Chapter 1

Characterization Of Individual Particles

© Cedric Briens May 12, 2025

1
 1. Introduction
• The design of any operation involving
particles requires precise information on
their properties

• The most important properties are density,

size and shape

• This chapter defines these properties and

reviews the techniques for their
measurement
2
 Outline
1 Introduction
2 Particle density
3 Particle size
4 Particle shape
5 Adhesion of particles
6 Dustiness

3
 2. Particle density

• Skeletal density

• Apparent particle density

• Bulk density

4
 What is the Skeletal density?
Density of the material from which particles
are formed: sk
non-porouss

non-porouss

5
 What is the
apparent particle density?
mass of particle
p =
volume of particle (including pores)
non-porouss

non-porouss

6
 Relationship between p and sk

1 1
= + p
p sk

volume of solid material + volume of pores

=
solid mass

volume of solid material volume of pores

+
solid mass solid mass
7
 What is the bulk density?

Density of the bulk

powder:
– includes the voids in-
between the particles

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 Relationship between b and p

mass of solid mass of solid  volume of bed − volume of voids 

=
volume of bed volume of particles  volume of bed 


b = p (1 − )

: voidage or volume fraction of bulk powder

occupied by voids.
9
 Example:
fluidized cracking catalyst

sk = 2500 kg/m3

p = 0.50x10-3 m3/kg
p = 1100 kg/m3
b = 500 kg/m3

10
 Bulk density measurement

The bulk density depends on how the powder

is packed

Two extremes:
• Loose or aerated bulk density
• Compact or tapped bulk density

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Bulk density measurement

12
Bulk density measurement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GUSovVHpqsU

13
Loose or aerated bulk density

14
Loose or aerated bulk density

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm_CIDIFyuM
15
Compact or tapped bulk density

16
Compact or tapped bulk density

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oQCUayNROo 17
 Skeletal density measurement

Two pycnometry measurement techniques

may be used:

1) liquid pycnometry: inaccurate

2) gas pycnometry: elaborate but accurate

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Liquid pycnometry

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 Liquid pycnometry

weighing → mass of added water → volume of added water

volume of flask = volume of added water + volume of solids material

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Liquid pycnometry

21
Liquid pycnometry

Porous particles:

The liquid may

not fill all the
pores

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 Gas pycnometry

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mTQ4slkoJNk 23
 Particle density measurement

1) Mercury pycnometry: assume that

mercury does not penetrate into the pores
(Mercury is sometimes replaced by
silicone oil). Inaccurate
2) Caking detection: caking occurs when
the pores are filled with liquid. Inaccurate
3) Gas adsorption isotherms
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 Outline
1 Introduction
2 Particle density
3 Particle size
4 Particle shape
5 Adhesion of particles
6 Dustiness

25
FCC

26
FCC
tertiary
cyclone
catch

27
Talcum
powder

28
Polymer C

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Polymer W

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Polymer E

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 Characterizing the size of a
particle with a complex shape
• Volume-equivalent particle diameter: diameter of
the sphere which has the same volume as the particle

• Others:
– Aerodynamic diameter: diameter of the sphere with a density of
1000 kg/m3 which falls at the same speed as the particle in ambient
air
– Sieve diameter
– Diameters based on projected area

32
 Particle size cuts
Size cut i contains 0.18

the particles with a 0.16

fraction of particles in size cut (xi)

diameter between 0.14

dpi - dpi /2 0.12

0.10
and
0.08
dpi + dpi /2
0.06

0.04
xi may be based on:
0.02
• weight
• volume 0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
• area
• number particle diameter (dp), m

33
 Mean diameters

arithmetic mean : d pam =  x i d pi (note :  x i = 1)

i i

geometric or log− mean : ln ( d plm ) =  x i ln ( d pi )

i

For the arithmetic and log − mean diameters, x i may be any type of fraction

For the Sauter − mean diameter, x i must be the volume fraction :

1 x
= i
d psm i d pi

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 Sauter-mean diameter and
specific area

mean specific surface (a):

particle surface in 1 kg of mixed size solids

6
spherical particles: a=
p d psm
6
non-spherical particles: a=
p  d psm

35
 Median particle diameter

• Diameter such that 50% of particles are

larger than this diameter and 50% are
smaller
• The median diameter depends on the type of
fraction xi

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Comparison of various mean diameters for a typical size distribution

arithmetic mean diameter, m 221

from log-mean or geometric mean diameter, m 168

volume % harmonic or Sauter mean diameter, m 99

median diameter, m 192

arithmetic mean diameter, m 1.3

from log-mean or geometric mean diameter, m 1.0

number % harmonic mean diameter, m 0.9

median diameter, m 0.8

37
 Cumulative distribution
100
weight % with a diameter smaller than dp

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

particle diameter (dp), m

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 Differential distribution

0.3
derivative, wt%/m

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

particle diameter (dp), m 39

Relationship between number and
weight distributions

Use Excel (or FBMODX)

40
 Combining two particle size
distributions of the same sample

• For example, two measurement techniques

may provide the size distribution of a
sample for 2 different ranges of particle size

• The easiest way is to use the cumulative

distribution

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 Theoretical size distribution
functions

• Useful for smoothing and interpolation

• Do not use for extrapolation

42
 Normal or gaussian distribution

 (d − d ) 2


exp −
pi pam

 2 2

F(d p ) = 
dp
  d(d )
 2
0 pi

43
 Log-normal distribution

   d  2 
  ln pi   
   d plm   
exp − 
( ( ))
 2 ln  
2

 g

  d(d )
 
F(d p ) = 
dp pi
0
( ( ))
ln  g 2 d pi

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Rosin-Rammler distribution

F(d p )=1 − exp(− ad s

p )

45
Weibul distribution

d p − d p min
X=
d pm

F(d p )=1 − exp(− X 

)

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 Normal paper
If the distribution is gaussian, the cumulative distribution
will plot as a straight line
99.9
normal probability paper
weight % with a diameter smaller than dp

99

90

70
50
30

10

0.1

0.01
0.001
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

particle diameter (dp), m 47

 Log-normal paper
If the distribution is log-normal, the cumulative distribution
will plot as a straight line.
99.9
log-normal probability paper
weight % with a diameter smaller than dp

99

90

70
50
30

10

0.1

0.01
0.001
1 10 100

particle diameter (dp), m 48

 Particle size measurement
• Accurate sampling is a crucial operation: more
errors can be attributed to sampling than to the
actual size analysis.
• The two "golden rules of sampling" (Allen):
1) "a powder should be sampled while in motion" (to
prevent segregation in non- moving powders) (movie;
brazil nut movie; humans in snow avalanches)
2) "the whole of the stream should be taken for many
short increments of time in preference to part of the
stream being taken for the whole of the time"
(segregation movie).
• With fine particles, sample dispersion is also
important. 49
Particle size measurement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6oQCUayNROo 50
Particle size measurement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQiJwG93YsU 51
Particle size measurement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFqbF4yrhEs 52
Particle size measurement

53
Particle size measurement

54
Particle size measurement

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 Particle size measurement

Various methods:
1) Sieving: usually for dp > 50 m
2) Sedimentation or centrifugation in a liquid
3) Centrifugation in a gas
4) Elutriation
5) Impaction
6) Electrical conductivity
7) Light scattering and blockage
8) Image analysis 56
Sieving

57
Sieving

58
Sieving

movie
59
 Sieving

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPFCJjiasgY
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 Sieving
• time consuming
• shaking duration must be long enough to prevent
large errors
• cannot be used with solids which attrit or
agglomerate easily
• if angular particles, does not give volume-
equivalent diameter
• Sieving results are often reported in terms of mesh
numbers: a large mesh number means a small
particle size

61
 Light scattering

• The most popular technique

• Measures particle diameters from 0.5 to 3000 m
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• Both dry and wet measurements
 Dry methods: screening, elutriation,
centrifugation in a gas, impaction, light
scattering

A frequent problem with these methods:

– Particle-particle agglomeration:
• Van der Waals forces
• Electrostatic forces
– Prevalent for small particles (high surface/volume)
– Additives can help
63
 Wet methods:
sedimentation/centrifugation, electrical
conductivity, light scattering

• Particle-particle agglomerates can be broken apart:

– surfactant additives + ultrasonic vibrations
• But:
– Surfactants may promote agglomeration
– Ultrasonic vibrations may promote agglomeration or
break particles

64
 Industrial example:
Super absorbent polymer (SAP)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2KCEqaKYhc 65
 Industrial example:
Super absorbent polymer (SAP)
• New cheaper process to make super absorbent polymers (SAP)
• Particle size distribution measured with dry method (particles would
swell in water)
• Sold to diaper manufacturer
• Issues: babies with skin rash
• What happened?

• Fine particles stuck to larger ones

• Became unstuck when they got wet
• Went through liner
• Irritated babies skin

66
 Mineral sunscreen
• Sunscreen which acts as physical barrier to UV
– Safer than chemical sunscreens:
• Users
• Aquatic life
• Particles with the correct size distribution:
– Transparent to visible and infrared light
– Blocks UV light

67
 Mineral sunscreen
UV IR

68
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8TDbhu2KZ1E
 Mineral sunscreen

– Why should particles be round?

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 Outline
1 Introduction
2 Particle density
3 Particle size
4 Particle shape
5 Adhesion of particles
6 Dustiness

70
4. Particle shape
Introduction
Various shape factors
Measurement of particle shape

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 Particle shape: examples
• perfectly spherical particles have a smoother “feel”
attractive for cosmetic applications
• inks, paints, cosmetics:
– flaky particles cover more area
– spherical glass beads reflect light in road markings
• abrasives: better if highly angular
• fibers for plastics reinforcement: elongated for good
impact strength.
• rubber grains: must be round for good tensile strength
(otherwise, grains would align along one direction and
eventually tear)
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 Particle shape: gun powder
flake extruded ball

• Flake powder:
– Large surface area: burns quickly and easily, even in cold weather.
– Does not pack as evenly: incomplete burning.
• Extruded powder:
– Cylinders: less surface area and slower burn. Good controlled burn means less additive needed.
– Does not flow very well: inconsistent loads. Can be improved by making cylinders shorter.
• Ball powder:
– Accurate flow: easy to measure and consistent loads.
– Burning rate adjusting by modifying the size of the balls.
73
 Shape factors from direct shape
characterization
• Usually from image analysis

• Particle sphericity:
surface area of sphere with the same volume as the particle
=
actual surface area of the particle

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Shape factors from particle-fluid
interactions

• Many shape factors based on measured

particle-fluid interactions
• See the chapter on Particulate-Fluid
interactions

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 Shape factors from product
quality tests
• Flakiness index
round particles:

"flaky" particles:

• Angularity index: based on Hausner ratio:

• Angular particles are more cohesive
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 Outline
1 Introduction
2 Particle density
3 Particle size
4 Particle shape
5 Adhesion of particles
6 Dustiness

77
5. Adhesion of particles

• Adhesion of particles on other particles or on

a flat surface may be very important for some
processes

• There are very few techniques to characterize

such adhesion (e.g. the turntable)

78
5. Adhesion of particles

79
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1G76HUvGyDE
 Outline
1 Introduction
2 Particle density
3 Particle size
4 Particle shape
5 Adhesion of particles
6 Dustiness

80
 6. Dustiness
solids
sample

dust
suction
filter

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 Industrial example:
polymerization catalyst
• Polymerization catalyst supplier
• Their catalyst was best in the world
• But started losing market share

• Workers were opening bags of catalyst and

dumping it into polymerization vats
• Lots of dust
• Solution: granulate catalyst
82
 Industrial example: cat litter

83
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MiefTh0KfOw&list=PL8X72bz_0Ecelmxz4QaCQnV-DbCkcuoIJ&index=5