Biology:-

Meaning:-
The word biology is derived from two Greek words;
"Bios" which means Life/ living things.
"Logos" which means to study.
The term biology was 1st used by a Swedish Scientist Carl Linnaeus in 1736.
Definition:-
"The scientific study of living organisms is known as biology".

Major Divisions of Biology:-

There are three major divisions of biology which are;
Botany: -The scientific study of plants is known as "Botany".
Zoology: The scientific study of all animals is known as "Zoology".
Microbiology: The scientific study of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and microscopic
fungi etc. is known as "microbiology".

Branches of Biology:
1) Morphology:
"The study of form, shape, size, color and structures of living organisms is known as
morphology".
Types:
Morphology is of two types;
1) External morphology: The study of form, shape, size, color and external structures (parts) of
living body is known as external morphology.
2) Internal morphology: The study of form, shape, size, color and internal structures (parts) of
living body is known as internal morphology. It is also known as "Anatomy".
Structure:-
Structure is any part of living body either microscopic or macroscopic is known as structure.
Examples:-
Microscopic Structures: - Cell, Organelles, villi, and Alveoli etc.
Macroscopic Structures: - Eye, Ear, leaves, stem, fruits and flowers etc.
2) Anatomy:-
"The study of internal structures of living organisms is known as morphology". The internal
structures of living
organisms are; stomach, heart, kidney and brain etc.
3) Cell biology:-
Cell biology is also known as "Cytology". "The
study of composition, structures, Properties and functions of cell and their sub-cellular structures
known as organelles and also the study of cell cycle is known as Cell biology or Cytology".
Cell:-
"Cell is the basic structural as well as functional unit of life or living organisms".
Organelles:-
"Sub-cellular Structures present inside the cell and perform various functions inside the cell are
known as Organelles". Such as Mitochondria, ribosome, Golgi bodies etc.
4) Histology:-
"The study composition, structures, properties andfunctions of tissues of living organisms is
known as Histology". It involves the examination of tissues and cells using microscopes to
understand their structure, function, and organization.
Tissue:-
"A group of similar cells that perform a specific function is known as tissue".
For example:- Muscle tissue is made up of cells that contract and relax to produce movement.
5) Physiology:-
"Physiology is the study of the functions and processes of living organisms and different parts
(Organs) of organism". It involves the investigation of how cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems work together to perform various functions; such as respiration, digestion, circulation,
and movement.
Organs:-
"An organ is a group of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function".
Organs are a higher level of organization in the body than tissues.
For example: -
The heart is an organ made up of cardiac muscle tissues, connective tissues, and nervous tissues
that work together to pump blood throughout the body.
6) Embryology:-
"The study of embryo, formation of embryo, processes involved in the formation of embryo and
the development of embryo into new organism (offspring) is known as embryology". It is the
study of the development of embryo from fertilization to birth.It is important in understanding
how organisms form and develop.
Embryo:-
"An embryo is an unborn baby or the early stage of development of a multi-cellular organism".
In humans, the embryo begins to form after the fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell, and it
continues to develop through a series of stages until it reaches the fetal stage.
7) Genetics:-
"The study of genes, genetic variations, and heredity means the transformation of characteristics
from one generation (parents) to 2nd generation (Offspring) is known as genetics".
Genes:-
"A sequence of DNA fragment that contains genetic information is known as Gene". Genes are
the basic units of heredity and are passed down from parents to their offspring.
Genetic variations:-
"Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequence among individuals within a
population or species." Genetic variation can arise through mutations, genetic recombination,
and migration of individuals between different populations.
Heredity:-
"The process of transformation of characteristics from one generation (parents) to 2nd generation
(Offspring) is known as heredity". The traits (Characteristics) that are passed on can be physical
characteristics such as eye color, height, and hair texture, as well as genetic traits that affect
health and susceptibility to diseases.
8) Immunology:-
"The study of body immune system is known as Immunology".
Immune System:-
"Immune system is the body's defense system against infectious pathogens and other foreign
substances." The immune system is made up of various cells, tissues, and organs that work
together to recognize and eliminate harmful invaders, while maintaining tolerance to self-tissues.
9) Parasitology:-
"The study of parasites and all the aspects of parasitism is known as Parasitology.
Parasites:
"Parasites are organism that live on or inside the host body and depend on host for survival".
They get benefit from host body and in return they harm the host body. They cause diseases in
host body.
Aspects of Parasitism:-
"Parasitism involves the relationship between two organisms, where one organism (the parasite)
benefits at the expense of the other organism (the host)". Here are a few aspects of parasitism:
➤ Host specificity:
➤ Life cycle:
➤Transmission:
➤ Adaptations:
➤Impact on host health:
10) Biotechnology:-
"The study of use and applications of technology and microorganisms for the benefit and welfare
of human beings is known as biotechnology". It is the art of utilizing living organisms and their
products for the production of food,medicines of for other benefits to the human or other species.
11) Pharmacology:-
"The study of drugs and their effects on human body is known as Pharmacology". Pharmacology
analysis the understanding how drugs are synthesis, absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and
eliminated by the living body.
Drugs:-
"Drugs are substances that are used to prevent, diagnose, treat, or cure diseases or medical
conditions". Some common categories of drugs include:
Analgesics: These are drugs that are used to relieve pain, such as acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and
opioids.
Antibiotics: -These are drugs that are used to treat bacterial infections, such as penicillin,
erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin etc.
12) Environmental Biology:-
"The study of interaction of organisms with one another and with their environment is known as
environmental biology". It consists of two components i.e. biotic and abiotic components.
Biotic components:-
"The living components of environment are known as biotic components". These components are
Producers (Plants)
Consumers (Animals)
Decomposers (Bacteria & Fungi)
Abiotic components:-
"The non-living components of environment are known as Abiotic components". These
components are;
•Light (Sun)
•Temperature
• Air
•Humidity
•Soil etc.
13) Entomology:-
"The study of insects is known as Entomology". The word entomon means notched refers to the
segmented body of insects.
Insects:-
Insects are a diverse group of arthropods that make up over 80% of all known animal species on
Earth. They have three body segments: the head, thorax, and abdomen. Most insects have six
legs, two antennae, and wings (although not all insects can fly). They also have a hard
exoskeleton that protects their body and provides support for their muscles.
14) Socio-biology:-
"The study of social behavior of some animals such as honey bees, ants, and human beings is
known as socio-biology".
Socio-biologists study various aspects of social behavior,such as communication, aggression,
cooperation, and mating systems.
Social Behavior:-
Social behavior refers to the actions and interactions that individuals of a species engage in with
each other. Social behavior can be observed in many different animals, including humans, and
can include behaviors such as communication, cooperation, aggression, and mating.
15) Taxonomy:-
"The study of classification of organisms into groups and sub-groups and giving them scientific
naming is known as taxonomy". It is the science of naming, describing, and classifying
organisms into different groups based on shared characteristics.
Classification:-
The process of grouping things (organisms) into groups and sub-groups on the basis of
similarities and difference is known as classification.
16) Paleontology:-
"The study of fossils of past (extinct) organisms is known as paleontology".
Palaeo-Botany: The study of fossils of past (extinct) plants is known as "Palaeo-Botany".
Palaeo-Zoology: - The study of fossils of past (extinct) animals is known as "Palaeo-zoology".

linkage biology with other fields of Science

The linkage of biology with other fields of science refers to the integration of biological
knowledge and methods with other areas of study, such as physics, chemistry, geography,
mathematics, and economics.
Inter-disciplinary Study:-
"When two or more different fields of science combine to form a new field of science then such a
new field is known as inter-disciplinary study". This interdisciplinary study can lead to new
insights and discoveries in both biology and other fields. Some inter-disciplinary studies are;
 Biophysics.
 Biochemistry.
 Biogeography
 Biostatistics or Biometry.
 Bio-economics.

Biophysics:-
"An inter-disciplinary study of understanding biological phenomenon and problems using the
principles and techniques of physics then such an inter-disciplinary study is known as
biophysics". Biophysics aims to understand how biological systems work by using the
quantitative tools of physics to describe, measure, and analyze biological processes.
• Applications of Biophysics: -
Biophysics is used in Bioenergetics, neuroscience and pharmacology etc.
Examples: -
Photosynthesis follows the laws of principles during absorption of light.
Gas physics is used during respiration.
Radiation is used in diagnosis and treatment.

Biochemistry:-
"An inter-disciplinary study of chemical substances and chemical processes that occur inside the
body of living organisms is known as biochemistry". It involves the study of the structure,
function, and interactions of biomolecules, such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and
carbohydrates, and how they contribute to the processes that sustain life.
•Substances: -
Substances are materials that have a definite chemical composition and distinct properties.
They can be pure "elements", such as oxygen or gold, or "compounds", such as water or salt.
Substances can exist in different forms, such as solids, liquids, or gases, and can undergo
changes, such as melting, boiling, or reacting with other substances.
Chemical Process in living body: -
It is also known as metabolism.
Metabolism :
Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur in a living organism to maintain life.
Metabolism is essential for growth, repair, and maintenance of cells, tissues, and organs in the
body.
Metabolism is divided into two categories:
"Catabolism and anabolism".
"Catabolism":
catabolism refers to the breakdown of complex molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats, into simpler components, releasing energy in the process. "Anabolism" :
Anabolism refers to the synthesis of new molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, using
energy from catabolic reactions.
Examples: -
Photosynthesis.
Respiration.

Biogeography:-
"An inter-disciplinary study of distribution of organisms on earth in space/region and time is
known as biogeography". It aims to understand the factors and processes that have shaped the
diversity and patterns of life on Earth.
Examples: -
Polar bear found in certain parts of arctic region.
Malaria causing mosquitoes flourish in damp and warm areas.
Biostatistics or biometry:
"An inter-disciplinary study of application of statistical and mathematical formulas in biological
and health research studies is known as biostatistics or biometry". It is also known as
biomathematics. It involves the design of studies, the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data, and the presentation of results.
Examples: -
Analyzing environmental data to study the impact of pollution on human health.

Bio-economics:-
"An inter-disciplinary study of organisms from economical point of view is known Bio-
economics". In bio- economics biologist calculate and compare the cost and profit of the
biological projects. Bio-economics examines the economic aspects of biological resources,
including agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and wildlife.
Examples: -
Production of a new variety of a crop
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Careers in Biology
Medicine and Surgery:-
Medicine:-
Medicine is the study of diagnosis and treatment of human diseases. The doctor of medicine is
known as Physician.
Surgery:-
In Surgery the defective parts of body may be repaired, replaced or removed. The doctor of
surgery is known as surgeon.
Adaptation:-
One can choose these professions in same course "MBBS" after studying higher secondary level.

2-Fisheries:-
The profession related to the study of production and enhancing the quality and quantity of fish
production is called fisheries. Fisheries manager works in:
➤Fish hatcheries.
➤Fish habitats.
Nutrition requirements.
► Genetics and diseases etc. to raise fish production.
Adaptation:
One can adopt this field after completing bachelor or-master in

3-Agriculture:-
The profession related to the study of crops and animals which are the source of food is known
as Agriculture.
An agriculturist works for the betterment of crops like wheat, rice and corn etc. and animals.
Adaptation:-
This professional course can be adopted after higher secondary education in biology.

4-Animal husbandry:-
It is also known as animal science. The branch of agriculture concerned with the care, breeding
and raising livestock means domestic animals is known as animal husbandry.
Adaptation:-
This professional course can adopted after higher secondary education in biology.

5-Horticulture:-
Profession related to gardening is known as horticulture. It can be open business and find jobs in
fruits and vegetables production, landscape design, nurseries and gardens etc.
Adaptation:-
This professional course can adopted after higher secondary education in biology.

Forestry:-
Forestry is concerned with managing forests and growing forests to provide timber, wildlife,
habitat and recreation and biodiversity management.
Adaptation:-
This professional course can adopted after higher secondary education in biology. (OR) This
professional course can adopted after bachelor level study of zoology and botany.

Farming:-
The professional study of development and maintenance of different types of farms is called
farming.
Examples:-
Animal Breeding, Poultry farms, fruits, and vegetable farm etc
Adaptation:-
This professional course can adopted after doing professional course in agriculture or animal
husbandry etc.
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Five Kingdom System
"The classification system proposed by Robert White taker in "1969" in which organisms are
classified into five main
groups known as kingdoms, then such a system of classification is known as five kingdom
system". According to five kingdom system of classification organisms are classified into;
1. Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera).
2. Kingdom Protista or Protactista.
3. Kingdom Fungi.
4. Kingdom Plantae.
5. Kingdom Animalia.
Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera)
This kingdom consists of organisms having the following characteristics.
These organisms are unicellular, microscopic and prokaryotic.
These organisms are very simple and found everywhere on earth.
These organisms are divided by binary fissions.
These organisms have cell wall made up of murine.
Some of them are autotrophic while others are heterotrophic.
They may be benefited while some are harmful and cause diseases in plants and animals.
Examples:-
Bacteria (Singular bacterium), Cyanobacteria etc.

Kingdom Protista or Protactista:

This kingdom consists of organisms having the following characteristics.
These organisms are unicellular microscopic, colonial or simple multicellular and eukaryotic.
These organisms are mostly live in water like ponds, river, and oceans etc.
These organisms are animal, plant or fungi like.
Some of these organisms have chlorophyll.
So, some of them are autotrophic while others are heterotrophic.
Cell wall is present in some forms while absent in others.
Examples:-
Amoeba, paramecium, and Algae such as spirogyra etc.

Kingdom Fungi:
This kingdom consists of organisms having the following characteristics.
• These organisms are unicellular as well as multicellular and are filamentous.
These organisms are eukaryotic.
These organisms do not have chlorophyll and are heterotrophic absorptive.
These organisms need moisture for growth.
These organisms have cell wall made up of chitin.
Mushrooms, slime mold. Yeast, Mold, Mildew, Rusts
These organisms are saprophytic means getting food from dead organic matters.
These organisms store food in the form of glycogen.
Examples:-
Yeast is microscopic fungi.
Rhizopus is black bread mold which grows on moist bread and fruits.
Mushrooms are very large and umbrella like which grow on piles of rotten matter. Some
mushrooms can be eaten while some of them are poisonous.
Kingdom Plantae
This kingdom consists of organisms having the following characteristics.
These organisms are complex multicellular and eukaryotic.
These organisms have cell wall made up of cellulose.
These organisms have chlorophyll and are green in color.
Some of them are autotrophic and are known as producers.
These organisms fixed at their position.
These organisms store food in the form of starch.
Examples:-
Mango tree, Banana tree, Grasses, Pine tree, and ferns, Bryophyta, Gymnoscimetc.etc

Kingdom Animalia
This kingdom consists of organisms having the following characteristics.
These organisms are multicellular and eukaryotic.
These organisms are very complex.
These organisms do not have chlorophyll.
These organisms do not have cell wall.
These organisms are heterotrophic ingestive.
These organisms are motile (move from one place to
another)
These organisms are of two types' vertebrates and
invertebrates.
Examples:-
Fish, Frog, Duck, Crocodile, Rabbit and Crab etc.
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Muslim Scientists
Muslim scientists have made a great contribution to science of biology and medicines from 8th
century to 15th century.

Jabir bin Hayyan:-

He was born in Iran in 721 AD and died in 815 AD. He practiced medicines inIraq.
He was considered as the father of chemistry. He introduced the experimental chemistry.
He wrote many books.
His famous books are;
Al-Nabatat: - Book for plants.
Al-Haywan: - Book for animals

(2) Abdul Malik Asmai:-

He was born in Basra in 740 AD and died in 828 AD. He was the 1st Muslim scientist who
studied animals in detail. He wrote many books which are:
Al-kheil is about horse.
Al-Ibil is about camel.
As-Sha is about sheep.
Al-Whoosh is about wild animals.
Khalaq-ul-Insan described different parts and function of
human body.
(3) Bu-Ali-Sina:-
He was born near Bukhara in 980 AD and died in 1031 AD.
He is honored as founder of medicine and called as
Avicenna in west. He was a physician philosopher astronomer and poet. He works on structure,
function and diseases of eye. He describes 130 diseases of eye in his book. One of his best book
is "Al-Qanun fil tibb" which is known as canon of medicine in west.
(4) Abu Usman Umar Al-jahiz:-
He describe his own observations on animals in his famous book Al-Haywan, Such as seasonal
migration of fish in river Tigris. He also describe the life system of an ant.
5) A-Farabi:-
He was born in 870 AD and died in 950 AD. He was renowned Hakim and biologist. He wrote
two books "kitab-ul-Nabatat" about plants and "Kitab-ul-Haywan" about animals.
(6) Abdul Qasim Ali-Zahravi:-
He was the great Muslim surgeon. He was famous for the removal of stone from urinary bladder.
(7) Ibn-ul-Haitham:-
Basically he was an ophthalmologist. He corrected the Greek concept of vision locating retina as
the seat of vision. His famous books are kitab-ul Manazir and Mizanul Hikma. These books were
translated into Latin, Hebrew, Greek and western languages.
(8) Tbn-ul-Nafees:-
He was renowned biologist of 13" century. He described the circulation of blood in human body.
(9)Ali bin Isa:-
He was the best known and most celebrated Arab ophthalmologist. He was born in 940 AD and
died in 1010 AD.
He was a well-known eye specialist. He worked on the structure, function and diseases of eye.
He described 130 diseas of the eye. His books were translated into many European languages.
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Level of biological organization

Millions of organisms are present on earth. Their range is from simplest (bacteria) to complex
(plants arid animals). The bodies are made up of different parts of organization in certain manner
which support the life functions.
Atoms-Bioelements-Biomolecules-Organneles-Cells-Tissue-Organs-Organ System-Organisms
Sub atomic particles and Atoms:-
All living and non-living things are made up of matter, because they have mass and occupy
space. Atom is the smallest particle of an element because each element is composed of same
type of atoms. Sub atomic Particles are present in an atom. These are proton, neutrons which are
found inside the nucleus and electrons which are revolve around the nucleus in shell.
Elements Level:
Pure form of matter is called element because all types of matter are made up of elements. There
are 92 natur elements found in the world.
Bio elements: - Out of 92 natural occurring elements only 16 are involved in making the body of
living organisms.
Major Bio-elements: -Out of these 16 bio-elements six elements make up 99% of the total mass
of the bou,
Bio-elements are known as major bio-elements.
Oxygen (O).
Carbon (C).
Nitrogen (N).
Hydrogen (H).
Calcium (Ca).
Phosphorus (P).
Minor and Trace Bio elements:
Other 10 bio elements make 1% of the total body mass. So, these 10 bio elements are known as
minor and trace bio elements.
Potassium (K).
Sulpher (S).
Chlorine (CI).
Sodium (Na).
Magnesium (Mg).
Ferric or Iron (Fe).
Copper (Cu).
Manganese (Mn).
Zinc (Zn).
lodine (I)
(3) Molecules and Compounds Level:-
Atoms are combined through bonds and form molecules and compounds.
Biomolecules:-
Molecules or compounds which are found in the body of living organisms and formed by the
combination of bio
elements are known as bio-molecules or bio-compounds. These are of two types:
Micro bio-molecules: - These are bio-molecules with low molecular weight like water (H20),
amino acids and Sugar etc.
Macro Bio-molecules: - These are bio-molecules with high molecular weight like starch,
proteins and lipids etc.
(4) Organelles Level:-
Different bio-molecules assembled in a particular manner to form sub-cellular structures known
as organelles. Each organelle perform specific function like ribosome prepare protein and
mitochondria provide energy.
Examples:-
Mitochondria, ribosome, chloroplast, Golgi bodies and
endoplasmic reticulum are the examples of organelles.
(5) Cellular Level:-
Cell is the basic structural as well functional unit of living organisms. It is formed when
organelles assembled together.
(6) Tissue Level:-
A group of similar or dissimilar cells that perform specific functions is known as tissue.
Examples:-
In plants mesophyll tissue is formed of cells which perform photosynthesis.
In animals glandular tissue is formed of cells which produce secretion Muscle tissue
(7) Organs Level:-
A group of related tissues which work together and perform specific activities is known as organ.
Examples:-
Stomach has two major tissues.
(1) Epithelial or glandular tissues secrete gastric juice for the digestion of protein.
(2) Muscular tissues contract for grinding of food.
(8)Organ System Level:-
Different organs performing related functions are organized together in the form of organ system.
Examples:-
Blood circulatory system in animals consist of organs like heart, blood vessels (veins, arteries
and capillaries) etc.
(9) Organism Level:-
Different organ systems organized together in such a way that all the functions, processes and
activities are coordinated are known as organism.
Examples:-
In plants root system and shoot system constitute plant body.
In animals Blood circulatory system, respiratory system and digestive system etc. work in
coordination.
(10) Population Level:
A group of organisms of same species located at same place in same time is known as
population.
Examples:-
Human population of Pakistan is about 22 corers.
(11) Community:-
Two or more populations of different organisms living together within the same environment are
known community.
Examples:-
Human beings, domestic animals and various birds etc. are living in the same area.
(12) Ecosystem Level:-
The community and non-living components of an area make an ecosystem.
Examples:-
Human beings and its home or other non-living things like vehicles, furniture etc. are the
examples of ecosystem
(13) Biosphere Level:-
All the ecosystems of the planet earth are collectively known as biosphere. It contains three
layers or sphere.
Lithosphere is the dry part the earth.
Hydrosphere is the watery portion found on earth.
Atmosphere is the mixture of gases on earth.
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Level of biological organization

Cellular Organization of Living organisms:-
In living organisms cellular organization occurs in three ways to make body of organisms.

Unicellular organization:
 Cellular organization of organisms is unicellular, colonial and multicellular.
 Organisms formed by these organizations are unicellular organisms, colonial organisms
and cellular organisms.
 Single-celled organisms are known as unicellular organisms.
 Unicellular organisms are microscopic and contain simple organization in their body cell.
 In unicellular organization only single cell makes the life or body of an organism.
 Since a single cell works as the body, all the cellular processes occur inside the single
cell.
 All the life activities are carried out by the only cell.
 Their single cell is capable of respiration, digestion, excretion etc.
 They can live independently.
Examples:-
Amoeba, Euglena, Chlamydomonas and Bacteria etc. are the examples of unicellular
organization.

Colonial organizations:-
 Colonial organisms refer to a group of organisms in a colony with close contact with each
other. It is a result of multiple cell divisions.
 In colonial organization many unicellular organisms live together to form small colonies.
 Many small colonies make a big colony. Most functions are performed by every cell.
However an individual organism cell cannot live independently
Examples:-
Volvox.

Multicellular organizations:-
 Organisms which have multiple cells are known as multicellular organisms.
 Most eukaryotic organisms are multicellular, containing a higher organization as
compared to unicellular organisms.
 Multicellular organisms contain numerous cells in the body, their cells are differentiated
into several types and specialized to performdifferent functions in the body.
 These differentiated cells are organized into organs, increasing the efficiency of the
functions they perform.
Plant Body:-
The body of a plant is made of vegetative and reproductive organs. Roots, stem, branches and
leaves are the vegetative organs while flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
Example: - Mustard plant has multicellular organization.
Animal Body:-
The body of an animal is made of different organ systems e.g. digestive system, respiratory
system, blood circulatory system, nervous system, reproductive system etc.
Example: - frog shows multicellular organization.