2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON)

Digital Load Frequency Control

Mekonnen Shewarega, (M.Sc. Student) Abdulla Ismail, Dr
Department of Electrical Engineering Professor of Electrical Engineering
Rochester Inst. of Technology, Dubai Rochester Inst. of Technology, Dubai
United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract—Frequency of power supply system needs to be in discrete mode in the real-world. It is thus reasonable enough
kept constant or fixed irrespective of the varying changes in load to carry out further investigations in hybrid continuous-
demand in order to ensure the well-being of power generating discrete system. Furthermore, researchers’ attentions are
equipment and delivery of good quality power at the demand drawn in proposing digital LFC scheme due to its comparative
side. This paper presents an enhanced digital PD controller for advantage of being more reliable, more accurate and flexible,
Load Frequency Control (LFC) of UAE power system based on compact in size and less sensitive to drifting and noise.
a systematic method using Root Locus method. The controller is
designed in continuous-mode and discretized in implementation The remaining part of paper is organized as follows,
with an optimally selected sampling period to circumvent any Section-II presents the Related Work and Motivation, Section-
degradation of dynamic performance and instability that may III presents the Modelling of the System, Section-IV describes
arise from inappropriate sampling period. A single area reheat the Problem Statement and Formulation, Section-V presents
thermal system is taken into consideration with the proposed Simulation and Results and Section-VI concludes the paper
controller in role of load disturbance analysis and control of outcomes.
frequency deviation. The proposed digital controller is simple
and effective and ensures that the overall system performance is II. RELATED WORK AND MOTIVATION
in line with the desired response and transient requirements
which in effect shows remarkable improvement in the system
Over the years, different control laws and many advanced
performance. control strategies have been put forward and studied for LFC
control scheme. However, PI/PID/PD type LFC controllers
Keywords—Load Frequency Control (LFC), Frequency are still popular and preferred in the power industry due to
Deviation, Digital PID (PD) their simplicity and effectiveness in implementation [3]. For
setting the gain parameters of PI/PID/PD, many parameter
I. INTRODUCTION tuning methods have been studied and adopted in different
Electrical power system is now-a-days an important industrial application including the power industry. To
element and basic needs in day-to-day life. People’s demand mention but a few: metaheuristics tuning (like genetic
of electricity is growing with rapid changes and development algorithm -GA, particle swarm optimization – PSO), heuristic
of technology and economy. Accordingly, the sizes of power tuning (like Ziegler-Nichols method, Cohen-Coon method,
systems continued expanding to meet the growing demands of trial-and-error), direct synthesis method etc. [4], [5], [6].
electricity. The continuous expansion of power system leads These tuning techniques can effectively work out in practical
to an increased complexity of power system which as result situation and a careful selection of appropriate tuning method
staggers the reliability, efficiency and security of power for a particular application can comparatively result in
supply unless the power system is put in manageable manner acceptable and effective gain parameters. An effective
by “smartening the grid”. Smart grid is an electricity network conversion of PID controllers are studied and reported in [7]
that uses digital and other advanced technologies to monitor [8]. Against the back drop of this, rare or no work has been
and manage the transport of electricity from all generation done and reported on digital PD controller for LFC scheme
sources to meet the varying electricity demands of end-users. with continuous-discrete mode based on a root locus method
As described in [1], “Smart grids co-ordinate the needs and of designing and tuning controller, which motivates this work.
capabilities of all generators, grid operators, end-users and The PD type controller ensures system stability to
electricity market stakeholders to operate all parts of the parameter variations within certain bound. Besides, the root
system as efficiently as possible, minimizing costs and locus is powerful method of analysis and design for stability
environmental impacts while maximizing system reliability, and transient response by means of graphical presentation of
resilience and stability”. The smart grid, which is the future the closed-loop poles whilst a system parameter is being
imminent and emerging power network is mainly varied. The root locus technique allows the control over the
characterized by an increased use of digital control and pole locations which in effect implies an easy grip on the
communication technology for improvement of reliability, transient response analysis. Hence, the root locus empower the
security and efficiency of power system grid. designer with qualitative and quantitative information on the
The smart grid development requires safe operation of stability and transient response of closed-loop control system.
power system frequency within small range of its nominal [12], [13], [14].
value where the requirement can be achieved by load In this paper, digital PD LFC control scheme is employed
frequency control (LFC) [2]. The primary duty of load and root locus technique is applied to design and tune the PD
frequency control (LFC) is to maintain the frequency load frequency control for power generating plant with reheat
deviation within prescribed tolerance limit and numerous thermal system [9] ,[10].
control techniques have been implemented to solve the
frequency instability problem. The LFC system loop performs A power generating plant with reheat thermal system is
on basis of continuous mode whereas the controllers operates normally comprised of governor, turbine and generator which

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 2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON)

are interactively working to cater function of power supply On basis of the above components models, the system
and the load frequency control (LFC) is the criteria to analyze interaction among all parts is represented in a block diagram
the uncertainties and disturbance rejection. Although power which will be the reference for the analysis of dynamic
loads do have a typical profile of average value and tendency behavior of the system. The two inputs are changes in the
to smoothly fluctuate around a typical demand load, there will typical power consumption or the speed changer ΔPC (the
eventually be occurrence of load demand disturbance which value will be zero for such type of problem since the load
can affect the speed of rotation of the electrical generating fluctuations will be considered as disturbances in the system)
plant that will result in deviation from the working nominal and the load disturbance, ΔPD.
frequency. In such situations, it is imperative to restore the
frequency near to the operating values (within desired and Load &
Turbine -
acceptable range) to prevent negative impacts on the Governor
*RYHUQRU Reheat Machine
performance of the system [2], [11]. In this paper, the load Gg(s) Gt(s)
-
GL(s)
-
disturbance analysis and control of system frequency
deviation are the main considerations.
III. LFC SYSTEM MODEL 1/R

The following system elements need to be modelled in Droop

Characterstic
order to make analysis of the load frequency control system
problem. Namely, speed governor, turbine, power system and Fig. 1. Linear model block diagram of the LFC single area system
electrical generator. The linear model block diagram is
illustrated in Fig.1 where the model dynamics of each element TABLE I. NOMENCLATURE FOR SYSTEM PARAMETRS
is described as below: [15] Nomenclature For Symbols of System Parameters
A. Frequency Deviation Symbol Description Unit Ref

The output of the system will be the deviation of the Δf Frequency Deviation Hz
frequency from the nominal frequency, as shown in below R
Speed regulation due to Governor
Hz/p.u.
equation (1) Action
Tg Governor Time Constant Sec
Δ f = factual — fnominal (1) Tt Turbine Time Constant Sec

An abrupt change in power demand of the load results in Tr Reheat Turbine Constant Sec
variation of the frequency of the generator. The relationship c Power generated in reheat portion ratio
between an abrupt change in the frequency and power change
in the generator is the droop regulation parameter, R. Having KL Electric System Gain (Load) constant
considered that there is no change in the typical power of the TL Electric System Time constant Sec
load and all the load changes will be treated as disturbances,
the change in the generated power is: Δ PD Load Disturbance p.u.
Change in the Typical Power
Δ PC p.u.
Δ Pg. = — Δ f / R (2) Consumption
The system model in fig.1 is characterized by the
The signal of the generated power change will be received following transfer functions:
by an actuator and will change the valve position at the
admission of the turbine. The transfer function related to the load disturbance to the
frequency deviation (TFPd=)
B. Governor Model
For steam turbines, the actuator is typically modelled by Δf/ΔPD= —GL(s)/ (1+GL(s) Gg(s) Gt(s)/R) (6)
the below equation (3). IEEE have issued different models for
hydraulic actuators (like IEEE2) which is commonly used in MATLAB Code TFPd = -feedback (GL, Gg*Gt/R)
the analysis of load frequency control system problems [10].
TFPdz = c2d (TFPd, T,'tustin'); Discretized
Gg(s) = 1 / (sTg + 1) (3)
The transfer function related to the input reference ΔPc
(desired value) to the frequency deviation(TFPc=)
C. Turbine Model
For the turbine section of the steam turbine system, it is Δf/ΔPC= GL(s) Gg(s) Gt(s)/ (1+GL(s) Gg(s) Gt(s)/R) (7)
modelled in equation(4) with reheat stages [9],[15].
MATLAB Code TFPc = feedback (GL*Gg*Gt,1/R)
Gt(s) = (scTr + 1) / ((sTr + 1) (sTt + 1)) (4) TFPcz = c2d (TFPc, T,'tustin'); Discretized
D. Generator Load and Power System Model Disturbance Rejection Problem is given as:
The electric generator load and power system is modelled
by using swing equation for the synchronous generator as: Δf = (TFPd) (ΔPD) + (TFPc) (ΔPC) (8)
[16]

GL(s) = KL / (sTL+ 1) (5)

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 2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON)

IV. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND FORMULATION The selection of sampling time (T) is an essential element
The single area load frequency control system consists of in the design of digital control system. An appropriate
governor Gg(s), Reheated Turbine Gt(s), Load & Machine sampling time (T) needs to be selected in order not to drive
GL(s) and the droop charaterstic R as illustrated in Fig.1 and the system to instability and poor performance due to
Equation (8) shows that LFC system is a disturbance inappropriate sampling period (T) selection. Besides, it
rejection problem in which the goal is to design controller should not excessively be sampled since the sampling
such that the effect of the load disturbance will have a interval has impact on the cost of the digital hardware. An
minimal effect on the desired system response characterstics. optimum sampling time recommended to fall within limit as
follows: [17]
A. Critera/Specification 1/(30BW)<T<1/(20BW) (11)
For a unit step load disturbance input, i.e. ΔPD (s)= 1/s,
the steady state frequency deviation, utilizing the final value Where BW is the closed-loop bandwidth frequency.
therorem is as follows:
Turbine - Load &
Controller Governor Reheat Machine
Δf ss = Lim sΔf= -GL(s)/ (1+GL(s)Gg(s)Gt(s)/R)
/RDG 0DFKLQH

- -
Gc(S) Gg(S) Gt(S) GL(S)
sÆ0
-

Desired
Δf ss = —RKL/ (R+KL) (9) Ref=0
1/R
Droop Characterstic
'URRS&KDUDWHUVWLF

The above system exhibits a steady state frequency deviation

which implies the use of controller is imperative. A suitable Fig. 3. Block diagram of the system (single area) included with the
controller is required to meet the below design criteria/ continous-time controller representation
specification for a unit step load disturbance input:
The closed loop transfer function of Fig.3 which relates the
• The system steady state frequency error (f) need to frequency deviation to the load disturbance (TFPd_CNTRL)
be within —0.01Hz < f < 0.01Hz. is given as:

• The settling time TS,2% < 1 sec. Δf/ΔPD= -GL(s)/ (1+GL(s) Gg(s) Gt(s) (Gc(s)+1/R)) (12)

• The percent overshoot/undershoot, %OS < 5%. The below procedural steps are followed in the design of
controller to enable meet the above outlined requirement and
B. Controller Design Procedures design criteria/specification,:
The discrete-time controller for the LFC system is a hybrid
combintion of conttinous-time signals and discrete-time • Stability analysis of the open loop (uncontrolled)
signals as shown in Fig.2. Design and tuning of the controller system.
is carried out in continous mode as shown in Fig.3. In the
• Simulation of the time-domain (settling time, steady
digital controller design, the continous mode controller is state error, %overshoot/undershoot) performance of
discretized using mapping technique of discretization the open loop (uncontrolled) system and comparison
approaches which transform s-domain to z-domain. The against the specification before proceeding to the
mapping technique has got different disscretization digital controller design.
approaches. In this paper, Bilinear transformation method
(Tustin’s discretization) of mapping technique is applied due • Based on outcome of the above comparison
to its ease of implementation and other numerous advantages (specification vs. uncontrolled response),
over other techniques[18]. The discrte-time controller is proceeding to design digital controller by using the
obtained from its corresponding continous-time controller by above proposed approach and applicable approches
replacing the s-domain with z-domain by relation of: entrenched within the simulation procedure.

S=1/T(lnZ)=2/T(Z-1)/(Z+1) (10) • Using simulation, check the stability and

performance of the closed loop (controlled) system
(after controller in place) whether the design
Where T is the sampling time of the discrete-time system. specifications are met.
SBC (Single Board V. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS
Computer ) – Controller
housing PID function, A. Simulation Parameters
D/A, A/D and Ref. Input
Functions Load &
Fig.4 shows the simulation block diagram of the load
Turbine -
Governor Reheat Machine frequency control with system parameters. The simulation
-
Gc(Z) DAC -
Gg(s) Gt(s)
-
GL(s) parameters are extracted from the LFC system (Fig.4) by
Desired Controller D/A evaluating and comparing with the modelling scheme
Ref=0 Converter
outlined in Fig.1. Table II shows the comparison of the
A/D 1/R
Converter
$'&RQYHUWHU
simulation parameters.
Droop Characterstics
ADC

Fig. 2. Block diagram of the system (single area) included with the
discrete-time controller representation

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 2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON)

TABLE II. SIMULATION PARAMETERS

Simulation Parameters
Item Transfer Parameter
Fig.1 Fig.4
Function Values

Governor Gg(s) 1/(sTg+1) 1/(0.2s+1) Tg=0.2sec

Tr=7sec
(scTr+1)/(sTr (7*0.3s+1)/(7
Turbine Gt(s) Tt=0.3sec
+1)(sTt+1) s+1)(0.3s+1)
C=0.3
Load & KL=1
GL(s) KL/(sTL+1) 1/(10s+1) Fig. 6. Simulation block diagram of LFC system with open loop
Machine TL=10sec
(uncontrolled) system
Droop 1/R 1/R 20 R=0.05
The characteristics of the open loop transient response for
the LFC system is presented in TABLE III.
The simulation parameters shown in TABLE-II (time
constants of turbine, governor, reheated, governor speed TABLE III. TIME RESPONSE CHARACTERSTIC FOR OPEN-LOOP
regulation-R, generator load & machine) are utilized in (UNCONTROLLED) SYSTEM
MATLAB/SIMULINK to perform the analysis.
Steady State Value -0.0476Hz

Settling Time 10.90 sec

Percent Undershoot/Overshoot 146%

Fig. 4. Simulation block diagram of single area load frequency control

system

B. Response Comparison at Different Sampling Time (T)

Based on equation (11), a sampling period of T=0.03 sec
is determined for the LFC system of Fig.4 as an optimum
sampling time. Fig.5 shows response comparison at different
sampling times T=1sec, T=0.1 sec, T=0.03) to underline the
impact of sampling period selection in the signal construction.

Fig. 7. Open loop LFC system (uncontrolled) response to a unit step load
disturbance

The input PD is a unit step function of disturbance and

the output falls down once and damped to steady state. As
depicted in Fig.7, the sudden increase in load (load
disturbance) resulted in a large frequency drop. The settling
time, the steady state value and the undershoot values are
shown in TABLE-III where all three parameters of the
uncontrolled LFC system do not meet the required criteria/
specification defined in Section-IV A. Henceforth, addition of
controller (as outlined in Section-IV B) is required to improve
the system performance and meet the required criteria/
specification.
Fig. 5. Response comparison at different sampling times (T)
D. Analysis and Response of Closed-loop (Controlled)
C. Open-loop (Uncontrolled) System Response
LFC System and Controller Tuning.
The system model and the simulated response of open loop
(uncontrolled) load frequency control (LFC) system is shown The Simulation model of the closed loop (Controlled) LFC
in Fig.6 and Fig.7 respectively. is shown in Fig.8 below.

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 2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON)

Fig. 8. Simulation block diagram of LFC system with closed loop

(controlled)

With reference to Section-IV A) criteria/specification, the

corresponding parameters (damping factor,  and natural
frequency, Wn) are computed in line with requirement of
overshoot/undershoot and settling time ,i.e.
• 5% Overshoot (corresponds to  = 0.69)
• 1 sec settling time (corresponds to Wn=
6.665rad/sec) Fig. 10. Gain compensated step response of LFC system at gain value
(K=146.73)
Having evaluated the open loop system in its root locus
shown in Fig.9 at the desired design requirement of 5% Based on the outcome of the tuning and gain-compensated
overshoot (=0.69), the dominant pole is the basis for the step response shown in Fig.10 and summarized in TABLE IV,
controller design and the real part of the dominant pole must the system response fulfils the specification only for the
be increased by factor of 10 (the open loop settling time is 9.6 steady-state error. Hence, an extra integrator is not required to
sec versus the desired settling time 1sec). remove a steady-state error. PD controller is implemented to
suppress large overshoot in order to meet the desired transient
requirement. The PD controller is composed of two terms (i.e.,
gains), which are proportional gain KP and derivative gain KD.
Its transfer function is expressed as follows:

GPD(s) = KP +sKD (13)

The adjustment of the PD controller and tuning of its gain

parameters are carried out with support of the above root locus
graphs in both quantitative and qualitative approach. The
resulting gain values are [KP =230, KD =1587].
The digital PD controller is obtained through the steps by
first stablishing the continuous-time closed loop of the LFC
system from equation (12) and equation (13) where equation
(13) will be the continuous-time controller Gc(s).
Subsequently, the bandwidth and sampling time of the
continuous-time closed loop system is determined as per
equation (11) and finally continuous-time controller equation
Fig. 9. Root locus of uncontrolled system due to disturbance input
(13) is transformed/digitized according to equation (10). The
digital PD controller is represented as:
Having used the root locus to find the gain, K (K=Gc(s) of GPD(z)= (z(KPT+2KD )+KPT-2KD )/T(z+1) (14)
equation (12)) by superimposing damping ratio curve to the
root locus, the input gain K is allowed by selecting point on The optimum sampling time for the continuous-time
the root locus graph. The gain-compensated step response of closed-loop system is determined in range of T=0.06sec to
the LFC system is shown in Fig.10 and the resulting response T=0.1sec and the simulated response is generated based on the
characteristics is summarized in TABLE-IV. sampling time of T=0.06sec and shown in Fig.11. The time
response comparison of the closed-loop (controlled) vs. the
TABLE IV. TIME RESPONSE CHARACTERSTIC FOR GAIN COMP. open-loop (uncontrolled) is presented in TABLE V.
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM
TABLE V. COMPARISON OF TIME RESPONSE CHARACTERSTICS OF
Design Gain
Specification Description CLOSED-LOOP AND OPEN-LOOP
Criteria Compensated(Fig.10)
Settling time (sec.) <1 14.1 Closed- Open-
Specification Description %Reduction
loop loop
Steady state value (Hz.) -0.01<f < 0.01 -0.00596 Steady State Value (Hz.) -0.00398 -0.0476 91.6%
Percent
< 5% 575% Settling Time (sec.) 4.94 10.90 54.7%
undershoot/overshoot
Percent
2.17% 146% 98.5%
Undershoot/Overshoot

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 2020 6th IEEE International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON)

step load disturbance can be undertaken and the control

technique that results in good frequency stability can be
adopted and further worked in renewable energy sources.
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