore, omnipotent
para- beside parachute, paramedic, paradox
post- after post-mortem, postpone, post-natal
pre- before prefix, predetermine, pre-intermediate
re- again return, rediscover, reiterate, reunite
semi- half semicircle, semi-final, semiconscious
sub- under submerge, submarine, sub-category, subtitle
super- above, over superfood, superstar, supernatural,
superimpose
therm- heat thermometer, thermostat, thermodynamic
trans- across, beyond transport, transnational, transatlantic
tri- three triangle, tripod, tricycle
un- not unfinished, unfriendly, undone, unknown
uni- one unicycle, universal, unilateral, unanimous

Combining forms
When you are learning the different types of prefixes, it is important to remember
that not every word containing these combinations is a prefix. Sometimes words
have ‘combining forms’, which look very similar to prefixes but work differently!
Combining forms are similar to prefixes, and are sometimes known as ‘chameleon
prefixes’, because they act like them and appear at the beginning of words like
them.

COMBINING
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLE MEANING EXAMPLE
FORM
com-, with, comprise, com-, con- with, companion,
con- alongside connote jointly comrade,
community
ex- former ex-husband ex- out exhort
a- not, amoral a-, an- not, apathy, anaemic
without without
in- not inconvenient in- into inebriate, indulge
homo- same homograph, homo- same homogeneous
homophone
magn- great magnate magn- great magnificent,
magnanimous,
magnitude, magnify
para- beside paragraph, para- beside paradox
paramedic
sub- under submarine sub- under substitute

Suffixes
A suffix is a letter or a group of letters that is usually attached to the end of a
word to form a new word.

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE

-acy state or quality democracy, accuracy, lunacy

SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE
-al the action or process of remedial, denial, trial, criminal
-ance, - state or quality of nuisance, ambience, tolerance
ence
-dom place or state of being freedom, stardom, boredom
-er, -or person or object that does a reader, creator, interpreter,
specified action inventor, collaborator, teacher
-ism doctrine, belief Judaism, scepticism, escapism
-ist person or object that does a Geologist, protagonist, sexist,
specified action scientist, theorist, communist
-ity, -ty quality of extremity, validity, enormity
-ment condition enchantment, argument
-ness state of being heaviness, highness, sickness
-ship position held friendship, hardship, internship
-sion, -tion state of being position, promotion, cohesion
-ate become mediate, collaborate, create
-en become sharpen, strengthen, loosen
-ify, -fy make or become justify, simplify, magnify, satisfy
-ise, -ize become publicise, synthesise, hypnotise
-able, -ible capable of being edible, fallible, incredible, audible
-al having the form or character fiscal, thermal, herbal, colonial
of
-esque in a manner of or resembling picturesque, burlesque, grotesque
-ful notable for handful, playful, hopeful, skilful
-ic, -ical having the form or character psychological, hypocritical,
of methodical, nonsensical, musical
SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE
-ious, -ous characterised by pious, jealous, religious, ridiculous
-ish having the quality of squeamish, sheepish, childish

Exercise

Put the word in brackets into the correct form. You will have to use prefixes
and/or suffixes.

1. He was sitting __________________ on his seat in the train. (comfort)

2. There was a __________________ light coming from the window. (green)

3. He was acting in a very __________________ way. (child)

4. This word is very difficult to spell, and even worse, it's __________________.
(pronounce)

5. He's lost his book again. I don't know where he has __________________ it this
time. (place)

6. You shouldn't have done that! It was very __________________ of you. (think)

7. He didn't pass his exam. He was __________________ for the second time.
(succeed)

8. Some of the shanty towns are dreadfully __________________ . (crowd)

9. The team that he supported were able to win the__________________ .

(champion)

10. There is a very high __________________ that they will be late. (likely)

11. I couldn't find any __________________ in his theory. (weak)

12. He wants to be a __________________ when he grows up. (mathematics)

13. You need to be a highly trained __________________ to understand this
report. (economy)

14. There were only a __________________ of people at the match. (hand)

ANSWER KEY
1 comfortably 2 green 3 childish 4 mispronounced 5 placed 6 unthinkable 7
unsuccessful 8 crowded 9 championship 10 likeliness 11 weakness 12
mathematician 13 economist 14 handful

Synonyms & Antonyms

Antonyms

Achieve – Fail Giant – Dwarf Random – Specific

Afraid – Confident Gloomy – Cheerful Rigid – Flexible
Ancient – Modern Individual – Group Shame – Honor
Arrive – Depart Innocent – Guilty Simple - Complicated
Arrogant – Humble Knowledge – Ignorance Single – Married
Attack – Defend Liquid – Solid Sunny - Cloudy
Blunt – Sharp Marvelous – Terrible Timid – Bold
Brave – Cowardly Noisy – Quiet Toward – Away
Cautious – Careless Partial – Complete Tragic – Comic
Complex – Simple Passive – Active Transparent - Opaque
Crazy – Sane Permanent – Unstable Triumph – Defeat
Crooked – Straight Plentiful – Sparse Union – Separation
Demand – Supply Positive – Negative Unique – Common
Destroy – Create Powerful – Weak Upset – Relaxed
Divide – Unite Praise – Criticism Urge – Deter
Drunk – Sober Private – Public Vacant – Occupied
Expand – Contract Problem – Solution Vague – Definite
Synonyms

Amazing: astounding, Fertile, fruitful, abundant,Polite: courteous,

surprising, stunning productive cordial, gracious
Annihilation: destruction, Gargantuan: colossal, Portion: piece, part,
carnage, extinction mammoth, tremendous segment
Benefit: profit, revenue, Hungry: empty, ravenous, Risky: dangerous,
yield starved perilous, treacherous
Brave: courageous, valiant, Injured: damaged, Sleepy: drowsy, listless,
heroic wounded, harmed sluggish
Cohesive: united, Intelligent: brilliant, clever,
Senseless: absurd,
connected, close-knit smart illogical, unreasonable
Tumultuous: hectic,
Cunning: keen, sharp, slick Kindle: ignite, inflame, burn
raucous, turbulent
Destitute: poor, bankrupt, Loyal: faithful, ardent, Vacant: empty,
impoverished devoted deserted, uninhabited
Deterioration: pollution, Veracity: authenticity,
Old: elderly, aged, senior
defilement, adulteration credibility, truthfulness
Enormous: huge, gigantic, Organization: association, Wet: damp, moist,
massive institution, management soggy
Feisty: excitable, fiery, Partner: associate, Young: budding,
lively colleague, companion fledgling,tenderfoot

Exercise
 Write synonyms of abandon, clue, aroma, communicate, complexion
 Write antonyms of expert, fluent, accept, adore, deplete
Answer Key

1 synonym of abandon- leave, clue-hint, aroma- smell, communicate-interface,

complexion-color or texture
2 antonyms of expert- incompetent, fluent- inarticulate, accept- reject, adore-
hate, deplete- increase

Exercise
Fill in the blanks with the words opposite in meaning to those underlined.
1. What looks like a convenient shortcut may prove to be very ……………………… in
the long run.
2. No one wants to listen to an ignorant man but everybody listens to a
………………….. man.
3. Gold is an expensive metal while iron is ……………………
4. My application was accepted but his was ……………………….
5. The teacher tried to make the student confident but he still looked very
………………………..
6. He failed to qualify in the first two attempts but …………………. in the third one.
7. He often visits me but I ………………….. go to his house.
8. He is brave but his brother is …………………….
9. An airplane consumes more fuel while ascending than while ……………………….
10. Tigers are very common in Kerala but lions are …………………
Answer Key
1. What looks like a convenient shortcut may prove to be very inconvenient in the
long run.
2. No one wants to listen to an ignorant man but everybody listens to a wise man.
3. Gold in an expensive metal while iron is cheap.
4. My application was accepted but his was rejected.
5. The teacher tried to make the student confident but he still looked
very diffident.
6. He failed to qualify in the first two attempts but succeeded in the third one.
7. He often visits me but I seldom go to his house.
8. He is brave but his brother is timid.
9. An airplane consumes more fuel while ascending than while descending.
10. Tigers are very common in Kerala but lions are rare.
 Complex Synonyms
Accident; incident; mishap
a) Accident: that happens by chance (usually negative)
The accident that took place yesterday proved fatal for the truck
driver. (Negative)
By accident of birth, he was very rich. (positive)
b) Incident: occurrence (used in neutral sense)
Little incidents also play an important role in life.
c) Mishap: unfortunate accident (less serious than accident)
Yesterday he injured his leg; it was the second mishap in this week for
him.
Anxious; eager
a) Anxious: willing to do something with an element of worry.
I am anxiously waiting for my exam result.
b) Eager: to show keenness to do something.
I am eager to learn a new language.
Bear; endure
a) Bear: to put up with something painful.
A soldier is expected to bear the pain of any wounds of war.
b) Endure: A quality to bear patiently for a long time.
A brave man endures misfortunes with smiles.

Careful; cautious
a) Careful: one who tries to do a thing in a right manner.
The officer was known for his careful selection of cadets.
b) Cautious: one who is always anxious not to make any mistake.
A cautious man is often nervous.
Deep; profound
a) Deep: can be used with both concrete and abstract things.
I have deep feeling for my mother.
Look at this well; it is very deep.
b) Profound: used in a metaphorical sense.
He is a man of profound knowledge
Increase; grow
a) Increase: sudden growth
The prices of essential items have increased.
b) Growth: a steady development
A healthy child grows into a young man.
Refuse; deny
a) Refuse: not to take what is offered.
He refused to work for this small pay.
b) Deny: means that a statement is false.
He denied that this has been done by him.

Homonyms

 Arm – body part

Arm – division of a company
  Atmosphere – the gases surrounding the earth
Atmosphere – the mood of a situation

 Bail – to clear out water

Bail – to release a prisoner

 Band – a ring, sometimes symbolizing eternity

Band – a musical group

 Bat – an implement used to hit a ball

Bat – a nocturnal flying mammal

 Employ – to put into use

Employ – to hire someone for a job

 Express – something done fast

Express – to show your thoughts by using words

 Ring – a band on a finger

Ring – something circular in shape

 Right – correct
Right – direction opposite of left

 Rock – a genre of music

Rock – a stone

 Stalk – a part of a plant

Stalk – to follow or harass someone

 Tender – sensitive or painful to the touch

Tender – soft food i.e. a chicken tender

Abbreviations
AD After the birth of Christ
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
am Ante meridiem (in the morning)
asap As soon as possible
ATM Automated Teller Machine
Aug August
Ave Avenue
b born
BA Bachelor of Arts
BA British Airways
BC Before Christ
BCE Before the common era
BSc Bachelor of Science
C Celsius, centigrade
Capt Captain
CD Compact Disc
CE Common Era
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
cl Centilitre
cm Centimetre
c/o Care of
Co Company
Col Colonel
Corp Corporation
Cpl Corporal
cu Cubic
CV Curriculum vitae
d Died
Dec December
dept Department
DIY Do it yourself
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
Dr Doctor
DVD Digital versatile disc, digital video disc
E East
ed Edited, editor
e.g. Example
ETA Estimated time of arrival
etc et cetera
EU European union
F Fahrenheit
FAQ Frequently asked questions
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
Feb February
ft Foot, feet
gal Gallon
Gen General
GMT Greenwich mean time
GNP Gross National Product
Govt Government
HIV Human Immunodeficiency virus
hr Hour
i.e. In other words
in Inch(es)
Inc Incorporated
IRA Irish Republican Army
IT Information Technology
Jan January
Jr Junior
kg Kilogram
kph Kilometres per hour
lb Pound(s)
LCD Liquid crystal display
LED Light emitting diode
Lt Lieutenant
Ltd Limited
m Metre
MA Master of Arts
MD Managing Director
mg Milligram
MI5 The security service (concerned with information from Inside
Britain)
MI6 The secret intelligence service (concerned with information from
outside Britain)
min Minute
ml Millilitre
mm Millimetre
MP Member of Parliament
mph Miles per hour
Mt Mount
N North
NATO National Atlantic Treaty Organization
NE North-east
NHS National Health Service
No Number
Nov November
NW North-west
Oct October
oz Ounce
PA Personal Assistant
PC Personal Computer, police constable
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
PM Prime Minister
pm Post meridiem (in the afternoon)
Prof Professor
PS Post scriptum
pt Pint
Rd Road
RIP Rest in peace
rpm Revolutions per minute
RSVP Please reply (French- repondez s’ll vous plait)
S South
SE South- east
sec Second
Sept September
Sgt Sergeant
Sq Square (in place names)
sq Square (in measurements)
St Street, saint
SW South-west
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
uni University
Univ University
US United States
USA United States of America
VAT Value added tax
VIP Very important person
vol Volume
v; Against
W West
WHO World Health Organization
www World wide web
yd yard

Exercise

Write full form of the given abbreviations : ATM, Misc. GPS, FAX,CPU,IDRC,
UNESCO.

ANSWER KEY
ATM- Automated teller machine
Misc.- miscellaneous
GPS- global positioning system
FAX- facsimile
CPU- central processing unit
IDRC- International development research centre
UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Importance of Proper Punctuation

A punctuation mark is a mark, or sign, used in writing to divide texts into phrases
and sentences and make the meaning clear. Punctuation marks play a very
important role in giving intended meaning to the language. Use of wrong mark of
punctuation or even wrong placement of mark of punctuation can change the
meaning of the sentence completely and sometimes even convert the sentence to
complete nonsense.
Types of Punctuation
There are many types of punctuation, and each has its own purpose and
rules. They are discussed below:
1 Capitalization: It is the capital form of a letter (A vs. a). The first letter of a
sentence is ALWAYS capitalized, whether it’s one letter, like I went or A dog, or
the first letter of a word, like The. Besides at the start of a sentence, we use
capitalization for proper nouns, like places, people’s names, titles, and brand-
named things.
2 Comma: A comma (,) tells the reader when to pause in a sentence. Most
importantly, commas help make things clear in a sentence. They can separate
ideas or events:
For e.g. The fox ran, and then he drank some water.

We also use them for listing things:

For e.g. One, two, three, four, and five.

A lot of sentences need commas—they’re one of the most used punctuation

marks. But, commas are also misused all of the time. Wrong placement of comma
can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is placed.
Consider following sentences:

Let us eat, daddy. &

Let us eat daddy.

In the first sentence daddy is being called for dinner. However, in the second
sentence, daddy himself has become an item to be eaten. Omission of comma in
this case has converted the first sentence to complete non sense.

Hang him, not let him free &

Hang him not, let him free.

In above sentences, just shifting comma by one position has completely changed
the meaning of the sentence.

3 Question Mark: The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a
question. It always comes at the end of a sentence:
For e.g. Are we at the end?

4 Exclamation Mark: An exclamation mark (!) adds strong feelings like joy or fear
to a sentence. “To exclaim” is to say something with excitement, and that’s just
what an exclamation mark does—it exclaims! Since they add excitement, it’s also
important not to overuse them.
For e.g. The fox was faster than the wind!
Like this sentence, an exclamation mark can put emphasis on the meaning of the
sentence as a whole. Here, it makes us aware that the fox really runs fast, and
that seems important.
5 Semicolon: A semicolon (;) can connect two independent clauses that are
related to each other.
For e.g. Ram liked pancakes; he ate them every day for breakfast.

A semicolon can be combined with a transition, like “but,” to connect two related
sentences:
For e.g .Ram liked pancakes; but he couldn’t eat them without syrup and butter.

A semicolon can also separate items on a list that might be confusing:

Lisbon, Portugal; Barcelona, Spain; Venice, Italy; Paris, France; and Berlin,
Germany are all popular places to visit in Europe.
6 Colon: A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a
quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.
For e.g. He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology and
economics.
The second is between independent clauses, when the second explains the first,
similar to a semicolon.
For e.g. I didn’t have time to get changed: I was already late.

The third use of a colon is for emphasis

For e.g. There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.

7 Hyphen: A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound
term and is not separated by spaces. For e.g. part-time, back-to-back, well-
known.

8 Dash: A dash is used to separate parts of a sentence.

For e.g. She gave him her answer — No!
Tom can’t wait for Christmas—he’s very excited.

9 Brackets: Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical
explanations or to clarify meaning. If you remove the information in the brackets,
the sentence will still make sense.
For e.g. He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.

10 Braces: Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items
to show that they are considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most
writing, but can be seen in computer programming to show what should be
contained within the same lines. They can also be used in mathematical
expressions. For e.g., 2{1+[23-3]}=x.
11 Parentheses: Parentheses () are curved notations used to contain further
thoughts or qualifying remarks. However, parentheses can be replaced by
commas without changing the meaning in most cases.
For e.g.John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red
hair.

12 Apostrophe: An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or

letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters.
Examples of the apostrophe in use include:
 Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several times. She wasn't
the only one who knew the answer.
 Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.
 Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.

13 Quotations: Quotations (“”) are used for lots of things, but probably the most
important way we use quotations is to “quote” someone’s exact words.
For e.g. Witnesses say that they heard the fox yell “I like pancakes!”

14 Ellipses: The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (. . . )

although it is occasionally demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is
used in writing or printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or words.
Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to
another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning.
Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will
often employ ellipsis to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.
 Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got
to 10, then went to find him.
 Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and
an object in motion stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

15 Period: The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements
thought to be complete and after many abbreviations.
 As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.
 After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on Dec. 6, 2008.

Exercise: Use appropriate punctuation marks in the following sentences.

1. We had a great time in France the kids really enjoyed it

2. Some people work best in the mornings others do better in the evenings
3. What are you doing next weekend
4. Mother had to go into hospital she had heart problems
5. Did you understand why I was upset
6. It is a fine idea let us hope that it is going to work
7. We will be arriving on Monday morning at least I think so
8. A textbook can be a wall between teacher and class
9. The girls father sat in a corner
10. In the words of Murphys Law Anything that can go wrong will go wrong

Answer Key

1. We had a great time in France – the kids really enjoyed it.

2. Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings.
3. What are you doing next weekend?
4. Mother had to go into hospital: she had heart problems.
5. Did you understand why I was upset?
6. It is a fine idea; let us hope that it is going to work.
7. We will be arriving on Monday morning – at least, I think so.
8. A textbook can be a ‘wall’ between teacher and class.
9. The girl’s father sat in a corner.
10. In the words of Murphy’s Law: ‘Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.’

ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES OF PARAGRAPHS

The Structure of a Paragraph
A paragraph is a unit of written discourse with one or more than one sentence
woven around a central idea. The main idea is usually given in the topic sentence
(the sentence that talks about the topic of the paragraph). The basic rule of
paragraph writing is that it focuses on one idea only. This idea is further
elaborated with supporting details in other sentences in the form of suitable
examples, proofs, statistical details, anecdotes etc. The paragraph normally ends
with a concluding statement which rephrases the main idea powerfully.
A paragraph is usually around 250 words and consists of five or six sentences,
although this can vary depending on the purpose of the paragraph, and the
length of the piece you are writing. Paragraphs play an important role in writing
because they provide a framework for organizing your ideas in a logical order.
TSC is an abbreviation that can be used to remember the structure of the
paragraph.
T—Topic sentence
S—Supporting details
C – Concluding statement
Basic structure of a paragraph
The structure of a coherent paragraph includes- Introduction, Body and
Conclusion. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating
the meaning you intend to convey to the reader.
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph includes - the topic sentence which
focuses on the main idea. The first few sentences also provide background
information about the topic.
Body: follows the introduction; the topic sentence is followed by supporting
sentences that develop the idea using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and
other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the
information discussed in the body of the paragraph and add a concluding
sentence to tie up all together.

1. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form.

2. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave
four or five lines in between each point.
3. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point.

Elements of a good Paragraph

There are four essential elements of paragraph writing and each element
contributes to the whole. The four elements essential to good paragraph writing
are:

 Unified—All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a

single controlling idea
 Clearly related to the research problem—The sentences should all refer to the
central idea, or the thesis, of the paper.
 Coherent—The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should
follow a definite plan for development.
 Well-developed—Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately
explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to
explain the paragraph's controlling idea.

Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Without well-written

paragraphs that flow logically from one idea to the next and that inform and
help support in some meaningful way the central research problem being
investigated, your paper will not be viewed as credible and, well, you'll
probably receive a poor grade.

Here are some suggestions for troubleshooting common problems

associated with developing paragraphs:

1. The paragraph has no controlling idea. Imagine each paragraph as having

three general layers of text. The core content is in the middle. It includes all
the evidence you need to make the point. However, this evidence needs to be
introduced by a topic sentence in some way or your readers don't know what
to do with all the evidence you have given them. Therefore, the beginning of
the paragraph explains the controlling idea of the paragraph. The last part of
the paragraph tells the reader how the paragraph relates to the broader
argument and often provides a transition to the next idea. Once you have
mastered the use of topic sentences, you may decide that the topic sentence
for a particular paragraph really should not be the first sentence of the
paragraph. This is fine—the topic sentence can actually go at the beginning,
middle, or end of a paragraph; what's important is that it is there to inform
readers what the main idea of the paragraph is and how it relates back to the
broader thesis of your paper.

2. The paragraph has more than one controlling idea. This is the most
common reason why a paragraph is too long. If a paragraph is more than a
page long, it likely contains more than one controlling idea. In this case,
consider eliminating sentences that relate to the second idea, with the
thought that maybe they don't really inform and help support the central
research problem, or split the paragraph into two or more paragraphs, each
with only one controlling idea.
3. Transitions are needed within the paragraph. You are probably familiar
with the idea that transitions may be needed between paragraphs or sections
in a paper. Sometimes they are also helpful within the body of a single
paragraph. Within a paragraph, transitions are often single words or short
phrases that help to establish relationships between ideas and to create a
logical progression of those ideas in a paragraph. This is especially true within
paragraphs that discuss multiple examples or discuss complex ideas, issues, or
concepts.

Structure and Writing Style

I. General Structure

Most paragraphs in an essay parallel the general three-part structure of each

section of a research paper and, by extension, the overall research paper, with an
introduction, a body that includes facts and analysis, and a conclusion. You can
see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing,
comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph
plays an important role in communicating the meaning you intend to covey to the
reader.
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence
and any other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background
information or provide a transition.
Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts,
arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the
information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s
controlling idea. For long paragraphs, you may also want to include a bridge
sentence that introduces the next paragraph or section of the paper. In some
instances, the bridge sentence can be written in the form of a question. However,
use this rhetorical device sparingly, otherwise, ending a lot of paragraphs with a
question to lead into the next paragraph sounds cumbersome.
NOTE: This general structure does not imply that you should not be creative in
your writing. Arranging where each element goes in a paragraph can make a
paper more engaging for the reader. However, do not be too creative in
experimenting with the narrative flow of paragraphs. To do so may distract from
the main arguments of your research and weaken the quality of your academic
writing.
II. Development and Organization
Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a particular
paragraph will be, you must consider what is the most important idea that
you are trying to convey to your reader. This is the "controlling idea," or the
thesis statement from which you compose the remainder of the paragraph. In
other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a recurrent
relationship between your controlling idea and the information in each
paragraph. The research problem functions like a seed from which your paper,
and your ideas, will grow. The whole process of paragraph development is an
organic one—a natural progression from a seed idea to a full-blown research
study where there are direct, familial relationships in the paper between all of
your controlling ideas and the paragraphs which derive from them.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with
brainstorming about how you want to pursue the research problem. There
are many techniques for brainstorming but, whichever one you choose, this stage
of paragraph development cannot be skipped because it lays a foundation for
developing a set of paragraphs [representing a section of your paper] that
describes a specific element of your overall analysis. Each section is described
further in this writing guide.

Given these factors, every paragraph in a paper should be:

 Unified—All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a

single controlling idea [often expressed in the topic sentence of the
paragraph].
 Clearly related to the research problem—The sentences should all refer to the
central idea, or the thesis, of the paper.
 Coherent—The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should
follow a definite plan for development.
 Well-developed—Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately
explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to
explain the paragraph's controlling idea.
There are many different ways you can organize a paragraph. However, the
organization you choose will depend on the controlling idea of the paragraph.
Ways to organize a paragraph in academic writing include:

 Narrative: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.

 Descriptive: Provide specific details about what something looks or feels like.
Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
 Process: Explain step by step how something works. Perhaps follow a
sequence—first, second, third.
 Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.
 Illustrative: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your point.

Paragraph organisation principles:

Different ways of organising ideas in a paragraph include:
1. General to specific: Start with the most general idea in your topic sentence
and then use the following sentences to bring in specific examples. Paragraphs
1 and 2 above are both examples of this organising principle.
2. Problem and solution: Start by stating a problem in the topic sentence and
then use the following sentences to explain how the problem might be solved.
3. Claim and evidence: Present a claim in your topic sentence and then provide
evidence in the following sentences.
4. Claim and counter-claim or counter-argument: Present a claim in your topic
sentence that you don’t agree with and then present an opposing claim or
argument against that claim. This is used when you are trying to argue against
an objection that your reader might make to your argument. Chronological
order (time): Start with the topic or main point in your topic sentence, then
introduce events relating to that topic or point in time sequence in the
following sentences. This is especially useful when you need to present a
historical overview of something.
5. Most important to least important: Start with the topic or main point in your
topic sentence, then introduce supporting points in order of importance in the
following sentences.
Writing Tip
Coherence of Ideas is What Matters, Not Length!
Do not think of developing paragraphs in terms of their length. Length and
appearance do not determine whether a part in your paper is a paragraph. It is
the unity and coherence of ideas represented in a sentence or among sentences
that constitutes to a good paragraph.
Sentence Structures
Sentence structure refers to the physical nature of a sentence and how the
elements of that sentence are presented. Just like word choice, writers should
strive to vary their sentence structure to create rhythmic prose and keep their
reader interested. Sentences that require a variation often repeat subjects,
lengths, or types.
Simple sentences: It is the most basic type of sentence which contains only one
clause. It is made up of a subject and a verb. A simple sentence is an independent
clause with no conjunction or dependent clause. For E.g.

 The house is vacant

 Alisha wants to visit Singapore.
 I saw him laughing at a beggar.

Compound sentences: A compound sentence has two or more independent

clauses or simple sentences joined by a comma, a semicolon or a coordinating
conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so). Sometimes, it also includes one or
more subordinate clauses. For E.g

 He locked the door and went out.

 Alisha worked very hard but she failed.
 The horse reared and the rider was thrown (2 main clauses)
 They were fond of music, played on various kinds of instruments and
indulged in singing. (3 main clauses)
 They asked him how he received the wound but he refused to answer. (2
main clauses, 1 subordinating clause underlined one)
Complex sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at
least one dependent clause. It can have more than one dependent clause. But if
there are two or more main clauses in a sentence, even though it may have
dependent clause, it is a compound sentence and not a complex sentence. The
clauses in a complex sentence are combined with conjunctions and subordinators,
terms that help the dependent clauses relate to the independent clause.
Subordinators can refer to the subject (who, which), the sequence/time (since,
while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause. For E.g
  We have our breakfast when the sun rises. (red is Independent, black is
dependent clause)
 As soon as the fog disappeared, we went out. (red is Independent, black is
dependent clause)
Techniques For Writing Precisely
Effective writing allows the reader to understand everything you are saying.
Techniques for Writing
Effective writing allows the reader to understand everything you are saying.
Following are the tips for writing precisely:
1. Clarity: Know the purpose of your writing and state it clearly. Your purpose
needs to be stated in the communication. Avoid information that is not
relevant.
2. Tone:The kind of tone depends on the audience and purpose of writing.
Official and Business letters need a formal tone whereas writing to someone
you know well; an informal tone can be used.
3. Language: Language needs to be simple. Do not overuse clichés, expressions
or try to impress with big words. Keep sentences and paragraphs short and
concise.
4. Conciseness: Less is more when it comes to length. Leave out words that do
not contribute to the main focus of the communication.
5. Active Voice: Using an Active voice will strengthen your writing. Sentences
that are written in the Active voice have a better flow and are easier to
understand. Long and complicated sentences will slow the reader down. Eg.
An active example is "I caught the ball."
A passive example is " A ball was caught by me."
Active voice will engage the reader and keep his attention.
6. Communication: The social purpose of language is communication – to inform,
misinform or otherwise influence our fellows.
7. Emphasis: The art of writing depends a good deal on putting the strongest
words at the most important places to emphasize your points of view.
8. Honesty: Writing reveals your character. So, adopt an honest style to writing.
9. Reading: One learns to write by reading good books just like one learns to talk
by hearing good talkers.
10.Revision: Revise your work thoroughly before making the final draft.
BEFORE WRITING

 What is the occasion/purpose?

 To share
 To inform
 To persuade
 To entertain
 Who is my audience?
 Size
 Eminence
 Outline—Memory and Organization
 Develop a routine

DURING WRITING
Introductions

 What to include in introductions

 The importance of the topic
 Background information (history)
 Anecdotes
 Common ground (you and I)
 Description (e.g., of the problem)
 A thesis (what you are arguing)
o Keep it short

It may be helpful to skip the introduction and come back to it when you have
finished the paper.

Conclusions

 Revisit the thesis. (not re-state)

 Explain what will happen if your view is not adopted.
  Explain the significance of your main point.
 Keep it short.

Organization and Content

 Make sure that your memo, proposal, letter, or essay follows a natural,
cohesive structure. Structure your paragraphs in terms of either
chronology (first, second, third) or importance (most to least, or vice versa).
 Within paragraphs, go from old to new information.
 Use analogies, comparisons, and examples to emphasize your point.
 Be descriptive.
 Discuss past, present, and future (potential) outcomes (causes and effects).
 Vary your sentence structure.