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A guide to MATLAB for beginners and experienced users
2nd Edition Brian R. Hunt Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Brian R. Hunt, Ronald L. Lipsman, Jonathan M. Rosenberg
ISBN(s): 9780511791284, 0511219172
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 2.55 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
This page intentionally left blank
 A Guide to MATLAB®
for Beginners and Experienced Users
Second Edition

Brian R. Hunt
Ronald L. Lipsman
Jonathan M. Rosenberg

with

Kevin R. Coombes
John E. Osborn
Garrett J. Stuck
 A Guide to MATLAB®
for Beginners and Experienced Users
Second Edition

Updated for MATLAB® 7 and Simulink® 6

Brian R. Hunt
Ronald L. Lipsman
Jonathan M. Rosenberg
All of the University of Maryland, College Park

with

Kevin R. Coombes
John E. Osborn
Garrett J. Stuck
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521850681

© B.Hunt, R.Lipsman, J.Rosenberg, K.Coombes, J. Osborn, and G.Stuck 2001, 2006

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2006

isbn-13 978-0-511-21985-6 eBook (EBL)

isbn-10 0-511-21985-7 eBook (EBL)

isbn-13 978-0-521-85068-1 hardback

isbn-10 0-521-85068-1 hardback

isbn-13 978-0-521-61565-5 paperback

isbn-10 0-521-61565-8 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents

The symbol ✰ denotes a more advanced chapter or section.

Preface page xi
Why We Wrote This Book xi
Who Should Read This Book xii
How This Book Is Organized xii
Conventions Used in This Book xiv
About the Authors xv

1 Getting Started 1
Platforms and Versions 1
Installation 2
Starting MATLAB 2
Typing in the Command Window 3
Online Help 3
MATLAB Windows 6
Ending a Session 6

2 MATLAB Basics 7
Input and Output 7
Arithmetic 8
Recovering from Problems 9
Errors in Input 9
Aborting Calculations 9
Algebraic or Symbolic Computation 10
Substituting in Symbolic Expressions 10
Symbolic Expressions, Variable Precision, and Exact Arith-
metic 11
Vectors and Matrices 12
Vectors 13
Matrices 14
Suppressing Output 15
Functions 15
Built-in Functions 15
User-Defined Functions 16
Managing Variables 17

v
vi Contents

Variables and Assignments 18

Solving Equations 20
Graphics 22
Graphing with ezplot 22
Modifying Graphs 23
Graphing with plot 24
Plotting Multiple Curves 25

3 Interacting with MATLAB 27

The MATLAB Interface 27
The Desktop 27
The Workspace 28
The Current Directory and Search Path 28
The Command History Window 30
M-Files 31
Script M-Files 31
Function M-Files 33
Loops 35
Presenting Your Results 35
Publishing an M-File 36
Diary Files 37
Interactive M-Files 37
Wrapping Long Input and Output Lines 38
Printing and Saving Graphics 38
M-Books 39
Fine-Tuning Your M-Files 41

Practice Set A: Algebra and Arithmetic 43

4 Beyond the Basics 45

Suppressing Output 45
Data Classes 46
String Manipulation 47
Symbolic and Floating-Point Numbers 48
Functions and Expressions 48
Substitution 50
More about M-Files 50
Variables in Script M-Files 50
Variables in Function M-Files 50
Structure of Function M-Files 51
Complex Arithmetic 51
More on Matrices 52
Solving Linear Systems 53
Calculating Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 53
Doing Calculus with MATLAB 54
Contents vii

Differentiation 54
Integration 54
Limits 55
Sums and Products 56
Taylor Series 57
Default Variables 57

5 MATLAB Graphics 59
Two-Dimensional Plots 59
Parametric Plots 59
Contour Plots and Implicit Plots 60
Field Plots 62
Three-Dimensional Plots 62
Curves in Three-Dimensional Space 62
Surfaces in Three-Dimensional Space 64
Figure Windows 65
Multiple Figure Windows 66
The Figure Toolbar 66
Combining Plots in One Window 67
✰ Customizing Graphics 67
Annotation 69
Change of Plot Style 70
Full-Fledged Customization 71
✰ Images, Animations, and Sound 73
Images 74
Animations 76
Sound 77

Practice Set B: Calculus, Graphics, and Linear Algebra 79

6 MATLAB Programming 85
Branching 85
Branching with if 85
Logical Expressions 87
Branching with switch 91
More about Loops 92
Open-Ended Loops 92
Breaking from a Loop 93
Other Programming Commands 94
Subfunctions 94
Cell and Structure Arrays 94
Commands for Parsing Input and Output 95
Evaluation and Function Handles 97
User Input and Screen Output 98
Debugging 100
viii Contents

✰ Interacting with the Operating System 100

Calling External Programs 101
File Input and Output 102

7 Publishing and M-Books 103

Fine Points of Publishing 103
More on M-Books 106
The Notebook Menu Items 107
M-Book Graphics 108
More Hints for Effective Use of M-Books 108

8 Simulink 111
A Simple Differential Equation 111
✰ An Engineering Example 115
✰ Communication with the Workspace 120

9 ✰ GUIs 123
GUI Layout and GUIDE 123
Saving and Running a GUI 126
GUI Callback Functions 127

10 Applications 131
Illuminating a Room 132
Mortgage Payments 138
Monte Carlo Simulation 144
Population Dynamics 150
Linear Economic Models 160
Linear Programming 165
The 360◦ Pendulum 172
✰ Numerical Solution of the Heat Equation 175
✰ A Model of Traffic Flow 185

Practice Set C: Developing Your MATLAB Skills 195

11 Troubleshooting 205
Common Problems 205
Wrong or Unexpected Output 205
Syntax Error 207
Spelling Error 209
Error or Warning Messages When Plotting 209
A Previously Saved M-File Evaluates Differently 210
Computer Won’t Respond 211
The Most Common Mistakes 211
Debugging Techniques 212
Contents ix

Solutions to the Practice Sets 219

Solutions to Practice Set A: Algebra and Arithmetic 219
Solutions to Practice Set B: Calculus, Graphics, and Linear Algebra 231
Solutions to Practice Set C: Developing Your MATLAB Skills 255

Glossary 287

Index 302
Preface

MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive

environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis,
and numerical computation. Using MATLAB, you can solve technical
computing problems faster than with traditional programming languages,
such as C, C++, and Fortran. – The MathWorks, Inc.

That statement encapsulates the view of The MathWorks, Inc., the developer of MAT-
LAB® . MATLAB 7 is an ambitious program. It contains hundreds of commands to
do mathematics. You can use it to graph functions, solve equations, perform statistical
tests, and much more. It is a high-level programming language that can communicate
with its cousins, e.g., Fortran and C. You can produce sound and animate graphics.
You can do simulations and modeling (especially if you have access not just to basic
MATLAB but also to its accessory Simulink® ). You can prepare materials for export
to the World Wide Web. In addition, you can use MATLAB to combine mathemat-
ical computations with text and graphics in order to produce a polished, integrated,
interactive document.
A program this sophisticated contains many features and options. There are liter-
ally hundreds of useful commands at your disposal. The MATLAB help documenta-
tion contains thousands of entries. The standard references, whether the MathWorks
User’s Guide for the product, or any of our competitors, contain a myriad of tables
describing an endless stream of commands, options, and features that the user might
be expected to learn or access.
MATLAB is more than a fancy calculator; it is an extremely useful and versatile
tool. Even if you know only a little about MATLAB, you can use it to accomplish
wonderful things. The hard part, however, is figuring out which of the hundreds of
commands, scores of help pages, and thousands of items of documentation you need
to look at to start using it quickly and effectively.
That’s where we come in.

Why We Wrote This Book

The goal of this book is to get you started using MATLAB successfully and quickly.
We point out the parts of MATLAB you need to know without overwhelming you
with details. We help you avoid the rough spots. We give you examples of real uses
of MATLAB that you can refer to when you’re doing your own work. We provide
a handy reference to the most useful features of MATLAB. When you’ve finished

xi
xii Preface

reading this book, you will be able to use MATLAB effectively. You’ll also be ready
to explore more of MATLAB on your own.
You might not be a MATLAB expert when you finish this book, but you will be
prepared to become one – if that’s what you want. We figure you’re probably more
interested in being an expert at your own specialty, whether that’s finance or physics,
psychology or engineering. You want to use MATLAB the way we do, as a tool.
This book is designed to help you become a proficient MATLAB user as quickly as
possible, so you can get on with the business at hand.

Who Should Read This Book

This book will be useful to complete novices, occasional users who want to sharpen
their skills, intermediate or experienced users who want to learn about the new fea-
tures of MATLAB 7, or who want to learn how to use Simulink, and even experts who
want to find out whether we know anything they don’t.
You can read through this guide to learn MATLAB on your own. If your employer
(or your professor) has plopped you in front of a computer with MATLAB and told
you to learn how to use it, then you’ll find the book particularly useful. If you are
teaching or taking a course in which you want to use MATLAB as a tool to explore
another subject – whether in mathematics, science, engineering, business, or statistics
– this book will make a perfect supplement.
As mentioned, we wrote this guide for use with MATLAB 7. If you plan to
continue using MATLAB 5 or MATLAB 6, however, you can still profit from this
book. Virtually all of the material on MATLAB commands in this book applies to all
these versions. The primary features of MATLAB 7 not found in earlier versions are
anonymous functions, discussed in Chapter 2, and publishing, discussed in Chapters
3 and 7. Beyond that, only a small amount of material on the MATLAB interface,
found mainly in Chapters 1, 3, and 9, does not apply to MATLAB 5.

How This Book Is Organized

In writing, we used our experience to focus on providing important information as
quickly as possible. The book contains a short, focused introduction to MATLAB. It
contains practice problems (with complete solutions) so you can test your knowledge.
There are several illuminating sample projects that show you how MATLAB can be
used in real-world applications and an entire chapter on troubleshooting.
The core of this book consists of about 70 pages: Chapters 1–4, and the beginning
of Chapter 5. Read that much and you’ll have a good grasp of the fundamentals of
MATLAB. Read the rest – the remainder of the Graphics chapter as well as the chap-
ters on Programming, Publishing, Simulink, GUIs, Applications, Troubleshooting,
and the Glossary – and you’ll know enough to do a great deal with MATLAB.
Here is a detailed summary of the contents of the book.
Chapter 1, Getting Started, describes how to start MATLAB on various platforms.
It tells you how to enter commands, how to access online help, how to recognize the
How This Book Is Organized xiii

various MATLAB windows you will encounter, and how to exit the application.
Chapter 2, MATLAB Basics, shows you how to do elementary mathematics using
MATLAB. This chapter contains the most essential MATLAB commands.
Chapter 3, Interacting with MATLAB, contains an introduction to the MATLAB
Desktop interface. This chapter will introduce you to the basic window features of
the application, to the small program files (M-files) that you will use to make the most
effective use of the software, and to a few methods for presenting the results of your
MATLAB sessions. After completing this chapter, you’ll have a better appreciation
of the breadth described in the quote that opens this Preface.
Practice Set A, Algebra and Arithmetic, contains some simple problems for prac-
ticing your newly acquired MATLAB skills. Solutions are presented at the end of the
book.
Chapter 4, Beyond the Basics, contains an explanation of some of the finer points
that are essential for using MATLAB effectively.
Chapter 5, MATLAB Graphics, contains a more detailed look at many of the MAT-
LAB commands for producing graphics.
Practice Set B, Calculus, Graphics, and Linear Algebra, gives you another chance
to practice what you’ve just learned. As before, solutions are provided at the end of
the book.
Chapter 6, Programming, introduces you to the programming features of MAT-
LAB. This chapter is designed to be useful both to the novice programmer and to the
experienced Fortran or C programmer.
Chapter 7, Publishing and M-Books, contains an introduction to the word-pro-
cessing and desktop-publishing features available in MATLAB 7, either using M-files
and the publish command or else combining MATLAB with Microsoft Word.
Chapter 8, Simulink, describes the MATLAB companion software Simulink, a
graphically oriented package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical sys-
tems. Many of the calculations that can be done with MATLAB can be done equally
well with Simulink. If you don’t have access to Simulink, you may skip Chapter 8.
Chapter 9, GUIs, contains an introduction to the construction and deployment of
Graphical User Interfaces, that is GUIs, using MATLAB. This chapter is a little more
advanced than most of the others.
Chapter 10, Applications, contains examples, from many different fields, of solu-
tions of real-world problems using MATLAB and/or Simulink.
Practice Set C, Developing Your MATLAB Skills, contains practice problems whose
solutions use the methods and techniques you learned in Chapters 6–10.
Chapter 11, Troubleshooting, is the place to turn when anything goes wrong.
Many common problems can be resolved by reading (and rereading) the advice in
this chapter.
Next, we have Solutions to the Practice Sets, which contains solutions to all the
problems from the three Practice Sets. The Glossary contains short descriptions (with
examples) of many MATLAB commands and objects. Though it is not a complete
reference, the Glossary is a handy guide to the most important features of MATLAB.
Finally, there is a comprehensive Index.
 xiv Preface

Conventions Used in This Book

We use distinct fonts to distinguish various entities. When new terms are first in-
troduced, they are typeset in an italic font. Output from MATLAB is typeset in a
monospaced typewriter font; commands that you type for interpretation by
MATLAB are indicated by a boldface version of that font. These commands and
responses are often displayed on separate lines as they would be in a MATLAB ses-
sion, as in the following example:
>> x = sqrt(2*pi + 1)
x =
2.697

Selectable menu items (from the menu bars in the MATLAB Desktop, figure win-
dows, etc.) are typeset in a boldface font. Submenu items are separated from menu
items by a colon, as in File:Open.... Labels such as the names of windows and buttons
are quoted, in a “regular” font. File and folder names, as well as web addresses, are
printed in a typewriter font. Finally, names of keys on your computer keyboard
are set in a SMALL CAPS font.
We use six special symbols throughout the book. Here they are, together with
their meanings.

☞ Paragraphs like this one contain cross-references to other parts of the book,
or suggestions of where you can skip ahead to another chapter.

➯ Paragraphs like this one contain important notes. Our favorite is “Save
your work frequently.” Pay careful attention to these paragraphs.

✓ Paragraphs like this one contain useful tips or point out features of interest in
the surrounding landscape. You might not need to think carefully about them
on a first reading, but they may draw your attention to some of the finer points
of MATLAB if you go back to them later.

✰ Chapters, sections, or problems starting with this symbol are a little more advanced
than the rest of the book, and can be skipped on first reading if you wish.

Symbolic Paragraphs like this discuss features of MATLAB’s Symbolic Math Toolbox,
used for symbolic (as opposed to numerical) calculations. If you are not using the
Symbolic Math Toolbox, you can skip these sections.

Paragraphs like this discuss features of Simulink. If you are not using Simulink,
you can skip these sections.
Incidentally, if you are a student and you have purchased the MATLAB Student
Version, then the Symbolic Math Toolbox and Simulink are automatically included
with your software, along with basic MATLAB.
About the Authors xv

About the Authors

We are mathematics professors at the University of Maryland, College Park. We have
used MATLAB in our research, in our mathematics courses, for presentations and
demonstrations, for production of graphics for books and for the Web, and even to
help our kids do their homework. We hope you’ll find MATLAB as useful as we do,
and that this book will help you learn to use it quickly and effectively.

Acknowledgment and Disclaimer. We are pleased to acknowledge support of our

research by the National Science Foundation, which contributed over many years to
the writing of this book. Our work on the second edition was partially supported
by NSF Grants DMS-0103647, DMS-0104087, ATM-0434225, and DMS-0504212.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this mate-
rial are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National
Science Foundation.

Brian R. Hunt
Ronald L. Lipsman
Jonathan M. Rosenberg
College Park, Maryland
January, 2006
 Chapter 1

Getting Started

In this chapter, we will introduce you to the tools you need in order to begin using
MATLAB effectively. These include the following: some relevant information on
computer platforms and software; installation protocols; how to launch MATLAB,
enter commands and use online help; a roster of MATLAB’s various windows; and
finally, how to exit the program. We know you are anxious to get started using MAT-
LAB, so we will keep this chapter brief. After you complete it, you can go immedi-
ately to Chapter 2 to find concrete and simple instructions for using MATLAB to do
mathematics. We describe the MATLAB interface more elaborately in Chapter 3.

Platforms and Versions

It is likely that you will use MATLAB on a computer running Microsoft Windows or
on some form of a UNIX operating system (such as Linux). Some previous versions
of MATLAB (Releases 11 and 12) did not support Macintosh, but the most current
versions (Releases 13 and 14) do. If you are using a Macintosh, you should find that
our instructions for Windows will suffice for most of your needs. Like MATLAB
6 (Releases 12 and 13), and unlike earlier versions, MATLAB 7 (Release 14) looks
virtually identical on these different platforms. For definitiveness, we shall assume
that the reader is using a Windows computer. In those very few instances where our
instructions must be tailored differently for Linux, UNIX, or Macintosh users, we
shall point it out clearly.

✓ We use the word Windows to refer to all flavors of the Windows operating
system. MATLAB 7 (R14) will run on Windows 2000, Windows NT (4.0
and higher), and on Windows XP. MATLAB 7 will not run on Windows 95,
Windows 98, or on Windows ME. However, MATLAB 6.5 (R13) does run on
Windows 98 or Windows ME.

This book is written to be compatible with the current version of MATLAB,

namely MATLAB 7 (R14). The vast majority of the MATLAB commands we de-
scribe, as well as many features of the MATLAB interface (e.g., the M-file Edi-
tor/Debugger and M-books) are valid for version 6.5 (R13), and earlier versions in
some cases. When important differences between different versions arise, we will
point them out. We also note that the differences between the MATLAB Professional
Version and the MATLAB Student Version are rather minor, and virtually unnotice-
able to a beginner, or even a mid-level user. Again, in the few instances where we

1
2 Chapter 1. Getting Started

describe a MATLAB feature that is available only in the Professional Version, we

highlight that fact clearly.

Installation

If you intend to run MATLAB, especially the Student Version, on your own computer,
it is quite possible that you will have to install it yourself. You can easily accomplish
this using the product CDs. Follow the installation instructions as you would with
installation of any new software. At some point in the installation you may be asked
which toolboxes you wish to install. Unless you have severe space limitations, we
suggest that you install any that seem of interest to you or that you think you might
use at some point in the future. However, for the purposes of this book, you should be
sure to include the Symbolic Math Toolbox. We also strongly encourage you to install
Simulink, which is described in Chapter 8.

Starting MATLAB

You start MATLAB as you would any other software application. In Windows, you
access it via the Start menu, under a name like MATLAB 7.0 or Student MATLAB.
Alternatively, you may have a desktop icon that enables you to start MATLAB with
a simple double-click. In Linux or UNIX, generally you need only type matlab in
a terminal window, though you may first have to find the bin subdirectory of the
MATLAB installation directory and add it to your path. Or you may have an icon on
your desktop that achieves the task.
However you start MATLAB, you will briefly see a window that displays the
MATLAB logo as well as some product information, and then a MATLAB Desktop
window will launch. That window will contain a title bar, a menu bar, a tool bar
and four embedded windows, one of which is hidden. The largest and most important
window is the Command Window on the right. We will go into more detail in Chap-
ter 3 on the use and manipulation of the other three windows: the Command History
Window, the Current Directory Browser and the Workspace Browser. For now we
concentrate on the Command Window in order to get you started issuing MATLAB
commands as quickly as possible. At the top of the Command Window, you may
see some general information about MATLAB, perhaps some special instructions for
getting started or accessing help, but most important of all, you will see a command
prompt (>> or EDU>>). If the Command Window is “active,” its title bar will be
dark, and the prompt will be followed by a cursor (a blinking vertical line). That
is the place where you will enter your MATLAB commands (see Chapter 2). If the
Command Window is not active, just click in it anywhere. Figure 1.1 contains an
example of a newly launched MATLAB Desktop.
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5. Obedience to the Will of God.—Whatever the Almighty, whom we
love and fear, bids us do, we not only do, but find pleasure in doing.

“To obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams.
For rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and stubbornness is as
iniquity and idolatry” (1 Sam. xv. 22, 23).

“But this thing commanded I them, saying, Obey my voice, and I will
be your God, and ye shall be my people” (Jer. vii. 23).

“Thy statutes have been my song in the house of my pilgrimage” (Ps.

cxix. 54).

“Thy testimonies have I taken as an heritage for ever: for they are
the rejoicing of my heart” (Ps. cxix. 111).

“Sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire; mine [277]ears hast thou
opened; burnt offering and sin offering hast thou not required. Then
said I, Lo, I come with the volume of the book written for me: I delight
to do thy will, O my God: yea, thy law is written within my heart” (Ps.
xl. 7–9).

6. Faith and Confidence in God.—God is All-kind, All-wise, and All-

powerful. The Lord is good to all, and His mercy is over all His
creatures: He wills that which is good for us. Being All-wise, He
knows best what is good for us, and by what means it can be
attained; being All-powerful, He can always carry His Will into effect.
He is, therefore, the only Being to whom we can safely entrust
ourselves everywhere and always. In His words and commands,
exhortations and warnings, we have the best and surest guide
through life. Our confidence in God causes us to turn to Him for help
in time of need, and for comfort in time of sorrow.
“Into his hand I commend my spirit, when I sleep and when I wake;
and with my spirit my body also: the Lord is for me, and I shall not
fear” (Daily Prayers, Morning Service).

“Blessed is the man that trusteth in the Lord, and whose hope the
Lord is” (Jer. xvii. 7).

“Trust in the Lord, and do good” (Ps. xxxvii. 3).

“Wait on the Lord: be of good courage, and he shall strengthen thine

heart; and wait on the Lord” (Ps. xxvii. 14).

“The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want” (Ps. xxiii. 1).

7. Resignation to the Will of God.—Trusting in God’s goodness, we

are contented with the lot which [278]He determined for us. When we
are prosperous we hope for His protection, lest we become
corrupted and unworthy of His goodness; when we fail, faith in God
will keep us from despair and encourage us to fresh attempts; when
misfortune befalls us which it is impossible for us to remedy, we
resign ourselves unto His Will, and say, “The Lord gave, and the
Lord hath taken away! blessed be the Name of the Lord!”

“My flesh and my heart failed; but God is the strength of my heart
and my portion for ever” (Ps. lxxiii. 26).

“I am in a great strait: let us fall now into the hand of the Lord; for his
mercy is great” (2 Sam. xxiv. 14).

“We are bound to bless God in evil even as we bless Him in good
fortune. It is written: ‘And thou shalt love the Lord, thy God, with all
thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might’ (Deut. vi. 5);
love Him with all thy soul or life—i.e., even though for His sake thou
risk thy life; and with all thy wealth—that is, whatever measure He
metes out to thee, acknowledge with exceeding gratitude” 4 (Mishnah
Berachoth ix. 5).

(b.) Duties towards God: In Speech.

The feelings of fear and love of God, of reverence, obedience, faith,

gratitude, and resignation, must also [279]find adequate expression in
our speech. God, the Omniscient, knows our thoughts and
sentiments, and there would be no necessity for giving them an
outward expression, if we only intended thereby to make them
known to the Almighty. But as in our relations to our fellow-men—
e.g., to our parents or to our children—we frequently, in obedience to
an irresistible impulse, communicate to them in words what we think
and what we feel, even when convinced that we only tell them things
well known to them already, so we address the Almighty, who is
everywhere near unto us, and listens to our speech, although our
wishes are known to Him before we utter them, and our innermost
feelings are open before Him before we express them in words. We
are aware that there is an immeasurable difference between the
Divine Being and earthly creatures like ourselves. We know that He
is not subject to human weaknesses, and that the audible sound of
words cannot move Him more than the thoughts and feelings that
prompt the words to come forth. And yet the mere communion of our
heart with our Creator does not satisfy us; we feel ourselves impelled
by some inner force to give it an outward expression. Besides, there
is a constant interaction between our thoughts and our spoken
words. Thoughts and feelings that remain unspoken, are seldom
permanent: we soon cease to be conscious of them ourselves, and
they often disappear without leaving any trace behind them, whilst
sentiments and ideas expressed in spoken words become
strengthened and take a deeper and firmer root in our hearts. The
relationship between our lips and our heart is therefore [280]of mutual
benefit to both: the words uttered with the lips receive their value and
importance from the heart, and the emotions of the heart derive
strength and support from the lips.

1. Prayer.—All our feelings and sentiments towards the Almighty, our

love and fear, faith and confidence, gratitude and resignation, find in
Divine worship their due expression. When our soul is full of the love
of God, and yearns for His presence, we call upon Him in hymns and
songs of praise, and He is “nigh to all them who call upon him, to all
that call upon him in truth” (Ps. cxlv. 18).

“I will sing unto the Lord as long as I live; I will sing praise to my God
while I have any being. Let my meditation be sweet unto him: I will
rejoice in the Lord” (Ps. civ. 33, 34).

“Praise ye the Lord: for it is good to sing praises unto our God; for it
is pleasant, and praise is comely” (Ps. cxlvii. 1).

“I will bless the Lord at all times: his praise shall continually be in my
mouth” (Ps. xxxiv. 2).

“O Lord, open my lips; and my mouth shall show forth thy praise”
(Ps. li. 17)

Our desire to please Him whom we love sincerely, our longing for an
opportunity to do what is good in His eyes, ought not to remain
hidden and silent. The sooner and the more frequently we give
expression to these wishes in audible words, the sooner do they
become realised, and the sooner are the promptings of our heart
followed by deeds.

“With my lips have I declared all the judgments of thy mouth” (Ps.
cxix. 13). [281]
“How sweet are thy words unto my palate! yea, sweeter to my mouth
than honey” (Ps. cxix. 103).

“Let my tongue sing of thy word; for all thy commandments are
righteousness” (Ps. cxix. 172).

We fear lest we offend and displease Him by our words or acts; we

recall to our mind the holiness of a God “who has no pleasure in
wickedness, and with whom evil shall not sojourn” (Ps. v. 5); we not
only meditate on the Holy One, but speak and sing of Him. Our
meditation finds expression in songs on the holiness of God, and
these songs again supply fresh material for meditation; we thus hope
to fence and guard our heart against the intrusion of anything
unworthy of the presence of the Most Holy.

“Who shall ascend the hill of the Lord? and who shall stand in his
holy place? He that hath clean hands and a pure heart” (Ps. xxiv. 3,
4).

“I will wash mine hands in innocency; so will I compass thine altar”

(Ps. xxvi. 6).

Our weakness and helplessness in many conditions of life fill us with

trouble and care. When we enjoy good health, we fear a change
might take place; in possession of wealth, we are in anxiety: it might
be taken from us. The pleasures of home and family we know to be
but temporary: how soon may sorrow visit us there! From all these
fears and anxieties we seek and find refuge in Him, who is “a
stronghold to the weak, a stronghold in times of trouble” (Ps. ix. 10).
We tell Him confidently all the troubles and cares of our heart, as we
would do to a friend who is always willing and ready to help us. We
have faith in God, and therefore we approach Him [282]with our
petitions; and when we have poured forth our heart before the All-
merciful we feel more at ease, and our faith and confidence have
gained in strength.

“He shall call upon me, and I will answer him: I will be with him in
trouble; I will deliver him and honour him” (Ps. xci. 15).

“When they have cried unto the Lord in their trouble, he will save
them out of their distresses” (Ps. cvii. 6).

“Because he hath inclined his ear unto me, therefore will I call upon
him as long as I live. When I find trouble and sorrow, then will I call
upon the name of the Lord. When I take the cup of salvation, then
will I call upon the name of the Lord” (Ps. cxvi. 2, 4, 13).

“What sufferings may be called chastisements of love? Such as do

not prevent us from prayer” (Babyl. Talm. Ber. 5a).

“Even when the edge of the sword touches already a man’s neck,
even then he must not abandon his faith in praying to God” (Babyl.
Talm. Ber. 10a).

“ ‘I was asleep, but my heart was awake;’ I have no sacrifices, but I

have ‘Shema’ and ‘Prayer’ ” (Shir ha-shirim Rabba on v. 2).

“ ‘Hope in the Lord,’ and pray again” (Rabboth, Deuter., chap. ii.).

Our Rabbis teach, “Prayer is good for man both before his fate has
been decreed and after it has been decreed” (Babyl. Talm. Rosh-
hashshanah, p. 16a). But at the same time we are warned against
impatiently expecting and demanding an immediate effect from the
words uttered by our lips, however devoutly they may have been
spoken. Such expectation—denounced in [283]the Talmud as ‫‏עיון‬
‫תפלה‬‎5—would indicate our confidence in the wisdom of our petition,
whilst confidence in the wisdom and goodness of God would suggest
that “the Lord will do what is good in his eyes.”
We give expression to our feelings of gratitude towards our
benefactor by acknowledging the fact, that whatever we enjoy, we
are enabled to enjoy through His kindness. The various blessings
formulated by our Sages serve a double purpose: first, they facilitate
the expression of our feelings; secondly, they remind us of the
presence of the Almighty, and of His goodness in providing for us
and all His creatures. From the time we awake in the morning till the
evening when we lie down to sleep, there is not a moment that does
not bring to our knowledge some Divine act of kindness towards us.
In the morning we perceive the benefit of light, in the evening we
have reason to welcome the blessing of repose it brings with it, while
the interval between the two periods constantly reveals to him who
does not wilfully shut his eyes the hand of Him “who is good, and
whose loving-kindness endureth for ever.”

“I will give thanks to thee, for thou hast answered me, and art
become my salvation” (Ps. cxviii. 21).

“I will sacrifice unto thee with the voice of thanks giving” (Jon. ii. 10).

“Though all prayers were to be discontinued, [284]prayers of

thanksgiving will never be discontinued” (Vayyikra Rabba, chap. ix.).

When things happen which are not pleasant to us, which give us
pain and sorrow, we ought to consider that the plans of God are
different from our plans, and His ways from our ways, and what He
wills is better for us than our own wishes. With resignation, without
murmuring, we ought to utter words of praise and thanks to the
Almighty.

“The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name
of the Lord” (Job i. 21).
“Learn to say, ‘Whatever the Almighty does, is done for our good’ ”
(Babyl. Talm. Ber. 60b).

Public Service.—Man has a natural desire to communicate his

sentiments to his fellow-men, and finds a certain pleasure or relief in
knowing that others share in his joys and sorrows. The same is the
case with regard to his sentiments towards the Most High. If,
yearning for communion with God, we fervently appeal to Him in
solitude, where we are undisturbed by the intrusion of any other
person, it will not be long before we shall feel ourselves in the very
presence of Him who is “nigh to all those who call upon him in truth.”
Standing before the Almighty, the Creator and Master of the whole
Universe as well as of ourselves, we should like all nature to join in
His praises, and we summon the inhabitants of the heavens above,
His angels and hosts, sun, moon, and all the stars of light; and the
dwellers on earth below, inanimate and animate, irrational and
rational, kings with their peoples, to come and to praise the name of
God (Ps. cxlviii.). Such moments of solitary devotion are very
precious, and [285]are by no means to be despised. But they are not
frequent, and not always successful. Public worship has this
advantage, that the object of our meeting, the holiness of the place,
and the union in a worship with our fellow-men combine to create,
maintain, or intensify our devotion. Although each one has his
individual wants, joys, and sorrows, there are many wants, joys, and
sorrows which we have all in common, and concerning which we
may in common give expression to our feelings in prayer, praise, and
thanksgiving.

“Bless ye the Lord in congregations” (Ps. lxviii. 27).

“If ten pray together, the presence of God is with them” (Babyl. Talm.
Ber. 6a).
“ ‘But as for me, my prayer is unto thee, O Lord, in an acceptable
time’ (Ps. lxix. 14): which is the acceptable time? The time of public
worship” (Babyl. Talm. Ber. 8a).

2. Study of the Law (‫‏תלמוד תורה‬‎).—Another way of employing speech

in the service of the Lord is the reading and the study of the Word of
God: the Holy Scriptures and their Commentaries. Our love and
reverence of God ought to induce us frequently to consult the book
which contains His commandments, and which He has given us as a
guide and companion. Even if we derived no further benefit than the
consciousness of having spent some time in reading His Word
revealed to us by the mouth of the Prophets, the time thus spent
would not be wasted. But we derive a further advantage. It is
impossible to imagine that our devoting a certain time, however short
it may be, to the reading of the words of the Most Holy should have
no purifying influence upon us, provided [286]we approach the book
before us with due reverence, and with the intention to be guided by
its teachings.

Joshua, when placed at the head of the nation, is exhorted by the

Almighty as follows: “This book of the law shall not depart out of thy
mouth; but thou shalt meditate therein day and night, that thou
mayest observe to do according to all that is written therein” (Joshua
i. 8).

“As for me, this is my covenant with them, saith the Lord: my spirit
that is upon thee, and my words which I have put in thy mouth, shall
not depart out of thy mouth, nor out of the mouth of thy seed, nor out
of the mouth of thy seed’s seed, saith the Lord, from henceforth and
for ever.” (Is. lix., 21)

3. Teaching.—The gift of speech is of service also in communicating

our thoughts, feelings, and convictions to our fellow-men. They who
are able to read the Word of God and to understand it, ought to read
and expound it to those who are less favoured; they who feel the
presence of God, and comprehend His holiness, goodness, and
unity, ought to direct the hearts of their brethren to God, His words
and works. It is a special duty and privilege of the Jew to proclaim
and teach the Existence and the Unity of God—‫‏יחוד הבורא‬‎.

“And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk
of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by
the way, and when thou liest down and when thou risest up” (Deut.
vi. 7).

“Happy are we! how goodly is our portion, and how pleasant is our
lot, and how beautiful our heritage! Happy are we who early and late,
morning and [287]evening, twice every day, declare, ‘Hear, O Israel,
the Lord is our God, the Lord is One’!” (Daily Prayers, Morning
Service).

4. Reverence of the Name of God.—The mention of the name of

God ought to make us most careful about that which we utter in
connection with it. If a person makes a promise or statement on oath
carelessly or with levity, he shows that he has no reverence of the
name of God; no fear of God. It is only through such irreverence that
a person is capable of breaking the third commandment. Blasphemy,
a sin treated in the Bible as a capital crime, has likewise its source in
want of due reverence of God’s name. In order to preserve and
strengthen that reverence we must avoid pronouncing the Divine
name too frequently. Hence arose the custom of substituting such
words as ‫‏השם‬‎“the Name,” ‫‏המקום‬‎“the Omnipresent,” for the names
of God, and employing in ordinary writing letters like ‫‏ה‬‎or ‫‏ד‬‎or ‫‏יי‬‎
instead of any of the Divine names. In writing single letters instead of
the full names we also intend to guard ourselves against causing
irreverence towards the name of God; as our writing is frequently
destroyed or liable to be thrown among the refuse. This precaution,
dictated by a feeling of reverence for God and His name, serves at
the same time to strengthen that feeling. 6

From the same reason, the word which is exclusively [288]used as a

name of God, the Tetragrammaton, 7 was rarely pronounced, and in
reading the Bible the word Adonai, “My Lord,” is substituted
wherever it occurs. It was only pronounced in the Temple by the
High-priest on the Day of Atonement, in the Confession of Sins, and
in the Prayer for Forgiveness; and by the ordinary priests when they
blessed the people in accordance with the Divine precepts (Num. vi.
24–26). Since the destruction of the Temple the Tetragrammaton has
not been pronounced, and thus it has come about that the right
pronunciation of the word is at present unknown.

5. The consciousness that we frequently address the Almighty with

our lips, and read His Holy Word, ought to make us strive for the
utmost purity and holiness in our speech. When the prophet Isaiah,
in a Divine vision, perceived the majesty of the Most High, and heard
the sound of His ministering angels proclaiming His holiness, a
sense of his own failings forced even from this chosen messenger of
God the confession, “Woe is me! for I am undone; because I am a
man, unclean in lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people unclean in
lips, for mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts” (Isa. vi. 5).

Duties towards God: In our Actions.

Rabbi Jose teaches, “Let all thy deeds be in the service of heaven,”
‫‏כל מעשיך יהיו לשם שמים‬‎(Sayings of the Fathers, ii. 12).

The feeling of love and fear of God which fills our [289]heart and soul,
and to which we frequently give expression in words, must also be
visible in our actions. Our whole life must be devoted to His service,
and ought to be one continuous worship of God. Every act of ours
must aim at the sanctification of His name. He has revealed unto us
His Will, and shown us the way in which we should walk;
unconditional submission to His guidance and strict obedience to His
command should distinguish the people of the Lord. True love of
God and faith in His goodness make us “bold as a leopard, light as
an eagle, swift as a stag, and strong as a lion to carry out the will of
our Father in heaven” (Sayings of the Fathers, v. 20). For what could
be the value of our professions of love for God, if we refused to listen
attentively to His voice, to walk in the way He has prepared for us, or
to observe His statutes? From this point of view we may consider all
our duties as duties towards God, since their fulfilment implies
obedience to His Will. But there are certain duties which chiefly or
exclusively concern our relations to God. Such duties are: the
observance of Sabbath and Festivals, providing reminders of God’s
Presence, establishing and supporting Public Worship, sanctifying
God’s Name (‫‏קדוש השם‬‎), and imitating His ways. Of these duties, the
first three will be fully treated in special sections.

The sanctification of God’s Name is a duty incumbent on all

mankind, but it is incumbent on us Jews in a higher degree, for we
are called the people of the Lord, the chosen people, a holy nation,
and a kingdom of priests. We sanctify the name of God by remaining
faithful to Him and to His Word, resisting every kind [290]of force or
temptation to turn us away from our faith, making sacrifices for our
holy religion, and conducting ourselves in such a manner that our
fellow-men may become convinced that the tree of our Law bears
good and holy fruit. Every action that brings disgrace upon us as
Israelites, and causes our neighbours to despise “the people of the
Lord, who profess to be the guardians of the revealed Torah,” is ‫‏חלול‬
‫השם‬‎“Profanation of the Name of God.” “And ye shall not profane my
holy name, but I will be hallowed among the children of Israel” (Lev.
xxii. 32).
“Profanation of the name of God is a greater sin even than idolatry”
(Babyl. Talm. Sanhedrin 106a).

Imitating the Ways of God.—We know that God is perfect, and that
all His ways are perfect; we are conscious also of our weakness and
of the impossibility of ever becoming perfect. But this conviction must
not deter us from seeking perfection as far as our nature permits it,
or from setting before us the ways of God as an example for us to
follow, as the aim which should direct the course of our life, the
balance in which to weigh our actions, and the test by which to
determine their value.

“Ye shall be holy; for I, the Lord your God, am holy” (Lev. xix. 2).

“I set the Lord always before me” (Ps. xvi. 8).

“ ‘Ye shall walk after the Lord your God’ (Deut. xiii. 5). Is it possible
for man to walk after the Lord? Has it not been said, ‘The Lord thy
God is a consuming fire’? (ibid. iv. 24). The meaning of the verse,
however, is this: Follow the ways of God: He clothes the naked, as
we are told, ‘And the Lord God [291]made coats of skin for Adam and
his wife’ (Gen. iii. 21); do the same. He visits the sick, as is indicated
in the words, ‘And God appeared to him in the plain of Mamre’ (ibid.
xviii. 1); you must also visit the sick. He comforts the mourners, as
appears from the passage, ‘And it came to pass after the death of
Abraham, that God blessed his son Isaak’ (ibid. xxv. 11); do the
same, and comfort mourners,” &c. (Babyl. Talm. Sotah 14a).

It may happen that we are sometimes disposed to exclude a fellow-

man from our brotherly love. It would be against human nature to
love those who have hurt or wronged us. But, on the other hand, we
are taught that we must keep our heart free from feelings of revenge
and hatred. If an offence has been committed against us by our
brother, the Law directs us as follows: “Thou shalt not hate thy
brother in thine heart; thou shalt surely reprove thy neighbour, and
not bear sin against him. Thou shalt not revenge, and thou shalt not
keep a grudge against the children of thy people, but love thy fellow-
man like thyself: I am the Lord” (Lev. xix. 17, 18). The traditional
interpretation illustrates revenge and grudge in the following way: If
your neighbour, after having been unkind to you, is in need of your
assistance, and you refuse it on the ground of his want of kindness
towards you, you are guilty of revenge; if you grant him his request,
but at the same time remind him of his unkind conduct, you are guilty
of “bearing a grudge against your neighbour.” (Sifra, ad locum.) [292]

B.—Duties towards our Fellow-creatures.

(a.) Duties towards our Fellow-men in General.

“Have we not all one father? hath not one God created us?” (Mal. ii.
10). “Thou shalt love thy fellow-man as thyself” (Lev. xix. 18). These
are the sentiments which, according to the Will of God, ought to
guide us in our relation to our fellow-men. When, therefore, a Gentile
came to Hillel and asked him to explain to him in one moment the
duties which Judaism enjoins on its adherents, he replied, “What is
displeasing to thee, that do thou not to others. This is the text of the
Law; all the rest is commentary; go and learn” (Babyl. Talm.
Shabbath 31a). In a different form this idea has been expressed by
Rabbi Akiba and by Ben-Azai, who respectively quoted as a
fundamental principle of the Law, “Love thy neighbour as thyself,”
and “This is the book of the generations of man; in the day that God
created man, he made him in the likeness of God” (Yalkut on Gen. v.
1).
From this principle we derive the following general maxims with
regard to our neighbour’s (1) life and health, (2) property, (3) honour,
and (4) well-being:—

1. Life and Health of our Fellow-man.—Life is a precious treasure

which the Almighty has given us; if it is once taken from us, no man
is able to restore it. Among the first lessons revealed to man in
Scripture is the value of the life of a human being, created by God in
His own likeness, and when the first murder had been committed,
God said to the murderer, “What hast thou done? the voice of thy
brother’s blood is heard that crieth unto me from the [293]ground”
(Gen, iv. 10). The first commandment in the second section of the
Decalogue is directed against this crime: “Thou shalt not murder.”
The significance of these words, the general lessons implied in this
commandment, and the extent to which a person, though not an
actual murderer, may become guilty of having broken this
commandment, have already been explained in the chapter on the
Ten Commandments (p. 261). It has been shown how the sixth
commandment forbade—

The(1.)
taking of the life of a fellow-man by violent means.
The(2.)
doing of anything by which the health, the peace,
and the well-being of our fellow-man is undermined.
The(3.)
omission of any act in our power to save our fellow-
man from direct or indirect danger of life.

2. The Property of our Neighbour.—The eighth commandment in its

wider sense comprehends all our relations to our neighbour’s
property. It prohibits, as has been shown above (p. 263), the
appropriation of anything that belongs to our neighbour—

By theft
(1.) and robbery, or
By any
(2.) kind of fraud and dishonesty.
Our Sages teach: “Let the property of thy fellow-man be as dear to
thee as thine own” (Aboth ii. 12); i.e., you do not like to see your own
property damaged, diminished, or destroyed; so it would be wrong if
you were to cause loss and ruin to your fellow-man, whether you did
it directly or indirectly. 8 Let every [294]one enjoy the labour of his
hands; partake of the gifts of the earth and the Divine blessings as
much as his physical and mental powers enable him to do in a
righteous manner.

It is not only direct illegal appropriation of our neighbour’s goods that

is condemned as theft or robbery; it is equally wicked to buy things
which one knows to have been stolen by others. 9 He who does it is
worse than the thief; for, whilst the latter injures only the person
whom he robs, the former encourages and corrupts the thief,
hardens his heart, helps to silence the voice of his conscience, and
thus obstructs the way to repentance and improvement.

There are transactions which are legal and do not involve any
breach of the law, and which are yet condemned by the principles of
morality as base and disgraceful. Such are all transactions in which
a person takes advantage of the ignorance or embarrassment of his
neighbour for the purpose of increasing his own property. Usurers
frequently belong to this low and heartless class of society. The
worst thing, however, they do is, that they plan the ruin of others; in
many cases they bring about disaster by inducing young and
inexperienced persons to borrow money and to spend it in luxuries,
or increase the embarrassment of the distressed by charging
exorbitant interest and imposing cruel conditions, which make it
impossible for those who have once fallen into the hands of usurers
to free themselves from their bondage. [295]

It makes no difference whatever whether the victim be a Jew or a

non-Jew; the transaction is equally condemnable, and the usurer
equally wicked. This statement would be superfluous, were it not for
the misunderstanding that exists both among some of our co-
religionists and among non-Jews with regard to the principle it
involves. Great stress is laid in the Pentateuch on the prohibition of
taking interest for advances of money or articles of food. “And if thy
brother be waxen poor and fallen in decay with thee, then thou shalt
relieve him: yea, though he be a stranger or a sojourner, that he may
live with thee. Take thou no interest of him, or increase: but fear thy
God, that thy brother may live with thee. Thou shalt not give him thy
money upon usury, nor lend him thy victuals for increase. I am the
Lord your God,” &c. (Lev. xxv. 35–38; comp. Exod. xxii. 24).—It is
one of the characteristics of the pious who is worthy to “abide in the
tabernacle of God,” that “he putteth not out his money to usury” (Ps.
xv. 5).

The strict prohibition to take interest on advances of money or goods

served a twofold purpose. In the first place, the surplus money of the
wealthy was to be employed in disinterested charity. Secondly,
labour and activity, both physical and mental, were to be the sources
of income and wealth for the individual as well as for the whole
nation; money without labour was not to bear any fruit or produce
any increase.

An exception from this law was made for the benefit of the stranger.
The inhabitants of a town or a country who lived in the midst of their
relatives, friends, and countrymen could, as a rule, be trusted to
[296]return the loan in due time. If they were not known themselves,
they could find persons who would recognise them or even offer
themselves as security for them. It was different with the stranger
(‫‏הנכרי‬‎) “who came from a far land” (Deut. xxix. 21); he was not
known; he was, as a rule, without friends; he had none to offer
security for him. 10 When in need, therefore, he would be unlikely to
obtain a loan, if the lender were not permitted in such cases to take
interest as compensation for risking the capital itself. The same
reason explains also a second exception made in the law with regard
to a stranger when a debtor. The payment of old debts is, as a rule, a
great hardship to the insolvent, especially at a time when the benefit
derived from the loan has already been forgotten. It was therefore
ordained that every seven years a remission of all debts should take
place. The debtor that lived in the country could easily be urged or
forced to pay his debts, and the creditor could safely expect that he
would receive his money before the year of release began. This was
not the case with the stranger, who might with impunity keep out of
sight for some time before the beginning of the seventh year: a
circumstance that increased the uncertainty of the repayment, and
would have rendered it almost impossible for a stranger to enjoy the
benefit of a loan in times of temporary embarrassment, but for the
exception made in his case from the law commanding the remission
of all debts in the seventh year. [297]

We see here a difference made in our duties towards our fellow-men

between an Israelite and a stranger, but solely for the benefit of “the
stranger.” At present, when the original relation between the Israelite
and the stranger has ceased, the spirit of charity and justice towards
the stranger (‫‏נכרי‬‎) or non-Jew, which is the basis of this law, must
continue to regulate our intercourse with our neighbours, and if the
non-Jew would recognise the prohibition of taking interest as equally
binding upon him as upon the Jew, the latter would not be allowed to
take any kind of interest from a non-Jew. At all events, if any of our
co-religionists take this law as a pretext for imposing upon their non-
Jewish fellow-men, and injuring and ruining them by exorbitant
usury, they pervert alike the letter and the spirit of the Divine
command; they do not act in a Jewish spirit, and instead of being
members of a holy nation or the people of the Lord, they are guilty of
‫‏חלול השם‬‎, the profanation of the name of God, and do not deserve to
be honoured by the name of Jews.
Denunciations are sometimes levelled against the Jews, on account
of the misdeeds of some individuals, as cruel usurers. Those non-
Jews who would take the trouble of thoroughly studying Jews and
Judaism would soon discover the error and the baselessness of
such denunciations. Judaism has never sanctioned usury, but, on
the contrary, always condemned it. 11

With regard to the property of our neighbour our Sages expressed

the following maxim:—

“There are four characters among men: he who [298]says, ‘What is

mine is mine and what is thine is thine,’ his is a neutral character;
some say this is a character like that of Sodom; he who says, ‘What
is mine is thine and what is thine is mine’ is a boor; he who says
‘What is mine is thine and what is thine is thine’ is a saint; he who
says ‘What is thine is mine and what is mine is mine’ is a wicked
man” (Aboth v. 10).

We are not only commanded to abstain from injuring our neighbour

with regard to his property, but we are exhorted to protect it as far as
lies in our power. “If thou meetest the ox of thine enemy or his ass
going astray, bring it back to him” (Exod. xxiii. 4). “Thou shalt not see
thy brother’s ox or his sheep go astray, and hide thyself from them:
thou shalt surely bring them again unto thy brother” (Deut. xxii. 1).
“Thou shalt not see thy brother’s ass or his ox fallen down by the
way, and hide thyself from them: thou shalt surely help him to lift
them up again” (ibid. ver. 4).

3. The Honour of our Fellow-man.—“Let the honour of thy fellow-

man be as dear to thee as thy own” (Aboth ii. 10). We are very
sensitive about our own honour; and many of us—nay, all right-
minded persons—are more anxious for the good name acquired
through integrity of character than for the safety of their property. We
must be equally sensitive about the honour of our fellow-man, and
take good care lest we damage his repute by falsehood, slander, or
spreading evil reports in apparently innocent gossip. An evil tongue
(‫‏לשון הרע‬‎) is a serious failing from which few are exempt; even if a
person is not guilty of the sin of evil speech, he does not entirely
escape “the dust [299]of the evil tongue” (Babyl. Talm. B. Bathra
165a). Calumny, it is said, kills three—the slanderer himself, him who
listens, and the person spoken of. We therefore add to the Amidah
the words: “My God, guard my tongue from evil, and my lips from
speaking guile;” and in one of the Psalms we read: “Who is the man
that desireth life, and loveth days, that he may see good? Keep thy
tongue from evil and thy lips from speaking guile” (Ps. xxxiv. 13, 14).

Our Sages are very severe against those who attack the honour of
their fellow-men. In one passage it is said: “Whoever causes by
offensive words the face of his fellow-man to turn pale is almost
guilty of shedding blood” (Babyl. Talm. B. Metsia 58b). Another
passage runs thus: “Rather let a man throw himself into a furnace
than publicly offend his fellow-man” (ibid. 59a).

The Law does not only forbid the utterance of evil reports, but also
the encouragement given to the tale-bearer by listening to his
stories. “Thou shalt not take up a false report” (Exod. xxiii. 1). In the
Book of Proverbs the evil consequences of listening to slander are
thus depicted: “If a ruler hearkeneth to falsehood, all his servants are
wicked” (Prov. xxix. 12). “He who giveth heed to wicked lips causeth
evil-doing; he who giveth ear to a mischievous tongue feedeth lies”
(ibid. xvii. 4).

When we hear evil reports about our neighbour, we should try to

defend him; when we are convinced that he has done wrong, we
must rebuke him, lead him back to the right way, and not utterly
reject him; we may still find some redeeming feature in his character
that makes it worth our while to save him. [300]Thus Joshua, the son
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