SOURCES & STONE AGE

Sources to Study “PROTO-HISTORY”

Ancient Indian History Different Meanings:

1. In European Context, sometimes used to refer to
people who did not themselves have writing,
but who are mentioned in written records of
contemporary literate group
2. In Indian Subcontinent, Harappan civilization
(a literate culture with undeciphered script) is
included in proto-history
3. Archaeologists often used this word
‘Protohistory’ for long period between
beginning of food production and advent
of iron technology (would include Neolithic
ARCHEOLOGY and Chalcolithic cultures in different parts
of subcontinent, including Non-Harappan
ˆ Archeology is the study of the human past
Chalcolithic cultures)
through material remains (ranging from vestiges
of grand palaces to small, discarded products of ARCHEOLOGY AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY
everyday human activity such as pieces of broken
ˆ Provides Information on the history of human
pottery).
settlements and can give very specific details
ƒ Example - structures, artefacts, bones, about modes of subsistence—the food people
seeds, pollen, seals, coins, sculptures and procured in order to live, and how they obtained
inscriptions. it.
BENEFIT OF ARCHEOLOGY ƒ Details about the crops grew, agriculture
implements.
ˆ Mainly used to study prehistory, protohistory
and ancient history. ƒ Excellent source of history of technology - raw
materials, sources and methods used to make
artefacts of various kinds.

“PRE-HISTORY” PROBLEMS IN ARCHEOLOGY

ˆ Enormously long period before the invention of ˆ Problems involved in translating archeological
writing and study of that period, is known as cultures into history–
‘Pre-history’ ƒ How to explain the changes in material
culture, especially pottery traditions.
ƒ Does not provide a complete picture of the
material culture of ancient people as all
material traits do not survive

www.sleepyclasses.com 2 1800-890-3043
EXCAVATIONS EPIGRAPHY

ˆ The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy.

ˆ Inscriptions were carved on seals, stone pillars,
rocks, copperplates, temple walls, wooden
tablets, and bricks or images.
ˆ The Evidences of early inscriptions:
ƒ The Harappan inscriptions - pictographic
script in which ideas and objects were
expressed in the form of pictures.
ƒ The oldest deciphered inscriptions belong to
the late 4th century BCE, and are in Brahmi
and Kharoshthi. These epigraphs were
first deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, a
civil servant in the employ of the East India
Company in Bengal.

BRAHMI INSCRITPION

www.sleepyclasses.com 3 1800-890-3043
EPIGRAPHY ƒ A 150 CE inscription of the Shaka ruler
ˆ Classification of Inscriptions - Official records Rudradaman records the beginning of the
and Private Records. construction of a water reservoir known
as Sudarshana lake in the 4th century BCE
ˆ Other Types – during the time of the Maurya emperor
ƒ Commemorative- Lumbini pillar inscription Chandragupta, its completion during the
of Ashoka is a royal commemorative reign of Ashoka, and its repair in the 2nd
inscription, recording a specific event—the century CE.
visit of the king to the Buddha’s birth-place. ƒ A 5th century inscription on the same rock,
ƒ Donative - Refer especially to gifts of of the time of the Gupta king Skandagupta,
money, cattle, land, etc., mainly for religious describes how the lake burst its banks due to
purposes, made not only by kings and princes excessive rains and was repaired after two
but also by artisans and merchants. years’ work.
ˆ Royal Land Grants - Inscriptions recording land
JUNGADH ROCK INSCRIPTION OF
grants, made mainly by chiefs and princes, are RUDRADAMAN
very important for the study of the land system
and administration in ancient India.
ƒ Prashastis - They eulogize the attributes and
achievements of kings and conquerors, and
ignore their defeats or weaknesses.
ƒ Allahabad prashasti of the 4th century Gupta
emperor Samudragupta.

ALLAHABAD PRASHASTI

EPIGRAPHY - ADVANTAGES AS A SOURCE

OF HISTORY
ˆ Advantage of Durability.
ˆ Changes and addition made to them can usually
be detected.
ˆ Valuable sources of information on political
history.
ˆ Reflect the history of languages and literature.
ˆ Usually Contemporaneous
ˆ Welfare Works - Certain inscriptions record the ˆ Shows what ‘people were actually doing
building of waterworks, wells, and charitable
feeding houses by private individuals. A series EPIGRAPHY - LIMITATIONS AS A SOURCE OF
of unique records of royal initiatives of this kind HISTORY
are inscribed on a granite rock at Junagadh ˆ Limitations of Inscriptions as a source of History–
(Girnar) in Gujarat.
ƒ But discovery of inscriptions depends on
chance and not all the inscriptions inscribed

www.sleepyclasses.com 4 1800-890-3043
 during a king’s reign need necessarily be “COINS” AS SOURCE OF HISTORY
found. Furthermore, movable inscriptions
are not always found in situ, i.e., in their
original place
ˆ Disadvantages of Inscriptions as a source of
History –
ƒ Royal Inscriptions naturally tend to exaggerate
the achievement of the ruling king.
ƒ There are cases where inscriptions of
different dynasties make conflicting claims.
(For instance, a Gurjara-Pratihara inscription
states that king Vatsaraja conquered all
of Karnataka. However, the contemporary
Rastrakuta king claims in his inscriptions
to have defeated Vatsaraja and to have ruled
over the Karnataka area)

NUMISMATICS
ˆ Wear and tear  Weight gradually decreases 
Can be arranged in chronological manner
ˆ Source of Political History
ˆ Source of Economic History
ˆ Source of Social and Cultural Histor

www.sleepyclasses.com 5 1800-890-3043
 “SRUTI” AS HISTORICAL SOURCE (PYQ)

www.sleepyclasses.com 6 1800-890-3043
“POLYTHEISM” AND “KATHENOTHEISM CHRONOLOGY
ˆ Early or Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000
BCE
ˆ Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BCE – 40,000
BCE
ˆ Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
ˆ Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE
ˆ Neolithic Period: 6000 BCE – 4000 BCE
ˆ Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BCE – 1500 BCE
ˆ Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE

STONE AGE
“EMBEDDED” AND “EXTERNALIZED” FORMS Used Stone tools, hence named such
OF HISTORY
3 Parts:

Evolution of Humans 1. Paleolithic (Lower,Middle,Upper)

2. Mesolithic
JOURNEY FROM HOMINIDS TO HOMO 3. Neolithic
SAPIENS ƒ Paleolithic-99% of human prehistory

STONE AGE

www.sleepyclasses.com 7 1800-890-3043
 ƒ Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka

Geographical Extent ƒ Tamil Nadu: Attirampakkam near Chennai in

Chingleput region
GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
ˆ This culture was spread throughout the length
and breadth of the Indian subcontinent
ƒ North: Kashmir Valley and the Sohan Valley
in Rawalpindi; Shivalik Hills
ƒ Rajasthan: River Luni
ƒ Western India: rivers Sabarmati, Mahi and
their tributaries in Gujarat
ƒ Maharashtra: Nevasa on a tributary of
Godavari and Patne in the Tapti river system
ƒ Madhya Pradesh: Rock shelters at Bhimbetka
(near Bhopal) and Adamgarh hills in the
district Hoshangabad
ƒ Uttar Pradesh: Belan Valley (the region
broadly from Allahabad to Varanasi)
ƒ East: Assam and Garo hills
ƒ Bengal, Odisha, Bihar

www.sleepyclasses.com 8 1800-890-3043
“PALEOLITHIC” PERIOD ƒ Why such Transition - Rise in temperature,
as a result of which the climate became warm
< Changes in flora and fauna < Shift from big
game hunting to small animal hunting and fishing
and food gathering < at a later stage they also
domesticated animals.
ˆ Tools – Microliths or small stone tools (<5cm)
were used.
ˆ Sites – Rajasthan, southern UP, central and eastern
India, and also south of the river Krishna. Of them,
Bagor in Rajasthan is very well excavated.

PALEOLITHIC PERIOD – SUBSISTENCE

ˆ Hunting animals and gathering fruits and roots.
ˆ Made simple stone tools for hunting, cutting,
digging and other purposes.
ˆ No settled habitation
ˆ Migrated to places where plant and animal
resources along with water were easily
available.

MESOLITHIC PERIOD
ˆ Time period - Around 10,000 BCE (End of the
Palaeolithic Period)

www.sleepyclasses.com 9 1800-890-3043
MESOLITHIC PERIOD - SUBSISTENCE ƒ Beginning of proper agricultural activities
PATTERN AND SOCIAL LIFE (cultivation)
ˆ Subsistence Pattern and Social Life - : (Important ƒ Proper domestication of animals on larger
Points) scale.
ƒ Domestication of Animals began. ƒ Advancement of beginning of settled life
y The earliest evidence of domestication of and the growth of village settlements
animals has been provided by Adamagarh ƒ Beginning of use of pottery for storing grains.
in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in
Rajasthan.
ˆ The evidence from mesolithic sites from different
parts of the subcontinent suggests movement
and interaction among communities.
ˆ The evidence from several sites of formal,
ceremonial burials, with the bodies usually
laid out in a west–east direction with grave
goods suggests rituals associated with death.
The presence of grave goods is often taken as an
indication of some sort of belief in afterlife.

NEOLITHIC PERIOD

ˆ Time Period - Around 6000 BCE.

ˆ The term Neolithic was coined by Sir John
Lubbock. He used this term to denote an Age in
which the stone implements were more skillfully
made, more varied in form and often polished,
and a self sufficient food producing economy.
ˆ Characteristics -
ƒ Refinement of Tools - Agriculture - Animal
Domestication, Beginning of Proper sedentary
lifestyle, Pottery Introduced.
ƒ New type of ground and polished stone tools
having sharper edge.

www.sleepyclasses.com 10 1800-890-3043
NEOLITHIC PERIOD – SITES
ˆ Geographical Location - almost all the regions
of Indian subcontinent
ˆ Important sites
ƒ North-western region - Mehrgarh
(Baluchistan) - Earliest site neolithic site 7000
BCE, overlapping with Mesolithic period.
ƒ Found here evidence of houses built by
Neolithic people, built of sun-dried bricks,
divided into small rooms.
ƒ Evidence of cultivation of crops like wheat,
barley and cotton were discovered from here
too
ƒ Kashmir Valley - Burzahom and Gufkral
(Dwelling pits - circular and rectangular)
ƒ Belan Valley - Koldihwa and Mahagara
(Found here both stone and bone Neolithic
tools, pottery, other artefacts, floral and faunal
remains
ˆ Cultivation of crops such as wheat, barley, rice,
millet, lentils, etc,. depending on the geographical
conditions. Important Points
ˆ Agriculture gave impetus to animal
domestication, including sheep, goat, cattle, etc. ˆ In India, Neolithic Age is not earlier than 6000
B.C.E. and at some places in South and Eastern
ˆ Hunting still remained an important occupation
India; it is as late as 1000 B.C.E.
including wild animals such as boar, nilgai,
gazells, etc. ˆ Bone tools have only been recovered from sites
in Kashmir and from Chirand in Bihar.
ˆ Pottery, which was initially hand made and later
turned on wheel and fired in large kilns ˆ At certain Neolithic levels, there is evidence of use
of metal. Such levels are termed as chalcolithic
ˆ Greater availability of food resources and an
levels.
increase in population
ˆ Some of these are contemporary to Harappan
ˆ Increase in the number of village settlements
civilization
ˆ Growth of town
ˆ Chalcolithic cultures used mostly stone and
copper, while Harappans used bronze (alloy of
copper and tin) on large scale. Chalcolithic age at
many places continued till 700 B.C.E.
ˆ Around 1200 B.C.E., use of iron began in
chalcolithic level itself.

www.sleepyclasses.com 11 1800-890-3043
ˆ From 800 B.C.E., a distinct iron age came into ˆ Mesolithic: Population increased due to more
existence. suitable climate; Domestication of animals
ˆ From Mesolithic culture onwards, all the cultural started; Hunting, Food Gathering continued
types co-existed and interacted with each other.
ˆ By 1000 B.C.E., co-existence of Neolithic,
chalcolithic and iron age
ˆ Koldihawa in UP revealed a threefold cultural
sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age

“LIVING PATTERN” OF STONE AGE

ˆ Paleolithic- Used Natural caves for shelter
purposes; Ex-Bhimbetka (MP)
ˆ Mesolithic- Started moving towards Plains; Ex-
Sarai Nahar Rai (UP) ˆ Neolithic
ˆ Neolithic- Kashmir valley (Pit Dwelling) 1. Climate improved further  Population
Increase
2. “Beginning of Agriculture”  Seen as
revolutionary development (Gordon Childe)
3. Move from “Parasitic” (dependent on other
living beings for survival) to “Sedentary” life
(settled life)

Question for Practice

Q. Punch-marked Coins were made of:
(a) Silver (b) Gold
“ECONOMIC LIFE” OF STONE AGE
(c) Tin (d) Ivory
ˆ Paleolithic : Hunting + Food Gathering; Initially
Answer : A
humans vegetarian, later non-veg.

www.sleepyclasses.com 12 1800-890-3043
Q. What is the correct chronological order in which Q. With reference to Stone Age, ‘Proto-History’
the following appeared in India? refers to :
1. Gold coins (a) In European Context, sometimes used to
2. Punch marked silver coins refer to people who did not themselves have
writing, but who are mentioned in written
3. Iron plough
records of contemporary literate group
4. Urban culture
(b) Archaeologists often used this word
Select the correct answer using the codes given ‘Protohistory’ for long period between
below: beginning of food production and advent
(a) 3, 4, 1, 2 (b) 3, 4, 2, 1 of iron technology (would include Neolithic
(c) 4, 3, 1, 2 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1 and Chalcolithic cultures in different parts
Answer : D of subcontinent, including Non-Harappan
Chalcolithic cultures)

Practice Question (c) Both A & B

(d) Neither A Nor B
Q. Consider the following Palaeolithic Sites: Answer : C
SITE STATE Q. In context of the ancient history of Indian
Kurnool  Tamil Nadu subcontinent, consider the following statements
Attirampakkam  Tamil Nadu about ‘Prashastis’:
Belan Valley  Rajasthan 1. They were commonly composed as eulogistic
How many Pairs are Correctly Matched? inscriptions on stone or metal.

(a) None (b) Only One 2. They often eulogised the attributes and
achievements of kings and conquerors while
(c) Only Two (d) All Three
ignoring their defeats or weaknesses.
Answer : B
3. Allahabad Prashasti of the 4th century
belongs to the Gupta emperor Chandragupta
II Vikramaditya.
How many of the statements given above are
correct ?
(a) One only (b) Two only
(c) All three (d) None
Answer : B
Answer: B (Only statements 1 and 2 are correct)
Solution:
Statement 1 is correct.
ˆ ‘Prashastis’ were commonly composed as
eulogistic inscriptions or panegyrics on stone or
metal (pillars, coins etc) to praise kings, rulers,
patrons, or deities in ancient India.
ˆ They are composed in different forms of poetry
often utilising Sanskrit shlokas or verses.

www.sleepyclasses.com 13 1800-890-3043
ˆ The language used is often rich in metaphor,
imagery, and praise, making them aesthetically
pleasing and emotionally impactful.
Statement 2 is correct.
ˆ They were meticulously crafted to highlight the
virtues, accomplishments, and impact of the
recipient. They often eulogised their attributes
and achievements while ignoring their defeats or
weaknesses.
Statement 3 is incorrect.
ˆ Allahabad Prashasti of the 4th century belongs to
the Gupta emperor Samudragupta.
n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 14 1800-890-3043
 CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD

Answer
Non-Harappan ˆ First metal to be used prominently, mostly by
Chalcolithic Culture the end of Neolithic period, was ‘Copper’ and
the period was called Chalcolithic period. It is
so named, because stone as well as copper, was
prevalent in this period.
ˆ Some of the Non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures
included Jorwe, Ahar, Kayatha etc. Emergence
of these cultures marked a significant change in
lifestyle pattern of people of these regions.

CHANGE IN SUBSISTENCE PATTERN

ˆ Transition from ‘parasitic’ (dependence) form of
life to a more sedentary lifestyle
ˆ Pottery an important craft of this period
ƒ Wheel-made as well as hand-made
ƒ Use of inverted firing technique (generally
black from inside and red from outside)
ˆ Diff. sizes and shapes of pottery tells us about
diff. uses of pottery and lifestyle of people:
ƒ Big storage jars indicate they might be used
for storing food grains
ƒ Perforated jars might have been used for
making wines
PYQ
ƒ Jars with narrow neck might have been used
Q. The emergence of Non-Harappan Chalcolithic for storing water .
cultures in Central India and the Deccan mark
a change not only in the subsistence pattern ˆ Inamgaon pottery has been found at several sites
of people but an overall transition from pre located far away.
to proto historic period. Critically analyze. [15 ƒ Shows that people used to trade pottery to
Marks] distant places
ˆ 3 Headings : ˆ Charred food grains and impression of paddy
1. Change in Subsistence Pattern husks in pottery, gives indication of agri.
practices.
2. Transition from Pre to Proto History
3. Criticism and Limitation ˆ Evidence of fishery can be provided by painting
of fishes on pottery.

www.sleepyclasses.com 15 1800-890-3043
“INVERTED FIRING” TECHNIQUE POTTERY

www.sleepyclasses.com 16 1800-890-3043
 Various interpretations of N-H Chalcolithic for
pottery nedd to be corroborated with other sources
like various tools, implements, settlement patterns,
burial practices etc. to arrive at a more holistic
picture of …..

BLACK AND RED WARE CULTURE

ˆ Time Period - It covers a vast time span: from
2400 B.C. to the early centuries of the Christian
era.

TRANSITION FROM PRE TO PROTO-HISTORY

ˆ Different Meanings:
1. In European Context, sometimes used to
refer to people who did not themselves have
writing, but who are mentioned in written
records of contemporary literate group
2. In Indian Subcontinent, Harappan
civilization (a literate culture with
undeciphered script) is included in proto-
history
3. Archaeologists often used this word
‘Protohistory’ for long period between
beginning of food production and advent
of iron technology (would include Neolithic
and Chalcolithic cultures in different parts
of subcontinent, including Non-Harappan OCHRE COLOURED POTTERY CULTURE
Chalcolithic cultures) ˆ Time Period - 2000 BCE to 1000 BCE
CRITICISM AND LIMITATIONS
ˆ Major source of Non-Harappan Chalcolithic
culture is Pottery, which only reflects the
material culture and that too in parts rather than
presenting the whole picture.
ˆ Has to be understood in larger context in which
they are found
ƒ Need to be corroborated with other sources
ˆ Decipherment of Harappan script will go a
long way in understanding contacts between
Harappan and Non-Harappan Chalcolithic
cultures.

www.sleepyclasses.com 17 1800-890-3043
 NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE

PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE

Indus Valley Civilization-

Harappan Civilization
WHY SUCH A NAME?
ˆ Other Names - ‘Indus-Saraswati’ or ‘Sindhu-
Sarasvati’ civilization - is because a large number
of sites are located on the banks of the Ghaggar-
Hakra river, which is identified by some scholars
with the ancient Sarasvati mentioned in the Rig
Veda.
ˆ A Bronze Age Civilization (3300-1300 BCE)
ˆ Early Harappan phase (3500 BCE–2600 BCE) - It
was marked by some town-planning in the form
of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and
crafts, etc.

www.sleepyclasses.com 18 1800-890-3043
 ƒ Formative - Proto Urban phase. ˆ Late Harappan phase (1900 BCE–1400 BCE) -
ˆ Mature Harappan phase (2600 BCE–1900 BCE) It was the phase of decline during which many
- It was the period in which we notice well cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared
developed towns with burnt brick structures, leading to the gradual decay of the significant
inland and foreign trade, crafts of various types, urban traits.
etc. ƒ Post Urban Phase where cities declined.
ƒ Advanced - Full fledged urban phase.

www.sleepyclasses.com 19 1800-890-3043
ORIGIN” of Indus Valley Civilization
ˆ Theory 1: “Theory of Sudden Origin”/ “Mesopotamian Origin”/ “Sumerian Origin”

www.sleepyclasses.com 20 1800-890-3043
 • IVC established by group of foreigners coming from Sumerian Civilization
• Put forward by Sir John Marshal, Mortimer Wheeler and Gordon Childe

Theory 2: “Aryan Origin”

ˆ IVC built by Vedic Aryans

ˆ Put forward by TN Ramachandran, AN Pusalkar, SR Rao and KN Shastri
ˆ “Aryan Origin” rarely taken seriously

www.sleepyclasses.com 21 1800-890-3043
www.sleepyclasses.com 22 1800-890-3043
THEORY 3: “THEORY OF GRADUAL
EVOLUTION”
ˆ Put forward by Fairservis, AN Ghosh
ˆ Most accepted theory

www.sleepyclasses.com 23 1800-890-3043
 Harappan Civilization - The
logic behind it vastness

Harappan Civilization -
Geographical Extent
ˆ The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed Town Planning and Structures
most of Pakistan and parts of northwestern
India, Afghanistan and Iran, extending from ˆ A remarkable unity of conception – division of
Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the each town into two parts.
east, northeastern Afghanistan to the north and ˆ In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers
Maharashtra to the south. were staying, in the other Lower part of the town
ˆ It flourished in the basins of the Indus River and lived the common and the poor.
the now dried up Sarasvati River, which once ƒ A citadel on higher mound on the western
coursed through northwest India and eastern side – contains large structures, serving as
Pakistan together with its tributaries flowed administrative or ritual centres
along a channel, presently identified as that of
the Ghaggar-Hakra River. ƒ A lower town on the eastern side of the
settlement – contains residential buildings
ˆ The Harappan Civilization seems to have
covered a very large area. Its area was larger ˆ Uniformity in – lay-out of the towns, streets,
than those of the contemporary Civilizations of structures, brick size, drains etc.
Mesopotamia and Egypt. ˆ The houses of common people, however, differed
ˆ Western Boundary: Sutkagendor on the Makran in size from a single-room house in Harappa to
coast of Pakistan bigger houses which had many rooms

ˆ Eastern Boundary: Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh ˆ Houses were provided with private wells,
kitchens and bathing platforms
ˆ Southern Boundary: Daimabad in Maharashtra
ˆ Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each
ˆ Northern boundary: Manda Akhnoor in Jammu had its own citadel built on a high podium of
and Kashmir mud brick.
ˆ Largest site - Rakhigarhi in Haryana, discovered
in 2014. (Earlier - Mohenjodaro)
Harappan Civilization - The logic behind it vastness

www.sleepyclasses.com 24 1800-890-3043
 ƒ Water was drawn from a large well in an
adjacent room, and an outlet from the corner
of the bath led to a drain.
ƒ Great bath was primarily intended for ritual
bathing.
ƒ The large tank found in Dholavira may be
compared to the great bath

ˆ Houses in the cities followed a grid system, with

roads cutting across one another virtually at
right angles.
ˆ In almost all the cities, every house, large or
small, had its own courtyard and bathroom.
ƒ In Kalibangan many houses had their
own wells. Water flowed from the house
to the streets which had drains. Sometimes
ˆ Dockyard
these drains were covered with bricks and
sometimes with stone slabs. ƒ Excavated at Lothal
ƒ The quality of the domestic bathrooms and ƒ Meant for berthing ships and handling cargo
drains is remarkable, and the drainage system
of Harappa is almost unique. Perhaps no
other Bronze Age civilization paid so much
attention to health and cleanliness.
ˆ The Great Bath
ƒ The most important public place of
Mohenjodaro; Measures 11.88 × 7.01 m and
2.43 m deep.
ƒ Flights of steps at either end lead to the
surface, and there are side rooms for changing
clothes.
ƒ The floor of the bath was made of burnt
bricks. A thin layer of bitumen was applied
to the bed of the Bath to ensure that water did
not seep in n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 25 1800-890-3043
 CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
ƒ In Kalibangan many houses had their
Town Planning and Structures own wells. Water flowed from the house
to the streets which had drains. Sometimes
ˆ A remarkable unity of conception – division of these drains were covered with bricks and
each town into two parts. sometimes with stone slabs.
ˆ In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers ƒ The quality of the domestic bathrooms and
were staying, in the other Lower part of the town drains is remarkable, and the drainage system
lived the common and the poor. of Harappa is almost unique. Perhaps no
ƒ A citadel on higher mound on the western other Bronze Age civilization paid so much
side – contains large structures, serving as attention to health and cleanliness.
administrative or ritual centres ˆ The Great Bath
ƒ A lower town on the eastern side of the ƒ The most important public place of
settlement – contains residential buildings Mohenjodaro; Measures 11.88 × 7.01 m and
ˆ Uniformity in – lay-out of the towns, streets, 2.43 m deep.
structures, brick size, drains etc. ƒ Flights of steps at either end lead to the
ˆ The houses of common people, however, differed surface, and there are side rooms for changing
in size from a single-room house in Harappa to clothes.
bigger houses which had many rooms ƒ The floor of the bath was made of burnt
ˆ Houses were provided with private wells, bricks. A thin layer of bitumen was applied
kitchens and bathing platforms to the bed of the Bath to ensure that water did
not seep in
ˆ Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each
had its own citadel built on a high podium of ƒ Water was drawn from a large well in an
mud brick. adjacent room, and an outlet from the corner
of the bath led to a drain.
ƒ Great bath was primarily intended for ritual
bathing.
ƒ The large tank found in Dholavira may be
compared to the great bath

ˆ Houses in the cities followed a grid system, with

roads cutting across one another virtually at
right angles.
ˆ In almost all the cities, every house, large or
small, had its own courtyard and bathroom.

www.sleepyclasses.com 26 1800-890-3043
ˆ Dockyard ˆ Food grains were stored in huge granaries in
ƒ Excavated at Lothal both Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and possibly in
Kalibangan
ƒ Meant for berthing ships and handling cargo
ˆ Cereals were received as taxes from peasants
and stored in granaries for the payment of wages
as well as for use during emergencies.
ˆ Analogy of Mesopotamian cities where wages
were paid in barley
ˆ Earliest people to produce cotton
ƒ A piece of woven cloth has been found at
Mohenjodaro
ˆ Fish and animal meat were also consumed.

DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
ˆ Animals such as Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep,
and pigs were domesticated.
Agricultural System ˆ Humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans.
ˆ In the fourth century BCE, one of the historians ˆ Evidence of dogs and cats from the outset, and
of Alexander informs us, that Sindh was a fertile asses and camels were bred and were obviously
part of India. used as beasts of burden.
ƒ Earlier times, the Indus region had more ˆ Elephants were well known to the Harappan.
natural vegetation which contributed to ˆ Also acquainted with the rhinoceros.
rainfall. It supplied timber for baking bricks
and also for construction
ƒ The annual inundation of the Indus, the
Trade and Economy
longest Himalayan river – Walls made of ˆ External trade with Mesopotamia
burnt bricks raised for protection indicate that
ƒ The Mesopotamian texts speak of two
floods were an annual event
intermediate trading stations called Dilmun
ˆ No hoe or ploughshare has been discovered, and Makan, which lay between Mesopotamia
but the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan and Meluha. Dilmun is probably identifiable
phase at Kalibangan indicate that the fields were with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf, and Makan
ploughed in Rajasthan during the Harappan is probably identifiable with Oman
period.
ˆ Copper : mainly from the Khetri mines located
AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM – CROPS in Rajasthan
ˆ The Indus people produced wheat, barley, rai, ˆ Gold: Kolar gold fields of Karnataka and the
peas, and the like. river-beds of the Himalayan rivers might have
supplied the gold
ƒ In addition, sesamum and mustard were
grown. ˆ Silver: Jwar mines of Rajasthan and/or must
have come from Mesopotamia
ˆ As early as 1800 BCE, the people of Lothal grew
rice, the remains of which have been found in the ˆ Lapis-lazuli: Badakshan mines in northeast
form of husks embedded in pottery Afghanistan

www.sleepyclasses.com 27 1800-890-3043
ˆ Turquoise and Jade: Central Asia
ˆ Agate, Chalcedony and Carnelian: Western
India
ˆ Seashells: Gujarat
ˆ Timber: Northern regions such as Jammu
ˆ Evidence indicates that Mesopotamia imported
copper, carnelian, ivory, shell, lapis-lazuli,
pearls and ebony from Meluhha (identified
with Harappa)

Social Organization and Polity

ˆ State
ƒ In the Harappan culture, the citadel may have
been the seat of sovereign power, the middle
town may have been the area where the
bureaucrats lived or the seat of government,
and the great granary at Mohenjo-daro may
have been the treasury.
ƒ It appears that taxes were collected in grain.
ˆ Fortification was a feature of several cities.
Dholavira, in particular, had forts within forts
ˆ A heap of sling stones and the depiction of a
soldier on a potsherd at Surkotada may suggest
a standing army .
ˆ In sharp contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, no
temples have been found at any Harappan site.

Technology and Crafts

ˆ Harappan people were aware of almost all the
metals except iron
ˆ Making of bronze tools; other crafts, and
widespread trade and commerce
ƒ Used many tools and implements of stone,
but they were very well acquainted with the
manufacture and use of bronze.

www.sleepyclasses.com 28 1800-890-3043
 ˆ A well-known piece of art of the Harappan
period is a stone sculpture of a bearded man
discovered at Mohenjodaro.
ƒ His eyes are half closed indicating a posture
of meditation.
ƒ Across the left shoulder is an embroidered
cloak.
IMPORTANT EXCAVATIONS - COPPER ƒ In the opinion of some scholars it could be a
DOG – LOTHAL bust of a priest.

ˆ Most famous specimen in this regard is the

bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine discovered at
Mohenjodaro.
ƒ It is a nude female figure, with right arm on
the hip and left arm hanging in a dancing pose.
ƒ She is wearing a large number of bangles.

www.sleepyclasses.com 29 1800-890-3043
 Important Excavations -
Harrapan Seal
ˆ The most famous of the seals is the one with a
horned male deity represented on it.
ƒ He has three heads and is sitting in a yogic
posture surrounded by four animals viz
elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a buffalo.
ƒ He has been identified by many scholars with
the ancient form of the god Pashupati.

Society
ˆ In one figurine, a plant is shown growing out of
the embryo of a woman.
ƒ The image probably represents the goddess of
earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped
her in the same way as the Egyptians
worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
ƒ Popularity of the mother goddess as indicated
by the finding of a large number of terracotta
female figurines in Punjab and Sind region
indicate a possible matriarchal society.
ƒ The Harappan religion is normally termed as
animism i.e., worship of trees, stones etc.

www.sleepyclasses.com 30 1800-890-3043
 Religion HARRAPAN SCRIPT + WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES
ˆ Most inscriptions were recorded on seals and
contain only a few words
ƒ May have been used by the propertied to mark
and identify their private property;
ƒ We have about 250 to 400 pictographs; The
Harappan script is not alphabetical but
largely pictographic; does not indicate any
connection with the scripts of western Asia;.

ˆ Male God -
ƒ Harappans also worshipped a male god
represented on a steatite seal discovered
at Mohenjodaro, usually referred to as the
Pashupati seal.
ƒ The description of the Pashupati seal includes–
y A male figure wearing a buffalo-homed
head-dress is shown sitting in a yogic
posture.
SIGN BOARD AT DHOLAVIRA
y He is flanked by four animals- an elephant,
rhinoceros, water buffalo, and a tiger.
Beneath the dais are two antelopes or
ibexes.
y Marshall identified him with god Pasupati.
y There exists a striking resemblance between
this deity and the Shiva (Rudra) of later
Hindu mythology who is associated with
asceticism, yoga, and linga. Hence it is also
called proto-Siva.
ˆ Some scholars refer to the worshiping of linga
(phallus) and yoni (female sex organ) by the
Harappans
ƒ Numerous symbols of the phallus and female
sex organs made of stone have been found in
Harappa
ˆ Evidence of fire worship has also been found at
some sites such as Kalibangan and Lothal

www.sleepyclasses.com 31 1800-890-3043
 ˆ It is believed that the Indus Valley region
IVC Decline Theories experienced several tectonic disturbances which
causes earthquakes. Which also changed courses
ˆ The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River of rivers or dried them up.
Valley Civilization are believed to have started
ˆ Another natural reason might be changes in
around 1800 BC and by 1700 BC, most of the
patterns of rainfall.
cities were abandoned.
ˆ There could be also dramatic shifts in the river
ˆ Apart from the dates, the pace of decline also
courses, which might have brought floods to the
varied. Mohenjodaro and Dholavira give a
food producing areas.
picture of gradual decline, while at Kalibangan
and Banawali, city life ended all of a sudden. ˆ Due to combination of these natural causes there
was a slow but inevitable collapse of IVC.
ˆ The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the
actual reasons behind its demise are still ˆ Theory of Aryan Invasion.
debated. ˆ Natural Disaster.
ˆ One theory claims that Indo-European tribe ˆ Shifting aways of Indus.
i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC. ˆ Ecological Balance - Over Exploitation of the
ƒ In later cultures various elements of the IVC environment.
are found which suggest that civilization did ˆ Climate Change and Gradual .
not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.
ƒ Increasing Aridity and drying up of Ghaggar.
ƒ On the other hand, many scholars
believe natural factors are behind the decline ƒ Sudden rise in Arabian Sea coastline causing
of the IVC. floods.

ˆ The natural factors could be geological and ƒ Monsoon link theory (2012)
climatic. ƒ Recent study of IIT kharagpur - drying up of
rivers like Saraswati.

www.sleepyclasses.com 32 1800-890-3043
ˆ Decline in the Lapis lazuli trade with ˆ The continuous deposition of silt over the
Mesopotamia. centuries has raised the level of the land around
Mohenjodaro by about thirty feet.
IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRES – HARAPPA
ˆ In Mohenjodaro is found,
ˆ Harappa was the first site to be excavated.
ƒ a large granary and a great bath is found.
ˆ From the 1920s onwards archaeologists like
ƒ Human skeletons showing invasion and
Dayaram Sahni, M.S. Vats and Mortimer
massacre.
Wheeler carried out excavations at Harappa.
ƒ Town was flooded more then seven times.
ˆ It is located on the bank of the Ravi in Western
Punjab. IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRES – KALIBANGAN
ˆ In terms of its size and the variety of objects ˆ The settlement of Kalibangan is located in
discovered, it ranks as the premier city of the Rajasthan along the dried up bed of the river
Harappan Civilization. Ghaggar. This area had the largest concentration
ˆ There are no clusters of sites around Harappa. of the Harappan settlements.
ˆ In Harappa a substantial section of the ˆ Kalibangan was excavated in the 1960s under the
population was engaged in activities other than guidance of B.K. Thapar.
food production. These activities could relate ˆ This place has yielded evidence for the existence
to administration, trade, craft work or religion. of Pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations.
Since these people were not producing for
themselves someone else would have to do it for ˆ It shows significant variation from Harappan in
them. the sphere of religious beliefs.

ˆ Only place having evidence of coffin burials. ˆ Some scholars have suggested that Kalibangan
might have been part of the ‘Eastern Domain’ of
IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRES – the Harappan Civilization.
MOHENJODARO ƒ In the areas of present day Haryana, East
ˆ Mohenjodaro, located in the Larkana district of Punjab and Western U.P. Harappan sites
Sind on the bank of the river Indus is one of the like Bara, Siswal and Alamgirpur have been
largest sites of the Harappan Civilization. distovered. They give evidence of the presence
ˆ Most of the information regarding the town of distinct local traditions in pottery along
planning, housing, seals and sealings of this with the Harappan pottery.
Civilization comes from Mohejodaro. ƒ Kalibangan might have been a mediator
ˆ Excavations began at this site in 1922, with R.D. between the Harappan cultural zone and the
Banerjee and Sir John Marshal taking up the eastern provinces.
work. ˆ Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones.
ˆ Excavations show that people lived here for a very ˆ Kalibangan stands for black bangles.
long time and went on building and rebuilding ˆ Ploughed field at early Harappan levels of
houses at the same location. As a result of this Kalibangan
the height of the remains of the building and the
debris is about seventy five feet. IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRES – LOTHAL
ˆ Ever since the time of occupation there were ˆ Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf
regular floods at Mohenjodaro. These floods of Cambay.
caused deposition of alluvial soil. ˆ This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-
trade with contemporary West Asian societies.

www.sleepyclasses.com 33 1800-890-3043
ˆ Its excavator S.R. Rao claims to have discovered ƒ A small pot, possibly an ink-pot.
a dockyard here. ƒ Foot prints of a dog chasing a cat.
ˆ Findings here -
IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRES -SUKTAGENDOR
ƒ Remains of Rice husk.
ˆ Sutkagen-Dor is located near the Makran coast
ƒ A ship designed on a seal
which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border.
ƒ An instrument for measuring angles, pointing
ˆ At present the settlement is land-locked in dry
to modern day compass.
inhospitable plains.
IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRES – ˆ The town had a citadel surrounded by a stone
CHANHUNDARO wall built for defence.
ƒ City has no citadel. ˆ Its location in an inhospitable area can only be
ƒ Famous for bead maker shop. explained by the need of sea-port for trading.

ˆ Ans. to previous PYQ: C

PYQ
ˆ Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider
the following statements:(2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization
and the religious element, though present,
did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for
manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

www.sleepyclasses.com 34 1800-890-3043
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q. Which of the following characterizes/ characterize
the people of Indus Civilization? (2013) Q. Which among the following is the earliest form
1. They possessed great palaces and temples. of pottery in Indian Subcontinent?
2. They worshipped both male and female (a) Black and Red Ware
deities. (b) Ochre Coloured Pottery
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in (c) Painted Grey Ware
warfare. (d) Northern Black Polished Ware
Select the correct statement/statements using Answer. (a)
the codes given below.
Pottery Period
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only Black and Red Ware Around 2400 BCE
(c) 1, 2 and 3 OCP - Ochre Coloured Pottery 2000-1000 BCE
(d) None of the statements given above is correct Painted Grey Ware 1000-600 BCE
Ans. to previous PYQ: B
Northern Black Polished Ware 600 BCE-100 AD

Q. Consider the following Locations:

SITE ASSOCIATED WITH
1. Dilmun Oman
2. Magan Bahrain
3. Sumer Iraq
How many Pairs are Correctly Matched?
(a) Only One (b) Only Two
(c) All Three (d) None
Answer. (a)

www.sleepyclasses.com 35 1800-890-3043
 Trade and Economy
ˆ External trade with Mesopotamia
ƒ The Mesopotamian texts speak of two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun and Magan, which
lay between Mesopotamia and Meluhha. Dilmun is probably identifiable with Bahrain on the Persian
Gulf, and Magan is probably identifiable with Oman.

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 36 1800-890-3043
 VEDIC AGE
1500 B.C.E - 600 B.C.E
ˆ Second, animals move from place to place —
either in search of smaller prey, or, in the case
of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and
leaves. That is why those who hunted them had
to follow their movements.
ˆ Third, plants and trees bear fruit in different
seasons. So, people may have moved from season
to season in search of different kinds of plants.
ˆ Fourth, people, plants and animals need water
to survive. Water is found in lakes, streams and
rivers. While many rivers and lakes are perennial
Some Questions to Ponder (with water throughout the year), others are
seasonal. People living on their banks would
About have had to go in search of water during the dry
seasons (winter and summer).
‘PALAEOLITHIC’ PEOPLE & ‘NOMADIC’
LIFESTYLE

ˆ Firstly, if they had stayed at one place for a long

time, they would have eaten up all the available
plant and animal resources. Therefore, they
would have had to go elsewhere in search of
food.

www.sleepyclasses.com 37 1800-890-3043
 Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly
PYQ matched? (2021)
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
Q. Consider the following pairs:
(c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3
Historical place : Well - known for
Answer : D
1. Burzahom : Rock -cut shrines
2. Chandra -ketugarh : Terracotta art
2. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts

ˆ In the Kashmir valley, there are several neolithic ˆ Chandraketugarh is located in the Ganga
sites near Srinagar and between Baramulla and delta in West Bengal. In early historic times,
Anantnag. These include Burzahom, Gufkral, Chandraketugarh was connected to the Ganga
Hariparigom, etc. Pits have been found at neolithic by the Vidyadhari river, and must have been an
levels at Burzahom. Other finds of Period I at important centre of trade, and possibly also a
Burzahom included ill -fired, handmade, coarse political centre.
pottery in grey, red, brown, and buff colours. ˆ Chandra -ketugarh was a major centre of
Burzahom had a well - developed bone tool terracotta craft. Various kinds of artefacts have
industry; artefacts such as points, harpoons, been found at the site over the years, including
needles etc. The site is famous for pit dwelling coins, pottery, seals and sealings, and figurines
and neolithic tool industry. Hence pair 1 is not made of ivory, wood, and bronze. Hence pair 2
correctly matched.

www.sleepyclasses.com 38 1800-890-3043
 is correctly matched. ƒ Inar of the Hittite (Turkey) language is
ˆ The Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture was located similar to Indra of the Vedas.
in the north-eastern part of Rajasthan. Hundreds ƒ Suryyas and Maruttash of the Kassite
of copper objects found at this site suggest that (Mesopotamia) inscriptions are equivalent of
it had emerged as a copper-working centre and the Vedic Surya and Marut.
that its people were supplying these items to ˆ Originally the Aryans seem to have lived
communities elsewhere. somewhere in the Steppes stretching from
Hence pair 3 is correctly matched. southern Russia to Central Asia. From here, a
group of them migrated to northwest India and
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
came to be called Indo-Aryans or just Aryans.

Chronology ARYANS - CONFLICTING CLAIM - INDIGE-

NOUS ORIGIN
ˆ After the collapse of the Indus Valley ˆ Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed
Civilization, which ended c. 1900 BCE, groups the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into
of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north- India, and argued for an indigenous origin of
western India from the Indo-Iranian region and the Indo-Aryans.
started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. ˆ In this view, “the Indian civilization must be
ˆ The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo- viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back
Iranians, which—according to the most to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or
widespread hypothesis—have originated Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE).
in the Andronovo culture in the Bactria- ˆ There is a mass of literary evidence to show
Margiana area, in present northern Afghanistan that Sapta-Sindhu was regarded by the Vedic
ˆ Initially, they came in small numbers, through Aryans as their original home.
the passes in the northwestern mountains.Their ˆ There is no reference to their coming into India
initial settlements were in the valleys of the from any outside country and it is not possible
north-west and the plains of the Punjab. As they that the Aryans had forgotten all about their
were mainly a cattle-keeping people, they were original home if it were anywhere out of India.
mainly in search of pastures.
ƒ In fact, there is an emotional association with
ARYANS the land of the origin of all migrating people.
ˆ They were a linguistic group of people who ƒ But no such evidence has been found in the
spoke Indo-European language from which literature of the Vedic Aryans.
later emerged Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek etc.
ARYANS
ˆ This is reflected from the words in these languages
which are similar in sound and meaning. ˆ During the period between 1900 BCE and 1500
BCE we get, in these regions, evidence of horses,
ƒ The Sanskrit words matri and pitri are similar spoked wheels, fire cult and cremation.
to the Latin mater and pater.
ˆ All this while interaction between the
ƒ The Rig Veda has many things in common indigenous inhabitants and the newcomers
with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in the continued.
Iranian language. The two texts use the same
names for several gods and even for social ˆ A result of this process of interaction was that
classes. the Vedic form of the Aryan language became
predominant in the entire North-western India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 39 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The texts composed in this language, as ƒ These are the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the
mentioned above, are popularly known as the Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda
Vedic Texts. ƒ Vedas are also called ‘Shruti’ (what is heard),
ˆ The early Vedic Aryans lived in the area known distinguishing them from other religious texts,
as Sapta-sindhu meaning area of seven rivers. which are called smriti (written by man).
This area largely covers the northwestern part of ƒ Vedas are considered to be Apurseya which
South Asia up to river Yamuna. means impersonal, authorises.
ˆ The seven rivers included Sindhu, Vitasta
(Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi),
Vipash (Beas), Shutudri (Sutlej) and the
The Vedas
Sarasvati. ˆ Rig Veda
ƒ It is a collection of 1,028 hymns divided into
10 mandalas (2-7 are oldest)
ƒ The hymns were sung in praise of various
gods. They are the earliest compositions
and hence depict the life of the early Vedic
people in India.
ƒ It retains many common Indo-
Iranian elements, both in language and in
content, that are not present in any other
Vedic texts.
GEOGRAPHICAL TERRITORY OF ARYANS
ˆ Samaveda
ˆ The Country of Aryans:
ƒ It is a collection of verses mostly taken from
ƒ In early period, the Aryans used the term
the Rigveda but arranged in a poetic form to
Sapta Saindhavas as the region where they
facilitate singing.
settled down. They used this term in the
context of country. ˆ Yajurveda
ƒ In later period, the country of the Aryan was ƒ Contains not only hyms but also rituals which
also designated as Aryavarta (most of the accompany their recitation.
northern India). ƒ Rituals reflect the social and political milieu
ˆ The later vedic text give three broad divisions of in which they arose.
India, viz. ˆ Atharvaveda
ƒ Aryavarta (Northern India), ƒ It is a collection of magic spells and charms to
ƒ Madhyadesa (Central India), ward off the evil spirits and diseases.
ƒ Dakshinpatha (Southern India). ƒ Its contents throw light on the beliefs and
practices of the non-Aryans.
VEDIC TEXTS
ˆ The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, VEDIC TEXTS
which means “to know”. In other words, the ˆ Each Veda has been sub-classified into four
term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’. major text types –
ˆ Mantras – core of the Vedic texts – has four ƒ the Samhitas (the collections of the hymns or
separate collections mantras)

www.sleepyclasses.com 40 1800-890-3043
 ƒ the Brahmanas (these are full of ritualistic ˆ This date has been fixed between 1500 BCE and
formulae and explain the social and religious 1000 BCE.
meaning of rituals) ˆ The later Vedic period is placed between 1000
ƒ the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, BCE and 600 BCE.
sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices) ˆ During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were
ƒ the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, mostly confined to the Indus region.
philosophy and spiritual knowledge) ƒ The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the
y The Upanishads reflect the last composed land of seven rivers.
layer of texts in the Vedas. They are ƒ This includes the five rivers of Punjab,
commonly referred to as Vedanta, namely Jhelum (Vitasta), Chenab (Askani),
variously interpreted to mean either the Ravi (Purushini), Beas (Vipasa) and Sutlej
“last chapters, parts of the Vedas”. (Satudri) along with the Indus (Sindh) and
Saraswati.
Early and Later Vedic Period
ˆ The age of the Early Vedic period corresponds
with the date of the composition of the Rigvedic
hymns.

www.sleepyclasses.com 41 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The word gaveshana literally means search
Early Vedic Period – Economy for cows, but it also means battle since many
battles were fought over cattle.
ˆ The early Vedic Aryans were pastoralists - Cattle
ƒ The raja or the chief is called the ‘gopati‘ or
rearing was their main occupation – reared cattle,
one who protects cows.
sheep, goats, and horses for purposes of milk,
meat and hides. ˆ Agriculture -
ˆ A large number of words are derived from the ƒ A few references show that they had
word go meaning cow, which suggests that knowledge of agriculture and practiced it to
suggest that social religions and all important supplement their food requirements.
areas of Rigvedic life centred round the rearing ƒ Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part
of cows. of the Rig veda, possibly which was made of
ƒ A wealthy person was known as gomat and wood.
his daughter called duhitri which means one ƒ They produced yava (modern jau or barley),
who milks the cow. which was rather a generic word for cereals.

www.sleepyclasses.com 42 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The ploughed land was known as Urvara or ƒ Apart from barley, people now cultivated
Kshetra. wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet, sugarcane
ˆ Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot- etc.
making, metal smeltry etc. were some such ˆ Agriculture became the mainstay of the Vedic
activities. people
ƒ The term ayas used for copper or bronze ƒ The god Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of
shows hat metal-working was known. the Plough’ in this period.
ˆ The products of these activities were exchanged ƒ The items of dana and dakshina included
through barter. Cows were the most favoured cooked rice. With the beginning of food
medium of exchange. production, agricultural produce began to be
ˆ Whenever we hear of gifts made to priests they offered in the rituals.
usually consist of cows and slaves. ƒ The items of the offerings are a clear indication
ˆ City Life - of the growing importance of sedentary
settlements and agriculture.
ƒ In the Rig Vedic Age people did not lived in
cities. ˆ Iron tools helped people clear the dense rain
forests of the northern and eastern parts of India
ƒ The houses were made of wood and bamboo. to which the later Aryans moved. These could
They had thatched roof and clay floors. not be cleared by copper or stone tools used by
y The hymns of Rig-Veda refer to Pura. It Rigvedic people.
seems that Puras were fortified places and ƒ Large tracts of forestland could be converted
served as places of refuge during danger into cultivable pieces in relatively lesser time.
of invasion. The iron plough could turn the soil from
ˆ There was absence of word nagara (city) in the deeper portions making it more fertile.
hymns of Rig-Veda. ˆ There has been a continuous increase in the
population during the later Vedic period due
Later Vedic Period Economy to the expansion of the economy based on
agriculture.
ˆ The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan
ƒ The increasing number and size of Painted
culture during the later Vedic period was the
Grey Ware (PGW) settlements in the doab
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BCE.
area shows this.
ƒ It was marked by the extended use of metals –
ˆ All these developments resulted in the
gold (hiranya), silver (rajata), bronze (ayas),
substantial enlargement of certain settlements
iron (krishnayas), copper (red ayas), lead
such as Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the
(sisa).
end of the Later Vedic period.
ˆ Agriculture became the mainstay of the Vedic
ˆ These settlements slowly began to acquire
people.
characteristics of towns. Such rudimentary
ƒ The growth of agriculture in the Later Vedic towns inhabited mainly by the chiefs, princes,
period was made possible by the availability priests and artisans were supported by the
of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the peasants who could spare for them some
Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle Ganga part of their produce whether voluntarily or
valley-an area. involuntarily.
ƒ The buffalo had been domesticated for the
agricultural purposes.

www.sleepyclasses.com 43 1800-890-3043
 ˆ During the entire Vedic phase people did not
Later Vedic Period – Coinage construct temples nor did they worship any
statue.
ˆ There was no regular system of currency of
coinage. But some improvised coinage like Changes:
Krishnala, Satamana and nishka made their ˆ Agriculture became the primary occupation
appearance. Changes in material life
ˆ Krishnala berry was a unit of weight which ˆ Interaction with the non-Aryans
usually weighed one ratti, that is, 1.8 grains.
ˆ So, Vishnu and Rudra which were smaller deities
ˆ Satamana, a piece of gold equivalent to weight in the Rigveda became extremely important.
of 100 Krishnalas, was used by the merchants as We do not have any reference to different
currency. The nishka replaced the cow as a unit incarnations or avataras of Vishnu.
of value.
ƒ Prajapati the creator, came to occupy the
supreme position in the later Vedic pantheon.
Early Vedic Period – Religion There was an increase in the frequency and
number of the yajna which generally ended
ˆ The prayers were to propitiate gods for physical with the sacrifices of a large number of
protection and for material gains The Rigvedic animals.
gods were generally personifications of different
aspects of natural forces such as rains, storm, ƒ Sacrifices became very important during this
sun etc. period and they assumed both a public and
private character.
ˆ The attributes of these gods also reflect the tribal
and patriarchal nature of the society – Indra, ˆ These yajnas brought to the Brahmans a large
Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, amount of wealth in form of dana and dakshina.
Soma, etc. are all male gods. ƒ Some of the important yajnas were -
ƒ In comparison, we have only a few goddesses ashvamedha, vajapeya, rajasuya etc
such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc which ˆ The purpose of these yajnas was twofold -
occupy secondary positions in the pantheon. ƒ It established the authority of chiefs over the
ƒ Indra, the most frequently mentioned god in people.
the Rigveda, as people fought a lot of wars. ƒ It reinforced the territorial aspect of the polity
He carried the thunderbolt and was also since people from all over the kingdom were
respected as a weather god who brought invited to these sacrifices.
rains.
ˆ People worshipped gods for the same material
y About 250 hymns in Rig Veda are devoted reasons in this period as they did in earlier
to him. times. However, the mode of worship changed
ˆ Agni, was the God of fire, next in importance. considerably.
ƒ He was considered to be an intermediary ƒ Prayers continued to be recited but they ceased
between heaven and earth i.e., between to be the dominant mode of placating the
gods and men. He dominated the domestic gods. Sacrifices became far more important.
hearth and marriages were solemnised in his ˆ Priest Craft -
presence.
ƒ Later vedic texts reveal the elaboration of
ˆ All these gods were invoked and propitiated at rituals which were complicated and needed
yajnas or sacrifices organized by the chiefs of the professional men, trained in the art of
tribes and performed by priests. performing them.

www.sleepyclasses.com 44 1800-890-3043
 ƒ Thus a class of priests became specialists meaning that they were superior to rest of the
in the performances of Yajnas. There were tribe. For this service the chief passed on a
even different sets of priests for performing large part of his wealth to the Brahman priest.
different stages of the same sacrificial ritual. ƒ Thus, the rituals became a mechanism
ˆ However, people began to oppose these for ensuring the material and spiritual
sacrifices during the later Vedic period itself. superiority of the chiefs and the Brahmans.
ƒ There was a strong reaction against the priestly
domination and against the complexities Early Vedic Period – Society
involved in the yajnas. A large number of
cattle and other animals which were sacrificed ˆ Family was the basic unit, Patriarchal in nature;
at the end of each yajna must have hampered Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but
the growth of economy. This resulted in the the chiefs at times practiced polygamy.
formulation of a philosophical doctrine ƒ Marriages took place after attaining maturity.
which is enunciated in the last sections
ˆ The basic unit of political organization was
of the Vedas, called the Upanishads. The
kula or family.
path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was
recommended for happiness and welfare. ƒ Several families joined together on the basis of
their kinship to form a village or grama
ˆ During the entire Vedic phase people did not
construct temples. ƒ The leader of grama was known as gramani.
ƒ A group of villages constituted a larger unit
Early Vedic VS Later Vedic – called vis or clan.
ƒ One or more than one clans made jana or
Rituals tribe, the highest political unit.
ˆ In the Early Vedic society rituals were performed ˆ Rigveda mentions arya varna and dasa varna.
to bring about the welfare of the entire tribe. ƒ Dasa has been used in the sense of a group
ƒ Gods were worshipped for ensuring victory different from the Rigvedic people. Later,
over other tribes, granting cattle and sons. dasa came to mean a slave.
It was also an occasion for the chiefs to ˆ Practices during this period, such as concentration
distribute wealth. of larger share of the war booty in the hands of
ˆ In the Later Vedic society the function of the the chiefs and priests resulted in the creation of
rituals underwent a subtle change. some inequalities within a tribe during the later
ƒ Rituals became much more complicated part of this Vedic phase.
which could continue for years. Thus only the ˆ The warriors, priests and the ordinary people
rich could perform them. were the three sections of the Rigvedic tribe.
ƒ Gifts were no longer given to the entire tribe. ƒ The sudra category came into existence only
Rather the chief gave gifts to the Brahmans towards the end of the Rigvedic period.
who performed sacrifices for him.
ˆ The women in society enjoyed respectable
ƒ The rituals were so complicated that it position.
needed expert Brahmans to perform it since a
ƒ She was married at a proper age and could
wrong incantation could bring disaster to the
choose a husband of her own choice.
performer.
ƒ The performer of sacrifices was supposed ƒ She could take part in the proceedings of the
to grant super-human status to the chiefs tribal assemblies called samiti and Vidhata.

www.sleepyclasses.com 45 1800-890-3043
ˆ Social Differentiation was there but not very ƒ The growing number of sacrifices and rituals
strict - during the period made the brahmanas very
ƒ “I am a poet, my father is a physician, and powerful.
my mother is a grinder. Earning a livelihood ƒ The kshatriyas (rulers), along with brahmanas,
through different means we live together.” controlled most aspects of life.
ƒ The vaishyas, the most numerous varna were
Later Vedic Period – Society engaged, in agriculture as well as in trade and
artisanal activities.
ˆ The later Vedic family became large enough ƒ The shudras, the fourth varna were at the
to be called a joint-family with three or four bottom of the social hierarchy. They were not
generations living together. entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara
ˆ The institution of gotra developed – people (investiture with sacred thread necessary to
having common gotra descended from a acquire education).
common ancestor and no marriage between the y The other three varnas were entitled to such
members of the same gotra could take place. a ceremony and hence they were known as
dvijas.
ƒ Monogamous marriages were preferred even
though polygamy was frequent.
ƒ Participation of women in public meetings PYQ
was restricted
Q. The religion of early Vedic Aryans was
ƒ They had to stay at their husband’s place primarily of (2012)
ƒ They were referred to as the source of sorrow (a) Bhakti
ƒ Society came to be divided in four varnas (b) image worship and Yajnas
– brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and (c) worship of nature and Yajnas
shudras.
(d) worship of nature and Bhakti
ˆ Restrictions on women appeared and there was Vedic Period (Religion)
a general decline in status of women
Ans. to previous PYQ: C

www.sleepyclasses.com 46 1800-890-3043
Early Vedic Period – Polity
 Early Vedic Period - Polity Later Vedic Period - Polity
ˆ The chief social unit of the Aryans was known ˆ Changes in Material life Changes in Political
as jana. life. The nature of chiefship changed in this
ƒ The chief of this unit was the political leader period.
called rajan. ƒ The territorial idea gained ground. People
ƒ The main function of the chief was to protect lost control over their chief - The chiefship
the jana and cattle from the enemies. had become hereditary.

ˆ He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies ƒ Popular assemblies gradually disappeared.
called sabha, samiti, vidatha, and parishad. The idea of the divine nature of kingship gets
a mention in the literature of this period. The
ƒ Sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe. brahmanas helped the chiefs in this process.
ƒ Samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Officers were appointed to help the chief in
ƒ Vidhata - An assembly meant for secular, administration
religious and military purpose. ˆ The elaborate coronation rituals such as rajasuya
ƒ Parishad - the sovereign general assembly, or (royal consecration), vajapeya (chariot race) and
parishad, to the meetings of which members ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) established the
were summoned by kettledrum. chief’s authority.
ƒ Rajsuya Yajna was performed to obtain divine
y Women were allowed to attend only two,
power Ashwamedha yajna was performed to
Samiti and Vidhata.
expand the empire. Vajpey Yajna for Chariot
ˆ The post of the chief was not hereditary but racing
elected.
ˆ A rudimentary army too emerged as an
ˆ Succession in one family was known but that important element of the political structure
was not based on the rule of primogeniture (i.e., during this period.
the eldest son acquiring the position).
ƒ All these lived on the taxes called bali, the
ˆ Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were shulka, and the bhaga offered by the people.
directly governed by the tribal councils.
The purohita (chaplain) assisted and advised
PYQ
ˆ
the chief on various matters. He performed
ceremonies and spells for success in war and
prosperity in peace. Q. Critically examine various views regarding
Vedic-Harappan relationship in light of latest
ˆ Senani, kulapa, gramani, etc. are some of the discoveries. (15 Marks)
functionaries which find mention in the Rigveda.
ƒ Introduction
ˆ The sena or army was not a permanent fighting
group and consisted of able bodied tribesmen ƒ Views
who were mobilized at the time of the wars. ƒ Criticism
ˆ Takshan, the carpenter and rathakara, the chariot ƒ Conclusion
maker were responsible for making chariots. Answer
ˆ There is no official mentioned as a collector ƒ Critically examine various views regarding
of taxes. The people offered to the chief what is Vedic-Harappan relationship in light of
called bali. latest discoveries. (15 Marks)
ƒ Vedic-Harappan relationship is a source of
constant dis cussion among historians.

www.sleepyclasses.com 47 1800-890-3043
VIEWS till 1800 BCE.
(a) Idea that Harappan civilization was ƒ While Mohenjodaro and Dholavira give a
destroyed by Aryan invaders was put picture of gradual decline; at Kalibangan and
forward by Ramprasad Chanda in 1926. Banawali, city life ended all of a sudden.
ƒ Later elaborated by Mortimer Wheeler in 1947 ˆ Hence , there is a need for closer examination
(b) Aryan Invasion idea was supported by of the sources to come at a definite conclusion
references in RigVeda to various kind of regarding Vedic-Harappan relationship. Also,
forts, attacks on walled cities, and epithet decipherment of Harappan script will go a long
‘Purandara’ (destroyer of forts) given to god way in solving this conundrum.
Indra. Q. The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’
(c) Scholars also identified a place called inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken
Hariyupiya in RigVeda with Harappa, where from (2014)
Aryan fough the battle. (a) Katha Upanishad
(d) Latest discoveries have pointed out that in (b) Chandogya Upanishad
the late phases of occupation at Mohenjodaro, (c) Aitareya Upanishad
there are evidences of massacre.
(d) Mundaka Upanishad
ƒ Human skeletons have been found lying on
Answer
streets.
ˆ Ans. to previous PYQ: D

Criticism
(a) No archaeological records to support Aryan
invasion theory
ƒ In fact, no evidence of any kind of military
assaults or conflict at any Harappan site
ƒ Human bodies lying exposed in the street
could have been caused by raids of bandits
from surrounding hilly tracks.
ƒ Skeletons: Different periods
Q. Which one of the following four Vedas contains
Provisional date for decline of IVC is believed to an account of magical charms and spells? [2004]
be 1800-1900 BCE. (a) Rigveda (b) Yajurveda
ƒ Aryans, on the other hand, are believed to (c) Atharvaveda (d) Samaveda
have arrived here not earlier than a period
Answer: C
around 1500 BCE, according to findings of
Max Muller.
ƒ Hence, there is a ‘time lag’ between arrival
of Aryans and decline of Harappas, and
Harappans and Aryans are unlikely to have
met each other.
Latest discoveries have shown that dates as well as
pace of decline varied from site to site.
ƒ Decline in Mohenjodaro had set in 2200 BCE
but the civilization continued at many places

www.sleepyclasses.com 48 1800-890-3043
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q. Nausharo, an IVC Site, is located closest to
(a) Kuntasi (b) Chanhudaro
(c) Mehrgarh (d) Rehman Dheri
Answer : C

www.sleepyclasses.com 49 1800-890-3043
 IVC (USAGE OF COTTON)
Question (PYQ)

Answer to Previous PYQ: A

Q. Match the Following:

PLACE SIGNIFICANCE
1. Lothal 1. City divided into 3 parts
2. Chanhudaro 2. Located on Sutlej River
3. Dholavira 3. Evidence of Fire Altars
4. Ropar 4. No Citadel
Select the correct pairs:
(a) a-1, b-2, c-4, d-3 (b) a-2, b-1, c-3, d-4
(c) a-3, b-1, c-2, d-4 (d) a-3, b-4, c-1, d-2
Answer : D

www.sleepyclasses.com 50 1800-890-3043
 IVC - IMPORTANT CENTRE – CHANHUDARO
ˆ City has no citadel.
ˆ Famous for bead maker shop.
ˆ A small pot, possibly an ink-pot.
ˆ Foot prints of a dog chasing a cat.

www.sleepyclasses.com 51 1800-890-3043
 JANAPADAS AND MAHAJANAPADAS
ˆ Panini and his Ashtadhyayi :
ƒ Panini was a grammarian who lived in the 5th
or 4th century BCE. His Ashtadhyayi is the
oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar. Panini
mapped out the grammatical rules of Sanskrit
as it existed in his time and his book marked
the transition from Vedic Sanskrit to classical
Sanskrit.
y Panini referred incidentally to many aspects
of his time—to places, people, customs,
institutions, coins, weights and measures,
and peoples’ beliefs and practices. This
is why historians use the Ashtadhyayi
as a source of information on the 5th/4th
Sources - From where did we know about it ? century BCE.
ƒ Kautilya’s Arthashastra
BUDDHIST TEXT
ˆ Jaina texts can be used as historical source material
ˆ Pali canon:
for this period. They include the canonical texts
ƒ The Pali canon is not a homogeneous source and other works such as the Bhagavati Sutra
of history. The first four books of the Sutta and the Parishishtaparvan.
Pitaka (the Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, and
Anguttara Nikayas) and the entire Vinaya JAINA TEXT
Pitaka were composed between the 5th and ˆ Foreign Texts -
3rd centuries BCE.
ƒ Apart from indigenous literary sources, there
ƒ The geographical context of the composition of are a number of Greek and Latin narratives
the canon corresponds roughly to the middle of Alexander’s military career by writers such
Ganga valley (modern Bihar and eastern UP). as Arrian, Curtius Rufus, Diodorus Sicilus,
ƒ Many historians use the Jatakas as a source Plutarch, and Justin.
for the 6th century BCE and the Mauryan, and ƒ Written several centuries after the events they
post-Mauryan periods. describe, they recount Alexander’s invasion
of India (327–26 BCE) and the political
BRAHMANICAL TEXT
situation prevailing in the north-west at the
ˆ Puranas: time.
ƒ The Texts belonging to the Brahmanical ˆ Archeology -
tradition include the Puranas, which provide
ƒ Archaeology continues to be an important
useful information on dynastic history.
source for the history of the subcontinent in
ˆ Epics: c. 600–300 BCE. In north India, the focus is on
ƒ Used in a very general way for a comparative the culture associated with a pottery called
perspective on cultural practices. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).

www.sleepyclasses.com 52 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The evidence from NBPW sites includes an Shift of Economic and Political Capital -
early series of punch marked coins, which ˆ The sixth century BCE, the centre of economic
mark the beginning of the use of money in and political activity shifted from Haryana and
the subcontinent. western UP to Eastern UP and Bihar, which had
ƒ Northern Black Polished Ware: This pottery’s more rainfall and better fertility of land.
name is misleading, because it is not only ˆ The iron ore resources of Bihar were now available
found in north India, it is not always black, to be used more easily. So, people started using
nor is it necessarily polished. more and more iron tools and ploughshare to
clear thick forest cover and cultivate the hard soil
The Rise of this area.
ˆ The use of better iron tools and weapons
Beginning of settled Lifestyle - enabled some territorial states to become very
large and they came to be called mahajanapadas.
ˆ In the later Vedic period, as we have seen earlier,
ˆ The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives
people had started agriculture, which made
a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen
them settle down at a particular place - sedentary
Mahajanapadas’.
lifestyle.
ƒ They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala,
ˆ These permanent settlements led to foundation Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala,
of janapadas or territorial states under the Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti,
control of the king. Gandhara and Kambhoja.

www.sleepyclasses.com 53 1800-890-3043
Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

NATURE OF THESE NEW FORMED STATES ˆ It was a great center of trade and commerce
ˆ Most of these states were monarchical in nature. and its merchants regularly sailed to distant
Exception - some of them, called ganasangha, Suvarnabhumi.
had an oligarchical system of governance. (Vajji ˆ Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of
and Malla). Bimbisara. This was the one and only conquest
ƒ Administration was run by an elected king of Bimbisara.
with the help of a large council or assemblies
MAHAJANAPADA - ASSAKA
comprising heads of all important clans and
families. ˆ The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali
ƒ The most important of these states was that or Podana. (In modern Maharashtra)
of Vajjis with their capital at Vaishali, which ˆ Jataka stories suggest that Assaka may at some
was ruled by the Lichchhavis. point have come under the sway of Kashi and
ƒ These oligarchies mainly existed in the that it achieved a military victory over Kalinga
foothills of the Himalayas. in eastern India.
y They were gradually defeated and ˆ Assaka or the Ashmaka was located in
conquered by the Magadhan Empire. Dakshinapatha or southern India.
ˆ In Buddha’s time, the Assakas were located on the
MAHAJANAPADA - ANGA
banks of the river Godavari (only Mahajanapada
ˆ The capital city of Anga mahajanapad (around south of the Vindhya mountains).The Ashmakas
modern Bhagalpur and Munger districts in are also mentioned by Paṇini.
Bihar) was Champa.

www.sleepyclasses.com 54 1800-890-3043
MAHAJANAPADA - AVANTI ƒ Paṇini, the Indian genius of grammar and
ˆ The country of the Avantis was an important Kautiliya are the world renowned products of
kingdom of western India and was one of the Taxila University.
four great monarchies in India in the post era ˆ Gandhara was located on Uttarapatha and was
of Mahavira and Buddha. The other three being a centre of international commercial activities.
Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. It was an important channel of communication
ˆ Avanti was divided into north and south by the with ancient Iran and Central Asia.
river Vetravati. MAHAJANAPADA – KAMBOJA
ƒ Initially, Mahissati (Mahishamati) was the
ˆ Kamboja included the area around Rajaori,
capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini
including the Hazara district of the North-West
(Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the
Frontier Province of Pakistan.
times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was
the capital of integrated Avanti. ˆ Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha.
ˆ Avanti was an important center of Buddhism. ˆ Kautiliya’s Arthashastra and Ashoka’s Edict
No. XIII attest that the Kambojas followed
ˆ Pradyota dynasty ruled over Avanti.
republican constitution.
ƒ Pradyota was contemporary to Gautama
Buddha. MAHAJANAPADA - KASHI
ƒ Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha fortified ˆ The Kingdom of Kashi was bounded by the
Rajagriha to protect it from an invasion led Varuna and Asi rivers to the north and south
by Pradyota. respectively. It is from the names of these two
rivers that its capital city Varanasi got its name.
ˆ Last King Nandivardhana of Avanti was
defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha. ˆ The Jatakas refer to a longstanding rivalry
Avanti later became part of the Magadhan between the kingdoms of Kashi and Kosala.
empire. ƒ Kashi was also involved in occasional conflicts
with Anga and Magadha.
MAHAJANAPADA – CHEDI
ˆ At one time, one of the most powerful states of
ˆ The Chedis or Chetis in eastern Bundelkhand
north India, Kashi was eventually absorbed into
near Yamuna.
the Kosalan kingdom during Buddha’s time.
ˆ Its capital was Sotthivatinagara.
ˆ Kashi emerged as a leading textile manufacture
ˆ A branch of Chedis founded a royal dynasty in the time of Buddha, the Kashya, orange
in the kingdom of Kalinga according to the brown robes of Buddhist monk are said to be
Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela. manufactured here.
MAHAJANAPADA – GANDHARA MAHAJANAPADA - KOSALA
ˆ The kingdom of Gandhara comprised modern ˆ Its territory corresponded to the modern Awadh
Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts of Pakistan in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
and the Kashmir valley. ˆ The Sarayu river divided it into a northern and
ˆ Its capital Takshashila (Taxila) was a major a southern part.
centre of trade and learning. ƒ Shravasti was the capital of north Kosala
ˆ The Taxila University was a renowned center of ƒ Kushavati the capital of south Kosala.
learning in ancient times, where scholars from all ƒ Saketa and Ayodhya were two other
over the world came to seek higher education. important towns and may once have been
political centres.

www.sleepyclasses.com 55 1800-890-3043
ˆ The kingdom was ruled by the famous king ˆ Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of
Prasenjit during the era of Mahavira and Magadha.
Buddha.
MAHAJANAPADA - MALLA
ˆ It was ultimately merged with Magadha.
ˆ The Malla principality was located to the west of
MAHAJANAPADA - KURU the Vajjis and consisted of a confederacy of nine
ˆ Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern clans.
Thanesar, state of Delhi and Meerut district of ƒ There were two political centres—at Kusinara
Uttar Pradesh. and Pava.
ˆ According to Buddhist tradition, the Kuru
ƒ The Vajjis and Mallas seem to have been
kingdom was ruled by kings belonging
allies.
to the Yuddhitthila gotta, i.e., the family of
Yudhishthira, from their capital at Indapatta ˆ Kusinara and Pava are very important in
(Indraprastha) near modern Delhi. the history of Buddhism and Jainism since
ˆ Though a well known monarchical people in Buddha and Lord Mahavira, took their last
the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have breath at Kushinara and Pava/Pavapuri
switched to a republican form of government respectively.
during the sixth to fifth centuries BC. ˆ The Mallas originally had a monarchical form
of government but later they switched to one of
MAHAJANAPADA - MAGADHA
Samgha (republic), the members of which called
ˆ Capital city - Patliputra themselves rajas.
ˆ Situated on the confluence of major rivers like ˆ The Mallas appeared to have formed an alliance
Ganga, Son, Punpun and Gandhak. with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their
ˆ The alluvial plains of this region and its independence not long after Buddha’s death and
proximity to the iron rich areas of Bihar and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan
Jharkhand helped the kingdom to develop empire.
good quality weapons and support the agrarian MAHAJANAPADA - MATSYA
economy. These factors helped Magadha to
ˆ The Matsya or Machcha tribe lay to the south
emerge as the most prosperous state of that
of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which
period.
separated them from the Panchalas.
ˆ Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagaha
ˆ The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara
(modern Rajgir in Bihar).
(modern Bairat) which is said to have been
ˆ The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagaha named after its founder king Virata.
in the Vaibhara Hills.

www.sleepyclasses.com 56 1800-890-3043
MAHAJANAPADA - PANCHALA MAHAJANAPADA - SAURSENA
ˆ The Panchalas occupied the country to the east ˆ Saursena layes to the east of Matsya and west of
of the Kurus between the mountains and river Yamuna.
Ganges. It roughly corresponded to modern ƒ Located near today’s Gwalior region of
Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining Madhya Pradesh.
districts of Uttar Pradesh.
ˆ Capital at Mathura.
ˆ It was divided into two parts by the Ganga.
ˆ Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first
ƒ The capital of Uttara (north) Panchala was among the chief disciples of Buddha, through
Ahichchhatra and that of Dakshina (south) whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura
Panchala was Kampilya. country.
ˆ The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was ˆ Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also
situated in the kingdom of Panchala. known at the time of Megasthenes as the centre
ƒ Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom
appear to have switched to republican had lost its independence on annexation by the
corporation in the sixth and fifth centuries Magadhan empire.
BC.

www.sleepyclasses.com 57 1800-890-3043
MAHAJANAPADA - VAJJI ƒ The most important members of the
ˆ Principality of the Vajji (Vrijji) was in eastern confederacy were the Lichchhavis, Videhas,
India, north of the Ganga, extending up to the and Nayas/Jnatrikas.
Nepal hills. ˆ Capital – Vaishali
ˆ Vajji was considered as a confederacy of eight
clans (with 7707 Rajas).

MAHAJANAPADA - VATSA FACTORS THAT LED TO RISE OF MAGADHA

ˆ Vatsa or Vamsa, south of the Ganga, was ˆ Out of the four powerful kingdoms viz., Avanti,
noted for its fine cotton textiles. Its capital was Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha, Magadha Empire
Kaushambi (near Allahabad). rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon
ˆ It had a monarchical form of government. other weaker states.

ˆ Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a ƒ They entered into a four-power conflict for
large number of millionaire merchants resided. imperial supremacy which ended in the ultimate
victory of Magadha Kingdom over them.
ƒ Ujjain and Kaushambi were connected by a
major trade route. ƒ It is the first successful attempt for imperial
and dynastic unification of India in the
period of recorded history.

www.sleepyclasses.com 58 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The factors that contributed to the rise of population could easily live on the yield of the
Magadha Empire were both internal and surplus land.
external. ˆ The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its
ƒ Collectivist historians emphasize that location between the Ganges and the Son.
situation and circumstances makes a leader in ƒ In the 4th Century B.C. that the Magadhan
history. It is not that leaders create history. But lands yielded multiple crops round the
in reality actors and factors collaborate in the year. People of Magadhan Empire became
creation of historical changes. prosperous due to fertility of the land and the
government became automatically rich and
FACTORS - GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS
powerful.
ˆ Magadha lay on the main land route connecting
ˆ Rivers also helped in trade and commerce.
Eastern India with the West, therefore could
easily control the trade between the two regions FACTORS - MINERAL RESOURCES
of the country.
ˆ With the dawn of the Iron Age, iron became an
ˆ Capitals were at strategic position: important metal for making implements, plough
ƒ Rajgir was surrounded by 5 hills and 4 rivers shears and weapons of war.
Ganga, Gandak, Son and Ghagra river i.e. it ˆ Magadha had abundant iron supply from Rajgir
was true Jaladurga (Waterfort). mines. Besides Magadha had copper mines.
ˆ Magadha’s new capital Pataliputra was still Magadha could equip her vast army with iron
more strategically invincible than Rajgriha. It weapons; she could sell surplus iron to other
was situated on near the confluence of the Ganges states.
and the Son, was easier to control the course of ˆ Deep ploughing with heavy iron plough was
the Ganges from the city of Pataliputra. possible due to easy supply of iron.
ˆ Rivers also made military movements easier for ƒ Iron mines were also available to Avanti, on
Magadha. account of which Avanti proved to be the
ˆ These geographical advantages of Magadha most serious competitor of Magadha for the
helped her to be aggressive against her supremacy of north India.
neighbours while baffled by the impregnability
of Magadha. FACTORS - TRADE

ˆ Due to availability of Elephant, Magadh used ˆ Magadha was situated on the land route
it in war against enemy. (Magadha was the first connecting Eastern India with the west. The
one to use the Elephants on a large scale in Army) trade flowing over this route passed through
Magadha. The river Ganges which flowed
FACTORS - AGRICULTURAL through the heart of Magadha was the high route
ˆ One of the main factors behind the rise of of trade in Northern India.
Magadhan power was her economic solvency ˆ Magadha was linked up to parts of Northern
and growing prosperity. India right up to Kasi or Baranas by the Ganga
ˆ Magadha had a vast population which could be route and from Prayag or Allahabad; the place
employed in agriculture, mining and for manning of confluence of Ganga and Yamuna, Magadha
her army. could send her merchandise along the Yamuna
route up to Delhi region.
ˆ The Sudras and the non-Aryans could be
employed in clearing up the forest and ˆ When Bimbisara conquered Anga kingdom,
reclaim surplus land for farming. The surplus its flourishing port of Champa was annexed to
Magadha.

www.sleepyclasses.com 59 1800-890-3043
ˆ Champa was a famous river port from which ƒ Shishunaga, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru,
ocean (Bay of Bengal) going vessels laden with Mahapadma and Chandragupta were
merchandise sailed to different countries of exceptionally able kings.
South-East Asia, Ceylon and South India.
FACTORS - FOREIGN INVASION
FACTORS - POLITICAL ˆ Externally, the threat of foreign invasions like
ˆ The rivalry among big monarchies prevented that of Achaemenians in the 6th century B.C.;
their alliance against Magadha. that of the Macedonians in the 4th Century
ˆ The geographical and the natural barriers like B.C. and the subsequent infiltration of foreign
the rivers, mountains and jungles prevented races boldly put forward the question that
the fostering of a united resistance movement without a central paramount government on
against Magadha. the subcontinent, it was impossible to defend it
ˆ An unbroken chain of very able and from foreign invasions.
extraordinary monarchs ascended the Magadhan ˆ Such a consciousness certainly worked behind
throne. the rise of Magadhan imperialism and prepared
the country to submit to Magadhan hegemony.

Bimbisara
Expansion of Magadha - The ˆ First Important King who ruled for 52 years from
Timeline 546 BCE(???) to 494 BCE.
ˆ He was a contemporary of both Buddha and
Ruling Dynasty - Haryanka Dynasty [Brihadratha,
Mahavira and paid equal respect to them.
Pradyota-???]
ˆ Three Pronged strategy for building the biggest
Founded in 566 BCE-??? by Bimbisara’s grandfather.
Mahajanapada -
Capital - Rajgir
ƒ Matrimonial Alliances. (Kosala, Vaishali)

www.sleepyclasses.com 60 1800-890-3043
 ƒ Friendship with strong rulers.
ƒ Conquest of weak neighbours.
y Conquered Anga by defeating its ruler Brahmadatta. Anga and specially its capital Champa were
important for the inland and maritime trade. It gave him control over trade route with the southern
states.

MARRIAGE ALLIANCES ˆ Bimbisara’s third wife, Kshema, was a daughter

ˆ Kosala - Bimbisara used marriage alliances to of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.
strengthen his position. His first wife was Kosala ˆ Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son Ajatashatru
Devi, the sister of Prasenjit (king of Kosala). in the prison of Rajgriha to ascend the throne of
the kingdom of Magadha.
ƒ His bride brought him Kashi as dowry. Kashi
ˆ Ajatashatru
was useful for trade.
ƒ Retained Kasi, but also added Vaishali to
ƒ This marriage also ended the hostility
Magadha
between Magadha and Kosala and gave him
a free hand in dealing with the other states. ƒ Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance
of the small village, Pataligrama (future
ˆ Vaishali - Bimbisara’s second wife, Chellana, Pataliputra) and fortified it to serve as a
was a Lichchhavi princess from Vaishali. convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
Mahavira was related to Queen Chellana
ˆ He was contemporary to Mahavira ( 540 BCE–
who was daughter of Mahavira’s uncle ( King
468 BCE) and Buddha (563 BCE–483 BCE)
Chetaka).
Buddha died during his reign.

www.sleepyclasses.com 61 1800-890-3043
ˆ Arranged the first Buddhist Council. ƒ Its objective was to preserve the Buddha’s
ƒ The first Buddhist Council was held soon after sayings (suttas) and the monastic discipline
the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha under the or rules (Vinaya). The Suttas were recited by
patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk Ananda, and the Vinaya was recited by Upali
Mahakasyapa presiding, at Sattapanni caves ˆ According to Buddhist texts the four kings,
Rajgriha. who ruled Magadha after Ajatashatru, all killed
their fathers..

ˆ Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin ƒ It was during his rule the second Buddhist
(462 BCE – 446 BCE) council was held.
ƒ Udayin’s main contribution was that he ˆ The Shisunaga dynasty was succeeded by the
founded the new capital at Pataliputra, kings of the Nanda dynasty (346 – 324 BCE).
situated at the confluence of the Ganga & Son. ˆ The Nandas who usurped the throne of the
ˆ Udayin was succeeded by the Nagadasaka - who Shishunaga dynasty were thought to be of
was the last king of Haryanaka dynasty. low origin with some sources stating that the
ˆ Dynasty of Shishunaga (414 BCE – 396 BCE) dynasty’s founder, Mahapadma, was the son of
a Shudra mother.
ƒ Defeated Avanti(Malwa) and made it a part
of Magadh. ƒ First Nanda King Mahapadma Nanda,
has been described in the Puranas as “the
ˆ The successor of Sisunaga was his son Kalashoka destroyer of all the Kshatriyas. He is known
(396 BCE – 368 BCE). as Ekrat (Sole king who destroyed others).

www.sleepyclasses.com 62 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela
of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga
by the Nandas.
ƒ The Nandas are sometimes described as the
first empire builders in the recorded history
of India.
ƒ The last Nanda king was Dhannanand
(arrogant and oppressive ruler)

Mauryan Empire

ˆ Alexander attacked India during the reign of

Dhannanand

MAURYAS - SOURCES
ˆ In Buddhist texts (Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa,
and Divyavadana):
ƒ The Mauryas are described as belonging to
Kshatriya clan called the Moriyas.
ƒ The Mahavamshatika connects him with the
Shakya clan of the Buddha.

www.sleepyclasses.com 63 1800-890-3043
ˆ In Jaina Text (Parishishtaparvan): ƒ He is also known by the name of Sandrocottus
ƒ describes Chandragupta as the son of the by Greek Scholars.
daughter of a chief of a village of peacock ƒ Seleucus Nicator was one of the generals of
tamers (mayura-poshakas). Alexander and after his death, had succeeded
ˆ Mudrarakshasa:(Book by Vishakadatta) in gaining control of most the Asiatic
provinces. Chandragupta defeated him in
ƒ Mudrarakshasa uses terms like kula-hina and 305 BC and was compelled to yield parts of
Vrishala for Chandragupta’s lineage. This Afghanistan to Chandragupta. There was also
means that Chandragupta had a low origin. a marriage alliance between the two.
ˆ A medieval inscription represents the Maurya y Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent
clan as belonging to the solar race of Kshatriya. by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta
MAURYAS - THE BEGINNING - SOURCES Maurya. (Book name - Indica)

ˆ Archaeological and Numismatic Sources - ˆ Built a vast empire, which included not only
good portions of Bihar and Bengal, but also
ˆ Compared to earlier levels, Mauryan levels western and north western India and the Deccan.
display a greater diversity of artefacts and a
heightening of urban features. The material ˆ Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went
evidence of the Maurya period also exists in the to Sravanabelagola (near Mysore) with
form of Ashoka’s pillars and other sculptural Bhadrabahu,
and architectural elements. ˆ Jaina Tradition speaks of the relationship between
ˆ The coins as a source became significant during Chandragupta and the Jaina saint Bhadrabahu.
the Mauryan period. The coins of this period ƒ The Maurya king is said to have accompanied
do not bear the names of the kings. They are Bhadrabahu to Karnataka in the wake of the
called Punch-marked coins (mosty made of saint’s prophecy of the impending outbreak of
silver) as different symbols are punched on them a 12-year famine in Magadha.
separately. ˆ Where he died by slow starvation. (Sallekhana -
Samlehna - Santhara).
ˆ Chandragupta was first to take title of
Devampriya and Priyadarshi.

ˆ Chandragupta took advantage of the public

resentment against Dhannanand and uprooted
the Nanda rule and set up the Mauryan Empire.
ˆ Founder - Chandragupta Maurya (322 - 297 BCE)
ƒ He inherited a large army of the Nandas,
which he used to conquer almost whole of the
North, the north-west, and a large part of the
Peninsular India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 64 1800-890-3043
MAURYAS
ˆ His son Bindusara (297 – 272/268 BCE) succeeded
him.
ƒ Called Amitochates (Amitraghata) by Greek
writers.
ƒ He is said to have conquered `the land
between the 2 seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea &
Bay of Bengal.
ƒ At the time of his death, almost the entire
subcontinent came under the Mauryan rule.
ƒ Greek Ambassador, Deimachos visited his
court.
ƒ At the end of his reign, Bindusara joined the
Ajivika sect.
ˆ The Maurya Empire c. 290 BCE: Bindausara
(ruler 298-272 BCE) The Maurya Empire c. 290 BCE: Bindausara (ruler
ˆ extended the borders of the empire southward 298-272 BCE) extended the borders of the empire
into the Deccan Plateau c. 290 BCE. southward into the Deccan Plateau c. 290 BCE.

MAURYAS

www.sleepyclasses.com 65 1800-890-3043
ˆ Ashoka (272/268 – 232 BCE) succeeded his southern and western India. But his conquest
father Bindusara. of Kalinga (262–261 BCE) proved to be the
ƒ Ashoka is called `Buddhashakya’ & ‘Ashok’ pivotal event of his life.
in Maski edict and `Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath ƒ Ashoka’s army succeeded in overwhelming
inscription. Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian
ƒ He was also known as `Devanampiya’, units, and an estimated 100,000 soldiers and
beloved of the gods, and `Piyadassi’ – of civilians were killed in the furious warfare.
pleasing appearance. ˆ Ashoka began feeling remorse. Moved by
the bloodshed in the Kalinga war, he decided
ƒ Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila
to abandon the policy of military expansion
and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara. He was
and declared that he would in future favour
at Ujjain when Bindusara, died. His formal
dhammaghosha (drum of dhamma) than
coronation was delayed for four years,
bherighosha (war drum).
suggesting a disputed succession.
ƒ He spent the rest of his life in promoting and
ƒ About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Upasaka (lay
spreading the policy of Dhamma.
disciple)
ƒ Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by
ƒ Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, banning hunting and violent sports activity
and organized missions. and ending indentured and forced labor.
ƒ He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his ƒ He maintained a large and powerful army, to
son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra keep the peace and maintain authority.
who planted there the branch of the original ƒ He undertook a massive public works
Bodhi tree. building campaign across the country. Over
ƒ Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity
at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen made Ashoka one of the most successful and
the Sangha.. famous monarchs in Indian history.
ƒ The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found
throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from
as far west as Afghanistan and as far south
as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka’s edicts
state his policies and accomplishments.
Although predominantly written in Prakrit,
two of them were written in Greek, and one
in both Greek and Aramaic.

ASHOKA’S DHAMMA
ˆ It was a code of conduct or ideal social behaviour
common to all religions of the world, which he
appealed to his subjects to follow.
ˆ Although Ashoka himself believed in Buddhism,
he never discriminated against other faiths or
EXTENT OF THE MAURYA EMPIRE AT ITS religions.
HEIGHT IN 265 BCE: ASHOKA ˆ The basic attributes of Dhamma included
ASHOKA compassion (daya), charity (dana), truthfulness,
ˆ As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, purity and gentleness.
re-asserting the Empire’s superiority in ˆ Rock edict I call for a ban on animal sacrifice

www.sleepyclasses.com 66 1800-890-3043
ˆ Rock Edict II declares measures to be taken for ˆ He found that slavery system was unknown to
the construction of hospitals, roads, inns, wells the Ancient Indian society.
and planting of shade giving trees. ˆ He describes that Indians are divided into seven
ˆ Third, Fourth and Twelfth rock edicts ask classes. Seven classes are -
people to respect parents, relatives, brahmanas 1. Philosophers
and shramanas(monks)
2. Farmers
ˆ Twelfth rock edict is specially important since
3. Shepherds and Hunters
it says “ the king Piyadassi, the beloved of the
gods, respected all sects whether ascetics or 4. Artisans and Traders
householders, and he honours them with gifts 5. Soldiers
and honours of various kinds…let an alien sect 6. Overseers
also be respected on every occasion.” 7. Councillors and Assessors
ƒ He also appointed a special type of officials
called dhamma mahamattas. Their main KAUTILYA’S ARTHSHASTRA
function was to over see and supervise the ˆ The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise
peaceful function of the principles of Dhamma. on statecraft, public administration, economic
ˆ The main features of Asoka’s Dhamma as policy and military strategy, written in Sanskrit.
mentioned in his various Edicts may be summed ˆ He mentions 7 ways to deal with neighbouring
as follows: countries - Seven ways to deal with neighboring
ƒ Service to father and mother, practice of countries:
ahimsa, love of truth, reverence to teachers ƒ Sama – Appeasement, non-aggression pact
and good treatment of relatives. ƒ Dana – Gift, bribery
ƒ Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive
ƒ Bheda – Divide, split, separating opposition
gatherings and avoiding expensive and
meaningless ceremonies and rituals. ƒ Daṇḍa – Strength, punishment
ƒ Efficient organisation of administration in the ƒ Maya– Illusion, deceit
direction of social welfare and maintenance ƒ Upekṣa – Ignoring the enemy
of constant contact with people through the ƒ Indrajala – Faking military strength
system of Dhammayatras.
ƒ Humane treatment of servants by masters and
prisoners by government officials.
ƒ Consideration and non-violence to animals and
courtesy to relations and liberality to Brahmins.
ƒ Tolerance among all the religious sects.
ƒ Conquest through Dhamma instead of
through war.

MEGASTHENES’ INDICA
ˆ Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude
of people under Chandragupta, who live simply,
honestly, and do not know writing.
ˆ According to Megasthenes, no one in India
could marry outside their genos nor could they
follow other’s occupation.

www.sleepyclasses.com 67 1800-890-3043
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Saptanga Theory: Kautilya explains the Saptanga Saptanga Theory: Kautilya explains the Saptanga
Theory or the theory of the seven elements of the Theory or the theory of the seven elements of the
state in Arthashastrta. According to him the state is state in Arthashastrta. According to him the state is
constituted by svamin (king), amatya (minister or constituted by svamin (king), amatya (minister or
high official), janapada (territory and population), high official), janapada (territory and population),
durga (fort), kosa (treasury), bala (army) and mitra durga (fort), kosa (treasury), bala (army) and mitra
(ally). (ally).
ˆ King: Svamin or king is the soul among all
PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL
the seven elements of the state. Mauryas ADMINISTRATION
regarded the subjects’ welfare and interests as
The empire was divided into four provinces, each
very important.
under a Governor.
ˆ Military Department: Mauryan army was under
ˆ The four provinces were Uttarapatha (capital–
the control of the Senapati, under whom there
Taxila), Avantipatha (Ujjain), Dakshinapatha
were several adhyakshas or superintendents of
(Suvarnagiri) and Kalinga (Tosali or Dhauli).
different wings and units of the army.
ˆ Districts: The districts was under the charge of
the Pradeshika whose position and functions are
similar to those of a modern district collector.

www.sleepyclasses.com 68 1800-890-3043
PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL
ADMINISTRATION
ˆ Land revenue: It was the main source of income
for the State, but varied from one-fourth to one-
sixth of the produce. It was directly collected
by the king’s officials from the individual
cultivators without bringing in intermediaries.
Tax exemption or reduction was done by the
king, whenever necessary.

ASHOKAN EDICTS
ˆ The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of
inscriptions on the Pillars, as well as boulders
and cave walls.
ˆ These were dispersed throughout the areas of
Modern Day - Bangladesh - India - Nepal -
Afghanistan and Pakistan and provide the first
tangible evidence of Buddhism.
ˆ The inscriptions found in the central
and eastern part of India were written
in Magadhi Prakrit using the Brahmi script,
while Prakrit Using the Kharoshthi script,
Greek and Aramaic were used in the northwest.
ˆ These edicts were deciphered by
British archaeologist and historian James
Prinsep In 1837.

www.sleepyclasses.com 69 1800-890-3043
ˆ The Edicts are divided into four categories, y Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western
according to their size (Minor or Major) and part of the empire collapsed.
according to their medium (Rock or Pillar). y The eastern part was intact under Samprati,
ˆ Minor Rock Edicts: Edicts inscribed at the successor of Dasaratha.
beginning of Ashoka’s reign; in Prakrit, Greek y The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha,
and Aramaic. who was assassinated by Pushyamitra
ƒ Minor Pillar Edicts: Schism Edict, Queen’s Sunga around 185 BCE.
Edict, Rummindei Edict, Nigali Sagar Edict; Q. Consider the following pairs:
in Prakrit.
Site of Ashoka’s major rock edicts Location in
ƒ Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts (termed 1st to the State of
14th) and 2 separate ones found in Odisha; 1. Dhauli – Odisha
in Prakrit and Greek.
2. Erragudi – Andhra Pradesh
ƒ Major Pillar Edicts: 7 Edicts, inscribed at the
3. Jaugada – Madhya Pradesh
end of Ashoka’s reign; in Prakrit.
4. Kalsi – Karnataka
Major Rock Edicts (Points to be noted)-
How many pairs given above are correctly
ˆ They refer to 14 separate major edicts, which matched? (2022)
are significantly detailed and extensive. (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs
ƒ These Edicts were concerned with practical (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs
instructions in running the kingdom such Answer: B
as the design of irrigation systems and
descriptions of Ashoka’s beliefs in peaceful The set of 14 major rock edicts (or portions thereof)
moral behaviour. occur at:

ƒ They contain little personal detail ˆ Kandahar (in Kandahar district, south
about his life. These edicts are preceded Afghanistan) (only portions of rock edicts 12 and
chronologically by the Minor Rock Edicts. 13)
ƒ Three languages were used, Prakrit, Greek ˆ Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar district, North-West
and Aramaic. The edicts are composed Frontier Province, Pakistan)
in non-standardized and archaic forms of ˆ Mansehra (Hazara district, NWFP, Pakistan)
Prakrit.
ˆ Kalsi (Dehradun district, Uttarakhand)
ƒ Prakrit inscriptions were written in Brahmi
ˆ Girnar (Junagadh district, Gujarat)
and Kharosthi scripts, which even a commoner
could read and understand. ˆ Mumbai–Sopara (originally at Sopara in Thane
district, Maharashtra; now in the Chhatrapati
LATER MAURYAS Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai;
ˆ Asoka’s death in 232 B.C. was followed by the only fragments of rock edicts 8 and 9)
division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts – ˆ Dhauli (Puri district, Orissa; separate rock edicts
western and eastern. 1 and 2 replace major rock edicts 11–13)
ƒ The western part was ruled by Kunala, son of ˆ Jaugada (Ganjam district, Orissa; separate rock
Asoka and the eastern part by Dasaratha, one edicts 1 and 2 replace major rock edicts 11–13)
of the grand sons of Asoka.

www.sleepyclasses.com 70 1800-890-3043
ˆ Erragudi (Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh)
ˆ Sannati (Gulbarga district, Karnataka; portions of rock edicts 12 and 14 and separate rock edicts 1 and 2
were found on a granite slab in a medieval goddess temple.

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 71 1800-890-3043
 FOREIGN INVASIONS BEFORE
MAURYAN EMPIRE
ˆ Herodotus statement –
ƒ According to him, Gandhara formed the
twentieth satrapy of the empire of Darius
paying a tribute of 360 talents of gold dust.

EXPANSION OF MAGADHA - THE TIMELINE

(RECAP)
ˆ Ruling Dynasty - Haryanka Dynasty
ˆ Founded in 566 BCE by Bimbisara’s grandfather.
ˆ Capital – Rajgir

IRANIAN INVASION
ˆ Cyrus -
ƒ The founder of the Achaemenid Empire in
Persia, Cyrus, led some campaigns to the east
of Iran between 558 and 530 B.C.

BIMBISARA
ˆ First Important King who ruled for 52 years from
ˆ Darius I (522-486 BCE) - 546 BCE to 494 BCE.
ƒ He invaded India and occupied the territories ˆ He was a contemporary of both Buddha and
in the North-Western Frontier Province, Sind Mahavira and paid equal respect to them.
and Punjab in 516 B.C. ˆ Three Pronged strategy for building the biggest
ƒ These parts remained with the Iranian Empire Mahajanapada -
till Alexander’s invasion of India. ƒ Matrimonial Alliances. (Kosala, Vaishali)
ƒ Friendship with strong rulers.

www.sleepyclasses.com 72 1800-890-3043
 ƒ Conquest of weak neighbours mutually quarreling states of India realized how
y Conquered Anga by defeating its ruler essential it was to join hands together to meet the
Brahmadatta. Anga and specially its capital common enemy.
Champa were important for the inland and
ENCOURAGEMENT TO TRADE
maritime trade. It gave him control over
ˆ Establishment of trade relations between the
trade route with the southern states.
two countries.
ˆ Xerxes
ˆ The Persian rulers did much to promote
ƒ He failed to make any forward movement in geographical exploration and promote trade
India due to his commitments over Greece and commerce.
conflict. ƒ Exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea
ƒ Herodotus states that Xerxes requisitioned opened a new water-route.
large number of troops including infantry and ˆ Indian ivory and teak were popular in the Persian
cavalry from India for invasion of Greece. markets. Darius used them in the construction of
ˆ Downfall of Persian Empire - his palace.
ƒ The defeat suffered by Xerxes in Greece led ˆ The India Traders and merchants now reached

to decline of Persian power in India. distant places in the Vast Persian Empire to
dispose of their goods. Similarly, the Persian
ƒ However, the Achaemenid rule over India goods began to flow smoothly into India.
continued up to 330 B.C. In that year Darius
III, the last of the Achaemenid ruler summoned SETTLEMENT OF FOREIGNERS ON INDIAN
Indian troops to fight against Alexander the SOIL
Great. ˆ large number of foreigners, Greek, Persians,
ƒ With the fall of the Persian power under the Turks etc settled down in the North-Western
impact of the invasion of Alexander the Great, parts of India. With the passage of time they
the Persian hold over India was lost. completely absorbed among the Indians.

IRANIAN INVASION - INFLUENCE AND ART AND ARCHITECTURE

IMPACTS
ˆ According to Megasthenes, the Greek
Political Impact Ambassador at the court of Chandragupta,
the Mauryan ruler adopted certain Persian
ˆ Did not affect Indian politics in any significant
ceremonies and rituals.
way.
ˆ The Mauryan art was influenced by the Persian
ƒ It only exposed the weakness of the Indian
art to some extent.
defence in that region and paved the way for
the conquest of Alexander. ˆ Traces of the Persian influence can be seen in the
Mauryan sculptures and in the Ashokan pillars.
ˆ The Iranians were followed by the Greeks, the
Sakas, the Kushans and the Huns. ƒ The polish of the Mauryan pillars manifests
the Persian influence.
ˆ However, the Satrapa system of administration
introduced by the Persians in their Indian KHAROSHTHI SCRIPT -
provinces served as a model to later dynasties
ˆ The Aramaic form of writing which the Persians
especially the Sakas and the Kushanas.
introduced in the north-western India after
ˆ India learnt the necessity of a strong and united their conquest, gradually developed into the
empire to repel the foreign invasions. It was Kharoshti script. It was written from right to
for the first time that the small, scattered and left.

www.sleepyclasses.com 73 1800-890-3043
ˆ All the Ashokan rock inscriptions in the north- SIMILARITIES
west India were engraved in the Kharoshti ˆ Both were built of stones and that too polished
script. stones.
ƒ The idea of inscribing ethical exhortations ˆ Both have certain common sculpture motifs
on rocks in the form of royal proclamations such as the lotus.
might have been borrowed from Persia.
ˆ Ashokan pillar edicts are somewhat similar to
ˆ Certain resemblances have been discovered pillar edicts of Darius.
between the Achaemenid inscriptions and
those of Ashoka. They both have the same style, ˆ Carved animals can be found in both the cases.
especially in the construction of the opening ˆ It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea
sentence. of inscribing proclamations on pillars from the
achaemenids.
INTERCHANGE OF INDO-PERSIAN CULTURE
DIFFERENCES
ˆ Indian Scholars and philosophers went to
Persia and exchanged their views freely with the ˆ Achaemenian (Persian) columns stand on
intellectuals of that country. bases, either shaped like a bell (that is, inverted
ˆ Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the lotus), or on a plain rectangular or circular block.
Mauryan art. While the independent Mauryan columns have
no base at all.
ˆ Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion
of ancient Persia. ˆ The Achaemenian shaft are built of separate
segments of stone aggregated one above the
ˆ Even before the invasion of Alexander, the other which is the work of mason. The shaft of
Persians became catalysts between the Indian the Mauryan pillar is monolithic which pertains
and Greek cultures. The Greek philosophers to the character of the work of a skilled wood-
came in contact with Indian philosophy long carver or carpenter.
before the invasion of Alexander.
ˆ The Achaemenid pillars were generally part
MAURYAN AND ACHAEMENIAN PILLARS - of some larger architectural scheme, While the
COMPARISON Ashokan columns were intended to produce
the effect of an independent freestanding
monument.

MACEDONIAN INVASION
ˆ Time Period - 326 BCE Alexander the Great-
ˆ After death of this father, Philip, he ascended the
throne of Macedon at the age of 21 only.
ˆ The Alexander’s invasion of India is an important
event in the history of ancient India. But it created
scarcely any impression in Indian mind.
ƒ The veracity of the statement is established by
the fact that the event is not referred to in any
branch of ancient Indian literature.
ƒ It is only from the Greek sources that we come
to know of the events relating to Alexander’s
invasion in India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 74 1800-890-3043
BATTLE OF HYDASPES (WAR WITH PORUS) WHY ALEXANDERS’ INVASION WAS NOT
THAT IMPORTANT ?
ˆ The King of Paurava kingdom, Porus, was
prepared to meet the army of Alexander and not ˆ Untimely death - Alexander had an ambition to
ready to surrender. annex his Indian conquests to his Greek empire.
ˆ The kingdom was situated between Jhelum and That is why he left several of his governors and
Chenab river. a large part of his army back in India. But his
untimely death put to an end all his plans.
ˆ The historic battle between Porus and Alexander
ˆ Short Stay in India - Almost 19 months and that
was fought on the bank of Jhelum river in 326
too fighting - no time to understand the Indian
B.C. The army of King Porus was huge and
culture.
Alexander carefully laid his plans.
ˆ Merely a Border Invasion
ˆ Porus bravely fought against Alexander. He
ˆ Birth of Mauryan Empire
received several wounds on his body. After
a tough battle the army of King Porus was MACEDONIAN INVASION - INFLUENCE AND
defeated. King Porus surrendered at last. IMPACTS
ˆ Alexander was highly impressed with the ˆ Political Impact -
bravery of King Porus and appointed him as a ƒ Led to Political unity of India under the
satrap of not only in his own Kingdom but also Mauryan Empire.
granted him additional territories.
ˆ Commercial Impact -
ALEXANDERS’ - RETURN FROM BEAS RIVER ƒ Opened up the land routes between the
Greek world in the West and the Indian sub-
ˆ After reaching the river Beas, the army of
continent.
Alexander refused to proceed further in spite of
his appeals. ƒ In his conquered territories, Alexander
founded cities, military posts, and Greek
ˆ Alexander, using the incorrect maps of the
settlements. Those places developed into centers
Greeks, thought that the world ended a mere
of trade in course of time.
1,000 km away, at the edge of India. He therefore
ˆ Foundation of Greek States and Cultural
spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to
Impacts-
march further into India but his general pleaded
with him to change his opinion and return. ƒ After Alexander’s departure, the Greek
generals who were left in India established
ˆ Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men
their in dependent states on the North Western
agreed and turned back.
Frontiers of India. In this way, the Indians
ˆ He marched back to the Jhelum and there came in contact with the Greeks and both of
collected a fleet of boats and sailed down the them benefited from each other.
Jhelum (Hydaspes) and the lower Indus. The rest ˆ Gandhara School of Art –
of his army marched along both the banks of the
ƒ The images of Buddha, under this art, showed
river.
a remarkable mixture of the Greek and the
ˆ Return of Alexander: Indian art of image making.
ˆ The Macedonian army returned to Persia in 324 ˆ Diplomatic Relations –
B.C. Alexander left some of his generals at the ƒ Examples of Greek Ambassador Megathenes
conquered territories who ruled the region for in the court of Chandragupta, Syrian
some years. Ambassador Deimachus and Egyptian
ˆ While Alexander was encamping at Babylon, he Ambassador Dionysius in Bindusara’s court
succumbed to a fatal attack of fever in 323 B.C. can be cited to support it.

www.sleepyclasses.com 75 1800-890-3043
 THE BACTRIANS
ˆ After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, many
Greeks came to settle on the northern western
boarders of India with Bactria (area to the north-
west of the Hindukush mountains in the present-
day north Afghanistan) as an important centre.
ƒ The rulers of Bactria came to be called the
TIMELINE - FOREIGN INVASION AFTER Bactrian-Greeks because of their Hellenistic
MAURYASV (Greek) ancestry.

ˆ The Sunga Dynasty (185 BCE – 73 BCE) ˆ Bactria and Parthia became independent from
the (Selucid)empire in the middle of the third
ˆ Kanva Dynasty (73 BCE – 28 BCE) century B.C.
ˆ Satavahanas (100BCE–2nd Century CE) ƒ Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded
ˆ The Indo-Greeks (190 BCE – 80 BCE) Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
ˆ Indo-Scythians (150 BCE – 400 CE)
THE BACTRIANS(256-120BCE)
ˆ Indo-Parthians (20 BCE – 240 CE
ˆ The most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler was
ˆ The Kushanas (30 CE – 375 CE) Menander. His empire appears to have included
southern Afghanisthan and Gandhara. Menander
extended his rule up to Mathura and from there
he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But
he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the
grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.
ˆ He has been identified with king Milinda
mentioned in the famous Buddhist text
Milindapanho which contains philosophical
questions that Milinda asked Nagasena (the
Buddhist author of the text) and informs us that
impressed by the answers, the king accepted
Buddhism as his religion.
ˆ Menander is believed to have ruled between c.
155 BCE and 130 BCE.
ˆ The Greek influence in India lasted for more than
a century after the death of Menander.

www.sleepyclasses.com 76 1800-890-3043
 FOREIGN INVASIONS BEFORE
MAURYAN EMPIRE
THE BACTRIANS & COINS
ˆ The names of many Indo-Greek rulers are
known from their coins.
ƒ Over-struck coins indicate either hostile
relations between the two rulers in question
or the fact that one of them succeeded the
other.
ƒ The large number of kings within a relatively
short period of time suggests that some of
them ruled concurrently.

IMPORTANCE OF INDO-GREEK RULE

ˆ Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of
India because of the large number of coins that
the Greeks issued.
ƒ The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers
in India to issue coins that can be
definitively attributed to particular kings.
This is not possible in the case of the early
punch-marked coins, which cannot be
assigned with certainty to any particular
dynasty.
ˆ The Greek rule introduced features of
Hellenistic art in the North-west frontier of
India.
ƒ The Gandhara art was largely Hellenistic in
the beginning, but as time passed the style
became more and more Indian and less and
less Greek.
ƒ The idea of representing the Buddha as a
human being (idol worship) originated with
the Greeks. THE SHAKAS
ˆ Shaka is the Indian term used for the people
called Scythians, who originally belonged to
Central Asia.

www.sleepyclasses.com 77 1800-890-3043
ˆ They gradually came to settle in northwestern ƒ Whoever achieved anything great adopted
India around Taxila in the first century B.C.E. this title.
ˆ The founder of Saka rule in India in the first ƒ As a result of this practice, we have as many
century B.C. was Maues. as fourteen Vikramadityas in Indian history,
ƒ The Shakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty being
and Parthia and captured them from the the most famous of them.
Greek rulers. ƒ The title continued to be fashionable with the
ƒ Following the footsteps of the Greeks, the Indian kings till the twelfth century, and it
Shakas gradually extended their rule over was especially prevalent in the western part
northwestern India. of India and the western Deccan.
ƒ Under the successive Shaka rulers their
CONFLICT BETWEEN SHAKAS AND
territories extended up to Mathura and
SATVAHANAS
Gujarat
ƒ There were two different groups of Sakas – the ˆ The Shakas were involved in prolonged conflict
Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the with the Satavahanas, a powerful dynasty with
Western satraps ruling over Maharashtra. its stronghold in the Deccan.

ˆ Most famous of all the Shaka rulers was ˆ Control over certain areas, especially those that
Rudradaman who ruled in the middle of second gave access to the western seaboard, seems to
century C.E. have frequently changed hands.

ƒ His empire was spread over almost whole of ˆ The Nashik and Pune areas, for instance, seem
western India. to have been conquered from the Satavahanas
either by Nahapana or one of his predecessors.
ƒ He is famous in history because of the repairs
he undertook to improve the Sudarshana lake ˆ However, in 124–25 CE, Nahapana was
in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar which apparently killed by the Satavahana ruler
had been in use for irrigation for a long time Gautamiputra Satakarni.
and dated back to the Mauryas. ˆ This is evident from the discovery of
ƒ His achievements are known through the only Gautamiputra’s inscriptions in the Nashik and
inscription that he got engraved on a boulder Pune districts, his re-striking Nahapana’s coins.
at Girnar or Junagarh. This inscription
THE SHAKAS
happens to be the first royal inscription of
early India composed in chaste Sanskrit. ˆ Rudradaman I (AD 130-50) - Most famous
Shaka ruler.
ˆ Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the
Parthians.
ˆ The Shakas did not face any effective resistance
from the rulers and people of India.
ˆ In about 57–58 BC we hear of the king of Ujjain
who effectively fought against the Shakas and
succeeded in driving them out during his reign.
He called himself Vikramaditya, and an era
called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from his
victory over the Shakas in 57 BC-???
ˆ From this time onwards, Vikramaditya became a
coveted title.

www.sleepyclasses.com 78 1800-890-3043
JUNAGADH ROCK INSCRIPTION ƒ The purpose of the inscription is to record the
ˆ A rock at Junagadh in Gujarat bears a set of restoration of a reservoir called Sudarshana
Ashokan edicts, an inscription of the Shaka lake by the Rudradaman.
ruler Rudradaman, and an inscription of the ƒ The construction of this reservoir was started
Gupta king Skandagupta. by Vaishya Pushyagupta, the provincial
ˆ While Ashoka’s inscriptions contain his governor of Chandragupta Maurya.
discourses on dhamma, the other two tell a ˆ Eulogy (prashasti) of Rudradaman:
unique story of the construction, maintenance, ƒ The inscription also contains an eloquent
and repair of a water reservoir over about 1,000 eulogy (prashasti) of Rudradaman.
years.
ƒ It states that he twice defeated Satakarni, lord
ˆ Rudradaman’s inscription: of the Dakshinapatha, but did not destroy
ƒ Rudradaman’s inscription, consisting of 20 him since he was a close relative.
lines of writing. y The Satakarni mentioned here seems
ƒ The script is Brahmi, the language Sanskrit, to be Gautamiputra Satakarni-???.
and the style elegant and literary. In fact, this Rudradaman’s daughter seems to have
is the first long inscription in Sanskrit in the been married to Gautamiputra’s son,
subcontinent. Vasishthiputra Pulumavi.

THE PARTHIANS ˆ The Parthians were of Iranian origin and because

of strong cultural connection with the Shakas,
ˆ Shaka domination in north-western India was
these groups were referred to in the Indian
followed by that of the Parthians, and in many
sources as Shaka-Pahlava.
ancient Indian Sanskrit texts, the two people are
mentioned together as Shaka–Pahlavas.

www.sleepyclasses.com 79 1800-890-3043
ˆ They first came to Bactria displacing the Shakas. THE KUSHANAS
Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley ˆ The Parthians were followed by the Kushans,
and seized the Gandhara region. who are also called Yuechis. The Kushanas,
ˆ They first came to Bactria displacing the Shakas. originally belonged to western China.
Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley ˆ The Kushanas, after defeating Shakas, created a
and seized the Gandhara region. big empire in Pakistan.
ƒ In fact, both of them ruled over India in ˆ The first prominent ruler of the Kushana dynasty
parallel for some time. was Kujula Kadphises. He was succeeded by his
ˆ Originally the Parthians or the Pahlavas lived son Vima Kadphises.
in Iran from where they moved to India. In ƒ The coins of Kadphises I suggest an association
comparison to the Greeks and the Shakas, they with Buddhism
occupied only a small portion of north-western
India in the first century AD. ƒ Vima Kadphises issued gold coins with high-
sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole
ˆ The history of Scytho-Parthian rule in India is World’. He was a devotee of Lord Siva.
known largely through inscriptions and coins.
ˆ Next ruler was Kanishka.
ˆ The Shakas and Scytho-Parthians ruled through
governors or subordinate rulers known as ƒ He was the most famous of the Kushanas. He
kshatrapas and mahakshatrapas who played an probably ascended the throne in C.E. 78, and
important role in the expansion of the empire. started a new era, now known as the Shaka
era. (Used by the Government of India)
ˆ The most famous Parthian king was
Gondophernes during whose reign St Thomas is
said to have come to India to propagate Christianity.
ˆ In course of time, the Parthians, like the Shakas
before them, became an integral part of Indian
polity and society.

ˆ At the time of his accession his empire included

Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and Punjab.
Subsequently he conquered Magadha and
extended his power as far as Pataliputra and
Bodh Gaya.
ƒ According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded
Kashmir and occupied it. His coins are

www.sleepyclasses.com 80 1800-890-3043
 found in many places like Mathura, Sravasti, KUSHANAS
Kausambi and Benares and therefore, he ˆ The Kushanas patronized the Gandhara and the
must have conquered the greater part of the
Mathura schools of sculptural art.
Gangetic plain.
ˆ The successors of Kanishka ruled for another
ˆ The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending
one hundred and fifty years. Huvishka was the
from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east,
son of Kanishka and he kept the empire intact.
and from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the
Mathura became an important city under his
south.
rule.
ƒ His capital was Purushapura or modern day
Peshawar. Mathura was another important ˆ The last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva.
city in his empire. The Kushana empire was very much reduced in
his rule. Most of his inscriptions are found in and
ˆ The Rabatak inscription from Afghanistan gives
around Mathura.
valuable information of Kanishka’s reign.
ˆ After Vasudeva, lesser Kushan princes ruled for
sometime in northwestern India.

4TH BUDDHIST COUNCIL

ˆ Kanishka is famous in history as a great patron
of Buddhism.
ˆ He convened the fourth Buddhist Council at
Kundalavana (present day Harwan near Srinagar
in Jammu and Kashmir) in which a large number
of Buddhist scholars took part.
ƒ It was in this council that Buddhism got split
into two schools – Hinayana and Mahayana.
KUSHANA - ADMINISTRATION The Council prepared an authoritative
commentary on the Tipitakas
ˆ Their vast empire helped in the growth of
internal and external trade. It resulted in the rise KANISHKA
of new urban centres. The rich state of economy
ˆ He built in the city of Purushpura (present day
under the Kushanas is also evidenced by the
Peshawar), his capital, a giant stupa to house the
large number of gold and copper coins that they
Buddha’s relics.
struck. (Gold coins with highest purity during
Ancient India). ˆ Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia
and China for the propagation of the new faith.
ˆ Reason for decline - Decline in trade.
Buddhist chaityas and viharas were built in
different places.
ˆ He issued a large number of coins and his coins
exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also
Greek and Hindu gods.

SUMMARISING CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS

ˆ These foreign groups gradually lost their
foreign identity and were incorporated in the

www.sleepyclasses.com 81 1800-890-3043
 Brahmanical society as kshatriyas. Many of HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION
them adopted Buddhism.
ˆ Central Asian contacts also brought to India new
methods of making coins.
ƒ The crude punch-marked coins which were
used earlier gradually gave way to refined
Greek style coins containing legends and the
bust of the ruler.
ˆ Central Asian contacts brought a fresh wave in
the art of sculpture making. Buddhist sculptures
of the Gandhara school evolved as a result of
the amalgamation of the Indian and the Greek
styles.

KALINGA/KHARAVELA/CHEDI DYNASTY Satvahanas

ˆ Kharavela (193 BCE–170 BCE) was the greatest
king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty
of Kaḷinga. It was an ancient ruling dynasty
of Kalinga after the decline of the Mauryan
Empire.
ƒ The main source of information about
Kharaveḷa is his famous seventeen line rock-
cut Hatigumpha inscription in a cave in the
Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
According to the inscription, Kharavela
belonged to the Chedi clan.
ƒ During the reign of Kharavela, the Chedi
dynasty of Kaḷinga ascended to eminence and
restored the lost power and glory of Kaḷinga,
which had been subdued since the devastating
war with Ashoka.
ƒ Alhough religiously tolerant, Kharaveḷa
patronized Jainism.
ƒ Under Kharavela‘s generalship, the Kaḷinga
state had a formidable maritime reach with
trade routes linking it to the then Simhala (Sri
Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand),
Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Malaysia,
Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and
Jabadwipa (Java).

www.sleepyclasses.com 82 1800-890-3043
ˆ The process of change in Deccan started with where their earliest coins and inscriptions have
Mauryan expansion in the Deccan. been found, establishing power in the upper
ƒ The Mauryas were primarily interested in Godavari valley, which currently produces rich
exploiting the mineral resources of the and diverse crops in Maharashtra.
Deccan peninsula. The gold, diamonds ˆ Gradually the Satavahanas extended their power
and gems from the mines in Karnataka and over Karnataka and Andhra.
Andhra were transported to Magadha in the
north through a series of land and coastal SATVAHANAS
routes. ˆ Simuka and Kanha:
ƒ Many chiefs known as Maharathis became ƒ According to Purana tradition it was
important in several scattered pockets. Simuka who established Satavahana power.
ƒ But it was under the Satavahanas who were ƒ He was succeeded by his brother Kanha
related by marriage to the Maharathis that the or Krishna, who is known to us from an
first state emerged in the Deccan. inscription at Nasik. He extended the kingdom
ˆ The most important of the native successors up to Nasik in the west.
of the Mauryas in the north were the Shungas
SATKARNI I
followed by the Kanvas.
ˆ The third king was Sri Satakarni or Satakarni I
ˆ In the Deccan and in central India, the
enjoyed a long reign of about 56 years.
Satavahanas succeeded the Mauryas, (although
after a gap of about 100 years) with its centre at ƒ In addition to the Kshatrapas, an early
Pratishtana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra) in Satavahana had to contend with the power of
the first century B.C. Their rule lasted for about Kharavela.
450 years. ƒ Kharavela, the Chedi king of Kalinga, claims
ƒ The Satavahanas are considered to be the same in his Hathigumpha inscription to have defied
as the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas. a king named Satakarni and dispatched an
army to the west without caring for Satakarni.
ƒ The Puranas speak only of Andhra rule and
not of Satavahana rule, and the name Andhra ƒ Some scholars think that these events took
does not figure in Satavahana inscriptions. place during the reign of Satakarni I, while
others think they occurred during the reign of
SATVAHANAS - INSCRIPTIONS a later king with the same name.
ˆ The inscriptions are found in Buddhist caves ˆ This suggests that early Satavahana power
cut in the rock and record donations made by suffered setbacks both at the hands of the
Satavahana kings and queens as well as by a Kshatrapas and of Kharavela.
large number of ordinary people.
GAUTMIPUTRA SATKARNI
ƒ Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and
Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on ˆ The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was
the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Gautamiputra Satakarni. He ruled for a period of
24 years from 106 to 130 CE.
ˆ The earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas
relate to the first century BC, when they defeated ˆ He captured the whole of Deccan and expanded
the Kanvas and established power in parts of his empire. His victory over Nahapana, the ruler
central India. of Malwa was remarkable.
ˆ The early Satavahana kings ruled not in Andhra ˆ He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave
but in north Maharashtra (Western Deccan) donations to Buddhists.

www.sleepyclasses.com 83 1800-890-3043
ˆ The Satavahanas and Shakas were involved in ˆ Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his
prolonged conflict. son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi.
ˆ The Satavahanas and Shakas were involved in ƒ He extended the Satavahana power up to the
prolonged conflict. mouth of the Krishna river.
ƒ The Shaka Kshatrapas were involved in ƒ He issued coins on which the image of ships
prolonged conflict with the Satavahanas, a was inscribed. They reveal the naval power
powerful dynasty with its stronghold in the and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.
Deccan.
SATVAHANAS
ƒ Control over certain areas, especially those
that gave access to the western seaboard,
seems to have frequently changed hands.
ƒ Control over the premier ports such as
Bhrigukachcha (Broach), Kalyan, and
Suparaka (Sopara) was an important issue in
this conflict.
ˆ The fortunes of the Satavahanas were revived by
Gautamiputra Satakarni, during whose reign the
empire seems to have reached its peak.
ƒ Gautamiputra Satakarni is said to have
destroyed the power of the Shakas.

VASHISHTAPUTRA SATKARNI
ˆ Vashishtiputra Satakarni was in great conflict
with the Scythian Western Kshatrapas in the
West, but he eventually married the daughter of
Rudradaman I (AD 130-50) of the Western Kshatrapa
dynasty, in order to forge an alliance.
ˆ Later however, he was defeated by Rudradaman
I-???, with serious effect on Satavahana power
and prestige as mentioned in Junagadh rock
inscription.

ADMINISTRATION UNDER SATVAHANAS

ˆ Revenue and Land Grant -
ƒ The state collected taxes both from agriculture
and trade.
VASHISTAPUTRA PULAMAYI ƒ The earliest surviving inscriptions of land
ˆ Gautamiputra was the first Satavahana ruler to grant including those with fiscal exemptions
issue the portrait-type coinage, in a style derived belongs to the Satavahana and Kshatrapa
from the Western Satraps. periods.

www.sleepyclasses.com 84 1800-890-3043
ˆ Satavahana rulers donated revenue of a village ˆ Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for
to either a Brahmana or the Buddhist Sangha. trade. The Satavahana period also witnessed
ƒ In the case of the Satavahanas (as well as the overseas commercial activity.
Ikshvakus), there was a trend of royal women ˆ The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and
making donations to Buddhist establishments, Brahmanism. They built chaityas and viharas.
while royal men concentrated on patronizing They also made grants of villages and lands to
Brahmanas and Hindu temples. Buddhist monks.
ˆ Feudatories – ˆ Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas
ƒ Peculiar feature of the Satavahana
SATVAHANAS - FAMILY STRUCTURE
administration was the presence of feudatories
of different grade.They had divided their ˆ Four Fold division of the society.
empire among a number of feudal chiefs who ˆ Shows a Matrilineal social structure.
managed the land revenue system and looked ƒ It was customary for their king to be named
after the administration. after his mother such as Gautamiputra,
ˆ There were 3 grades of feudatories - Vashishthiputra, Pulumavi, Kaushakiputra
ƒ Raja - The highest grade was formed by the etc.
king who was called raja and had the right to ƒ This indicate that in their society the mother
strike coins and impose taxes. enjoyed a great deal of importance.
ƒ Mahabhoja - Ruler of Provinces. ƒ Sometimes an inscription is issued both under
ƒ Maharathi or Senapati the authority of the king and his mother.
y local rulers who had emerged in the pre- ƒ Queens made important religious gifts in
Satavahana period—were encapsulated their own right, and some of them acted as
and integrated into the Satavahana polity. regents.
ƒ Women were given higher education and
SATVAHANAS - DECLINE they took part in religious functions.
ˆ The Satavahana kingdom was wiped out in the y They also took part in the Ashvamedhas.
first quarter of the third century CE and the
Satavahanas kings were succeeded by the Kings ˆ However, the Satavahana ruling family was
of lkshvaku dynasty basically patriarchal because succession to the
throne passed to the male member.
ˆ Satavahanas kings were the first in Indian history
to make tax free land grants to Buddhists and
Brahmanas to gain religious merit. PYQ
ˆ The Satavahana kings claimed to be Brahmanas Q. With reference to the invaders in ancient
and considered it their primary duty to uphold India, which one of the following is the correct
varna system i.e. the four-fold division of social chronological order? [2006]
structure.
(a) Greeks-Sakas-Kushanas
SATVAHANAS - ECONOMY AND CULTURE (b) Greeks- Kushanas-Sakas
ˆ There was a remarkable growth of trade. (c) Sakas-Greeks- Kushanas
Merchants guilds and crafts guilds were (d) Sakas-Kushanas-Greeks
organized. Answer: A

www.sleepyclasses.com 85 1800-890-3043
ˆ “Indo-Scythians(Sakas)” (150 BCE-400 CE)

Q. The Badami rock inscription of Pulakesin I is C. Gupta era 3. 78 A.D.

dated in the Saka year 465. If the same were to D. Kali era 4. 58 B.C.
be dated in Vikrama Samvat, the year would
5. 248 A.D.
be: [1997]
Codes:
(a) 601 (b) 300
(a) A – 2; B – 4; C – 5; D – 1
(c) 330 (d) 407
(b) A – 1; B – 3; C – 2; D – 4
Answer: A
(c) A – 4; B – 5; C – 2; D – 3
SAKA ERA & VIKRAM SAMVAT (d) A – 4; B – 3; C – 2; D – 1
Explanation Answer: D
ƒ Saka era started in 78 AD, while Vikram era Explanation
ƒ started from 58 BC. So if we want to convert ˆ 248 A.D. is Kalachuri era. Vikram era was started
Badami ˆ by king Vikramaditya. Shaka era was started by
ƒ rock inscription of Pulakesin I to Vikram era, ˆ Kanishka. Gupta era was started by
it will Chandragupta-I.
ƒ be 465 + 78 + 58 = 601 Vikram Samvat. Q. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called
Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas.
answer (using codes given below the lists) What is the difference between the two? (2013)
[1995] (a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is
List-I (Eras) List-II (Reckoned from) the dwelling place of the monks
A. Vikrama era 1. 3102 B.C. (b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is
B. Saka era 2. 320 A.D. the dwelling place of the monks

www.sleepyclasses.com 86 1800-890-3043
 (c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, Q. With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient
while Vihara is the hall axial to it India that played a very important role in the
(d) There is no material difference between the country’s economy, which of the following
two statements is /are correct?(2012)
Answer: B 1. Every guild was registered with the central
authority of the State and the king was the
“Chaityas” & “viharas” chief administrative authority on them.
Answer : B 2. The wages, rules of work, standards and
prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had judicial powers over its own
members.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below :
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C

GUILDS

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 87 1800-890-3043
 GUPTA EMPIRE 320 CE - 550 CE GOLDEN
AGE OF ANCIENT INDIA

SOURCES OF INFORMATION
ˆ End of Kushanas - Paved the way for the
rise of the Gupta Empire (mid to late 3rd century
CE).
ˆ Sources from where we get the information -
ƒ Inscriptions - Mostly on stone, some on
copper plates - Prashastis - Royal Land
Grants - Donative Inscriptions.
ƒ Coins - Gold Coins (dinaras), Silver Coins,
Copper coins are rare in Gupta Period.
y Bear the name and epithets of kings,
including legends.
y The obverse generally had a representation
of the king and the reverse an image of a
deity, sometimes accompanied by a date.
ƒ Seals and Sealings

www.sleepyclasses.com 88 1800-890-3043
SANSKRIT LITERATURE century A.D., their power had become
ˆ Important developments took place in the sphere considerably weak, and the Satavahana
of Sanskrit literature during c. 300–600 CE. state had disappeared before the middle of
ˆ The epics and major Puranas were given final the third century A.D.
shape, and these texts form important sources ƒ This does not however mean that there was
for religious and cultural processes of the time. complete political vacuum.
ˆ Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a work on polity y There was no major political power but
addressed to the king, was composed in the 4th there were minor powers and new families
century CE. of rulers were emerging.
ˆ The Jaina Harivamsha Purana (8th century) give y It was in this situation that the Guptas
some details concerning political chronology. began to build up an empire from the
ˆ Fragments of the Devi-Chandragupta, a lost beginning of the fourth century A.D.
drama written by Vishakhadatta, were found ˆ Western and Central India -
preserved in a manuscript of Bhoja’s Shringara- ƒ A branch of Kshatrapa rulers had established
Prakasha, and are relevant for Gupta political themselves in Western India in the post-
history. Mauryan period.
TRAVELLER’S ACCOUNT - ƒ However, Kshatrapa rule came to an end
ˆ Chinese Travellers Accounts - Between the towards the close of the fourth century
late 3rd and 8th centuries, many Chinese monks A.D. when Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II
traveled to India in order to collect Buddhist texts, conquered and annexed their territories.
visit important places of Buddhist pilgrimage, ƒ In the region of ancient Vidarbha, the core of
and interact with Indian monks. The stream of which was Nagpur in northeast Maharashtra,
Chinese monk-scholars reached its peak in the a new power had emerged by the middle of
5th century. - Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing. the third century A.D. This power was that of
ˆ Faxian - wrote an account of his travels called the the Vakatakas, a new line of rulers started by
Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (‘A Record of Buddhist Vindhyasakti.
Kingdoms’). ƒ Vakataka power soon became formidable and
ƒ Although the book does not mention the a branch was also established at Vatsagulma
name of the reigning king (who must have (modem Basim in Akola district).
been Chandragupta II), it contains several ƒ The Vakataka family later on came into close
observations about the life of the people, some contact with the Guptas, particularly after a
erroneous, others useful. matrimonial alliancewas formed between
the two families.
BACKGROUND - POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ˆ Deccan and South India -
ˆ Political Condition on Indian Soil -
ƒ The ruling family of the Pallavas, which
ƒ In the beginning of the fourth century A.D. no
became a formidable power in Tamilnadu till
large state structure existed in India.
the ninth century is known from their records
y In the post-Mauryan period two large state to have started ruling from the middle of the
structures had emerged in north India and third century A.D.
in the Deccan.
y The inscriptions of the early Pallava rulers
y These were the Kushana state of the north were written in the Prakrit language and
and the Satavahana state of the Deccan. were in the form of copper plates. They are
y But although the Kushanas and Saka chiefs generally assigned to the period between
continued to rule even in early fourth century 250-350 A.D.

www.sleepyclasses.com 89 1800-890-3043
 y Kanchi or Kanchipuram in Tamilnadu ˆ They could exploit the iron ores of central India
became the capital of the Pallavas and and south Bihar.
when Gupta ruler Samudragupta led an ˆ Further, they took advantage of their proximity
expedition to the south, he encountered to the areas in north India which carried on silk
Pallavan king Vishnugopa at Kanchi. trade with the Byzantine Empire.
BACKGROUND - EAST INDIA FOUNDATION – TIMELINE
ˆ Political Condition on Indian Soil - ˆ Founder - Sri Gupta, and he was succeeded by
ƒ In many areas like Bengal, Orissa, forest his son Ghatokacha. (Debate-????)
regions of Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere ƒ These 2 kings were called as Maharajas (this
kingdoms were emerging for the first time. title was often taken by feudatory chiefs)
This was a new trend and was very significant
for the later course of political history. ƒ Later, Chandragupta I came into the line of
succession and he can be termed as the real
ˆ Thus, it was the fragmented political condition founder of Gupta Empire.
after fall of Kushanas and Satavahana that
Gupta could built upon a large empire. ƒ The year of his succession 319 CE, marks as
the beginning of Gupta Empire.
GUPTA’S ORIGIN ˆ He was the first one who took the title of
ˆ Important Point - The Gupta records do not Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings).
mention the dynasty’s varna (social class). ƒ This title indicates his extensive conquests.
There are various contested theories that
ƒ He strengthened his position by a matrimonial
whether Guptas were Vaishyas or Kshatriyas or
alliance with the Licchavis - This event is
Brahmans.
recorded in a series of gold coins issued by
ˆ The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Chandragupta as it gave legitimacy, prestige
Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have and strength to the Gupta King.
succeeded them without any wide time-lag.
ˆ He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Saket (Modern
ƒ At many places in UP and Bihar, Kushan Ayodhya) and Prayaga (Modern Allahabad)
antiquities are immediately followed by with his capital at Pataliputra (Modern Patna).
Gupta antiquities.
ƒ The coins were made of gold, and this fact in
addition to the fact that the Guptas followed
the weight system of Kushana gold coins
suggests that the Guptas had been in contact
with the Kushana territories.
ƒ Literary and archaeological sources indicate
that they became independent in the second
decade of the fourth century A.D.

WHAT MADE THEM SPECIAL ?

ˆ The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages
which helped them building empire.
ˆ The centre of their operations lay in the fertile
land of Madhyadesha covering Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh.

www.sleepyclasses.com 90 1800-890-3043
ˆ Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, ˆ Achievements are recorded in a long inscription
depicted on a coin of their son, Samudragupta (prashasti), written in pure Sanskrit by his court
poet Harisena.
SAMUDRAGUPTA
ƒ This inscription is engraved on a pillar at
ˆ Succeeded his father Chandragupta I. Allahabad (Allahabad Pillar Inscription)
ˆ Followed the policy of conquest and enormously y Enumerates the regions conquered by
enlarged his kingdom. Samudragupta and also speaks of his
ˆ He celebrated his conquests by performing a magnanimity to his foes, his polished
horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha) and by issuing intellect, his poetic skills and his proficiency
ashvmedha type of coins. in music.
ƒ Coins were also issued depicting his image y Samudragupta is referred to as Lichchhavi-
playing veena - proof of his proficiency in dauhitra (grandson of the Lichchhavis) in
music. his Allahabad prashasti.
ˆ A fragmentary prashasti of this king is carved y The inscription calls him Kaviraja because
on a block of red sandstone at Eran. of his ability to compose verses.
ƒ This stone inscription was found by Alexander ˆ He was also a patron of many poets and scholars,
Cunningham near the Varaha temple. one of whom was Harisena.
ƒ The inscription mentions the Gupta king ˆ He must be credited with a share in the
Samudragupta who is compared with promotion of Sanskrit literature and learning,
Dhanada (Kubera) and Antaka (Yama) in joy characteristic of his dynasty.
and wrath respectively. ˆ He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but
ƒ Eran is the site of first reported monument was tolerant of other creeds.
of Sati dated 510 AD in India. ˆ He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and
was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar
ERAN INSCRIPTION (510 AD)
Vasubandhu.
ˆ Early Evidence of Sati
SAMUDRAGUPTA - MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
ˆ The Allahabad Pillar Inscription refers to three
stages in his military campaign:
ˆ First Stage -
ƒ Against some rulers of North India – In the
Ganga-Yamuna doab, he followed a policy of
annexation
y In the first campaign Samudragupta
defeated Achyuta and Nagasena.
y Achyuta was probably a Naga ruler.
y Nagasena belonged to the Kota family
SAMUDRAGUPTA
which was ruling over the upper Gangetic
ˆ Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta valley.
rightly describes him as the hero of a hundred
ƒ They were defeated and their states were
battles, and Vincent Smith calls him the
annexed.
‘Napoleon of India’. His name appears in the
Javanese text `Tantrikamandaka’.

www.sleepyclasses.com 91 1800-890-3043
ˆ Second Stage - ˆ Though he had spread his influence over a
ƒ He then proceeded to conquer the forest vast area, Samudragupta exercised direct
kingdoms of central India, mentioned as administrative control mainly over Indo-
atavirajyas. Gangetic basin.

ƒ The rulers of these tribal areas were defeated

and forced into servitude.
ƒ This area had a strategic value as it contained
a route to south India.
ƒ It enabled Samudragupta to proceed to South
along the eastern coast conquering twelve
kings on the way and reached as far as Kanchi
near Chennai.
ƒ Samudragupta’s policy in South India was
different. He did not destroy and annex those
kingdoms.
ƒ Instead, he defeated the rulers but gave them
back their kingdoms. He only insisted on
them to acknowledge his suzerainty.
ƒ This policy of political conciliation for south
India was adopted because he knew that it
was difficult to keep them under control and ˆ After these conquests, Samudragupta’s rule
subservience once he returned to his capital in extended over the upper Gangetic valley, the
north. greater part of modern U.P., a portion of central
ƒ So it was enough for him that these states India and the southwestern part of Bengal.
recognised his suzerainty and paid him ˆ These territories were directly administered by
tributes and presents. him.
ˆ Third Stage - ˆ In the south there were tributary states.
ƒ A second campaign against some other rulers ˆ The Saka and Kushana principalities on the
of North India to eliminate his remaining west and northwest were within the sphere of
north Indian rivals. his influence.
ƒ According to the Allahabad inscription, ˆ The kingdoms on the east coast of the Deccan,
neighbouring five frontier kingdoms and as far as the Pallava Kingdom, acknowledged
nine republican states of Punjab and western his suzerainty.
India were overawed by the conquests of ˆ At the end of his reign, Samudragupta’s empire
Samudragupta. seems to have comprised much of northern India,
ƒ They agreed to pay tribute and taxes to with the exception of Kashmir, western Punjab,
Samudragupta and obey his orders without Rajasthan, Sindh, and Gujarat.
any fight. ˆ Still further south lay the island of Sri Lanka,
ƒ The inscription adds that Samudragupta also which, we are told, also acknowledged Gupta
received tributes from many kings of south - suzerainty.
east Asia. ˆ The Guptas did not create an all-India empire
under their direct control.

www.sleepyclasses.com 92 1800-890-3043
 ƒ But through their successful military CHANDRAGUPTA II
campaigns, they did establish a network of ˆ He succeeded his father Samudragupta.
political relationships of paramountcy and
subordination that extended over a large part ˆ He is also known as Chandragupta
of the subcontinent. Vikramaditya.
ˆ Visakhadatta’s drama Devi Chandraguptam
SAMUDRAGUPTA’S RELIGIOUS IDEAS mentions that Chandragupta II killed his elder
ˆ Samudragupta had imbibed the true spirit of brother Ramagupta. (Story of Dhruvadevi)
religion and for that reason, he has been described ˆ During his rule, the Gupta Empire achieved its
as ‘Anukampavan‘ (full of compassion) in the zenith.
Allahabad inscription. He has been described
‘as the giver of many hundreds of thousands of ƒ Art, architecture, and sculpture flourished,
cows’. and the cultural development of ancient India
reached its climax.
ˆ Samudragupta was the up-holder of
Brahmanical religion. Because of his services to ƒ The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty
the cause of religion the Allahabad inscription is very often referred to as the “Golden Age of
mentions the qualifying title of ‘Dharma Prachar India”.
Bandhu‘ for him. ˆ Inherited the military genius of his father and
ƒ His Ashvamedha types of coins together with extend the Gupta Empire by his own conquests.
other coins bearing the figures of Lakshmi He achieved this by a judicious combination of
and Ganga together with her ‘vahana’ the policy of diplomacy and warfare.
(transport) makara (crocodile) testify his ˆ Matrimonial Alliance.
faith in Brahmanical religions (‘Vahana’ of
ƒ Strengthened the political power by marrying
Lakshmi-???).
Kubernaga, A Naga princess of central India.
ƒ But he was tolerant towards other religions.
His patronage to Buddhist scholar ƒ Married his daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka
Vasubandhu and the acceptance of the King Rudrasena II.
request of Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri y After the death of her husband, Prabhavati
Lanka to build a Buddhist monastery at ruled the territory as regent to her minor son
Bodh Gaya (That monastery was called by with the help of her father. The control of
Chinese Traveller Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Vakataka territory proved very beneficial
Sangharama) amply prove that he respected to Chandragupta II
other religions. ƒ The political importance of this marriage
SAMUDRAGUPTA PLAYING THE VEENA lies in the fact that the Vakatakas occupied
a geographically strategic position in the
Deccan.
ƒ This served a useful purpose when
Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign in
western India against the Sakas.

CONQUESTS OF WESTERN INDIA -

ˆ Greatest Military Achievement - War against the
Saka satraps of Western India.
ƒ As a result of the conquest of western India,
the western boundary of the Empire reached

www.sleepyclasses.com 93 1800-890-3043
 to the Arabian Sea gaining access to Broach, ˆ The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hien (CE 404–
Sopara, Cambay and other sea ports. 411) visited India during his reign.
ƒ This enabled the Gupta empire to control
IRON PILLAR INSCRIPTION AT MEHRAULI
trade with the western countries.
y Ujjain became an important commercial
city and soon became the alternative
capital of the Guptas.
ƒ The western traders poured Roman gold
into India in return for Indian products.
The great wealth of the Gupta Empire was
manifested in the variety of gold coins issued
by Chandragupta II.

ˆ The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hien visited

India during his reign.
ƒ Out of his nine years stay in India, he spent
six years in the Gupta empire.
ƒ He came to India by the land route through
Gandhara and Punjab.
y He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj,
ˆ The Gupta empire extended in the west as far as
Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara,
western Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar.
Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among
ˆ In the northwest it extended beyond the other places.
Hindukush up to Bactria.
y He returned by the sea route, visiting on
ˆ In the east, it included even eastern Bengal the way Ceylon and Java.
and in the south the Narmada river formed the
ƒ The main purpose of his visit was to see the
boundary.
land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist
ˆ Iron Pillar Inscription at Mehrauli manuscripts from India. He stayed in
ƒ Indicates that his empire even included north- Pataliputra for three years studying Sanskrit
western India and Bengal. and copying Buddhist texts.
ˆ He is remembered for his patronage of art and ƒ According to him, Buddhism was in a
literature and is credited with maintaining nine flourishing condition in the northwestern
luminaries (navaratna) in his court. India but in the Gangetic valley it was in a
state of neglect. He refers to the Gangetic
ƒ The great Sanskrit poet and playwright
valley as the ‘land of Brahmanism’.
Kalidasa was the most notable of them all.

www.sleepyclasses.com 94 1800-890-3043
ˆ Nine Gems during ChandraGupta: KUMARAGUPTA (CE 415 - 455)
y Indian tradition claims that Dhanwanthari, ˆ Succeeded his father Chandragupta II.
Kshapanaka, Amarasimha, Shankhu, ˆ He assumed the title Mahendraditya.
Khatakarpara, Kalidasa, Vetalbhatt (or
Vetalabhatta), Vararuchi, and Varahamihira ˆ During his reign - There was general peace and
were a part of Chandragupta’s court. prosperity.

y The king commissioned nine men of letters, ˆ He issued a large number of coins, His coins
called the “nava-ratna”, to work in his have representations of the god Karttikeya.
court. ˆ Most importantly, he laid the foundation of the
ˆ Kalidasa: Nalanda University

y Author of the great epic, ‘Shakuntala’, great ˆ He was able to maintain the empire built up by
poet, dramatist and the most prominent his father but during the later part of his reign
scholar of Sanskrit language. there was a threat from the Hunas of Central
Asia.
ˆ Amarnatha:
ƒ After occupying Bactria the Hunas crossed
y Author of ‘Sanskrit Amarakosha’ the Hindukush Mountains and entered
ˆ Shapanaka: India. Their first attack during his reign was
y Prominent Astrologist who had achieved repulsed by prince Skandagupta.
mastery in Astrology.
ˆ Dhanvantri:
y A Doctor who had achieved mastery in
the science of medicine; one who was an
expert in diagnosis and one who could
prescribe different treatments for a single
disease.
ˆ Varruchi:
y Expert Linguist and an expert in Grammar
ˆ Varahamihira:
y Author of World famous epic,
‘Brihatsamhita’
ˆ Ghatakpara: KUMARAGUPTA FIGHTING A LION, AS
y Expert in sculpture and architecture. DEPICTED ON HIS GOLD COIN
ˆ Shanku: Kumaragupta I, “Archer type” coin
y Expert in Geography (This name is even
well known today in the field of geography)
ˆ Vetalabhadra:
y Expert in black magic & tantric sciences.
y Vetalbhatt had been a Maga Brahmin
known for writing work of the sixteen
stanza “Nīti-pradīpa” (literally, the lamp
of conduct) in tribute to Vikramaditya.

www.sleepyclasses.com 95 1800-890-3043
ˆ Besides the Huna invasion there was also a ƒ In addition to following the earlier system of
gradual decline in economic prosperity. weights, he introduced a new, heavier weight
ˆ It is indicated by the gold coins of later Gupta system for gold coins but generally his coins
rulers, which have less of gold content and more had less gold in them than earlier coins.
of alloy. We also notice a gradual disappearance ˆ Public Work -
of coins in the post Gupta period. ƒ The Junagadh inscription of his reign tells us
ˆ It led the kings to make payments in form of land about the public works undertaken during
rather than cash. It is evident by the discovery of his times.
large-scale land grant charters donating land to ƒ The Sudarsana lake (originally built during
brahmanas and officers. the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains
ˆ The Guptas however could not protect their and in the early part of his rule his governor
empire for long and the successive waves of Parnadatta got it repaired. This indicates that
Huna invasion made the Guptas very weak. the state undertook the task of public works.
ˆ The decline of the Gupta empire resulted in the ˆ He was the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins
emergence of numerous ruling dynasties in in western India.
different parts of northern India. ƒ The last known date of Skandagupta is 467
ˆ The prominent among them were the A.D. from his silver coins.
Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, Maukharies of ˆ He could not create an administrative
Kannauj and the Maitrakas of Valabhi. machinery and sound economic system which
ˆ The political scene in the Peninsular India was could sustain the empire for long period of
no different. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas time. This led to gradual decline of empire under
emerged as strong regional powers in Deccan his successors.
and northern Tamil Nadu respectively.
HUN’S INVASION
SKANDAGUPTA (CE 455 - 467)
ˆ Succeeded his father Kumaragupta I - Last
powerful Monarch.
ˆ Protector and Stabiliser of Gupta Empire -
Restored the fallen fortunes of the Gupta
Family by defeating his enemies, who may
have been rebels or foreign Invaders.
ˆ To consolidate his position he had to fight
the Pushyamitras, and the country faced
Huna invasion from across the frontiers in the ˆ In the mid-5th century, Hunas became powerful
northwest. in the Oxus valley.
ƒ This heroic feat entitled him, like Chandragupta ˆ From here, they made inroads towards Iran and
II, to assume the title of Vikramaditya. India.
ˆ It appears that these wars adversely affected the ƒ Crossing the Hindu Kush, they occupied
economy of the empire, and the gold coinage of Gandhara, although their further movement
Skandagupta bears testimony to that. was repulsed by Skandagupta’s army.
ƒ In comparison to the gold coins of the earlier ƒ Noteworthy HUNA rulers - Toramana,
rulers the types of gold coins minted by Mihirakula.
Skandagupta were limited.

www.sleepyclasses.com 96 1800-890-3043
DECLINE OF GUPTA EMPIRE ƒ During the reign of Skandagupta, the Huns
ˆ By the middle of 6th century CE - the authority tried repeatedly to conquer the Gupta Empire
of Gupta’s lingered in the Indian subcontinent. territories but were defeated by Skandagupta.

ˆ Factors behind the fall of Gupta Empire - y However, the successors of Skandagupta
were weak and could not cope with the
ƒ Internal Dynastic Issue - Huna invaders.
y Succession of weak rulers after ˆ The struggle with Hunas disrupted the
Skandagupta. international trade (Indo-Roman trade) of
y Their incompetence increased the number north-western India and eroded one of the most
of internal and external enemies. The important financial bases of the Guptas.
provincial governors began to assert ˆ Competition with the Vakatakas -
independence.
ƒ The Gupta Empire was affected by the
y The internal dissensions and absence of expansion of the Vakataka kingdom. The
law of primogeniture. Vakatakas had created a powerful kingdom
y After Kumara Gupta the succession to the in South-west.
throne was always disputed. ƒ Samudra Gupta had not harmed them
ˆ The Administrative weakness - while Chandra Gupta II had entered into a
ƒ The policy adopted by the Guptas in the matrimonial alliance with them by marrying
conquered areas was to restore the authority his daughter Prabhavati to the then Vakataka
of local chiefs or kings once they had ruler Rudrasena II.
accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts ƒ But when the Gupta empire weakened, the
were made to impose a strict and effective Vakataka rulers tried to take advantage of
control over these regions. it.These attacks of the Vakataka rulers were
ƒ Hence it was natural that whenever there was primarily responsible for weakening the
a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy authority of the Guptas in Malwa, Gujarat
within the Gupta empire these local chiefs and Bundelkhand and encouraging their
would reestablish their independent governors to assert their independence.
authority. This created a problem for almost ˆ Internal Rebellions -
every Gupta King who had to reinforce his ƒ The success of Yasodharmana in Malwa:
authority.
y He successfully challenged the authority
ƒ The constant military campaigns were a strain of Guptas and set up, in 532, pillars of
on the state treasury. Towards the end of the victory commemorating his conquest of
fifth century A.D. and beginning of I sixth almost the whole of north India.
century A.D. taking advantage of the weak
Gupta emperors, many regional powers y Yasodharman’s rule was short lived, but it
reasserted their authority, and in due course meant a severe blow to the Gupta empire.
declared their independence y Success of Yasodharmana encouraged
ˆ Foreign Invasion- other feudal chieftain.

ƒ From the time of Kumaragupta I the north- y The Maukharis rose to power in Bihar
west borders had been threatened by the and Uttar Pradesh, and had their capital
Hunas a Central Asian tribe which was at Kannauj. It seems that by 550AD, Bihar
successfully moving in different directions and Uttar pradesh had passed out of Gupta
and was establishing pockets of rule. hands.

www.sleepyclasses.com 97 1800-890-3043
 ƒ The Maitrakas assumed independence at ƒ King -
Vallabhi. They established their authority in y Embodiment of all powers and the central
Gujarat and western Malwa. figure of administration. However, there
y The Gaudas wrested Bengal from the was a considerable change in the character
Guptas. of monarchy.
y The prince of Thanesar established their y Adopted high sounding imperial titles
power in Haryana. like: Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka,
ˆ Economic Problems - Chakravarti, Paramesvara, etc.

ƒ The Huna invasions probably disrupted Indo- y They connected themselves with the gods
Roman trade relations and the tax revenues and claimed divine status.
that came with it - Decline of foreign trade. y It was the King’s duty to decide the policy
of the state during war and peace.
y It was considered a prime duty of the
monarch to protect his countrymen from
any invasion.
y The King was to lead the army in case of
war.
y This is demonstrated through the
campaigns of Samudragupta and
Chandragupta II.
ˆ The Central Administration -
ƒ Council of Ministers and Other Officials -
y The Allahabad prashasti refers to an
assembly or council, presumably of
ministers: known as the sabha.
y The ministers were known by various
designations like mantrin, amatya, sachiva
and were most probably hereditary.
GUPTA’S ADMINISTRATION y Amatyas and Sachivas: The top layer of
ˆ Gupta kings did not interfere in the administration the administrative structure also included
of those regions where the kings had accepted amatyas and sachivas, who were executive
their suzerainty. officers in charge of various departments.
ˆ However, this does not mean that the Guptas ˆ The Central Administration -
were ruling only through their feudatories. ƒ Council of Ministers and Other Officials -
They had an elaborate administrative system
y Justice System –
which was in operation in areas which were
directly controlled by them y Though the supreme judicial powers were
vested in the King, he was assisted by
ƒ So we can say that they had a mixed type of
the Mahadandanayaka (Chief Judicial
administration - consisting of both centralised
Officer).
and decentralised form of administration.
y In the provinces this work was entrusted
ˆ The Central Administration -
to the Uparikas and in districts to the

www.sleepyclasses.com 98 1800-890-3043
 Vishayapatis. In villages, the headman GUPTA’S ART AND CULTURE - LITERATURE
and the village elders used to decide the ˆ The Sanskrit language became prominent during
petty cases. the Gupta period.
y There existed an espionage system. ˆ The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by
y The system of espionage included spies the celebrated Navratnas.
known as dutakas. ˆ Kalidasa
ˆ The Central Administration - ƒ Plays – Abhigyan Shakuntalam,
ƒ Army - Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya
ƒ Epics – Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava
y Probably troops supplied by the
feudatories constituted the major portion ƒ Lyrics – Ritusamhara and Meghaduta
of the Gupta military strength. ˆ Visakadatta – Sanskrit dramas, Mudrarakshasa
y Also, the Guptas did not enjoy a monopoly and Devichandraguptam
of elephants and horses, which were ˆ Sudraka – Mrichchakatika - rich in humour and
essential ingredients of military machinery. pathos
y Chariots receded into the background, ˆ Bharavi’s – Kiratarjuniya - story of the conflict
and cavalry came to the forefront. between Arjuna and Siva
y ‘Sandhi-Vigrahika’ - Minister in charge of ˆ Dandin – Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita
peace and war. ˆ Subhandhu – Vasavadatta
y The army was paid in cash and its needs ˆ Vishnu Sharma - The Panchatantra stories
were well looked after by an officer-in- ˆ Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called
charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika. Amarakosa
ˆ The provinces were divided into a number of ˆ The Puranas in their present form were
districts called pradesha or vishaya. composed during this period. There are eighteen
Puranas.
ˆ The administrative head of the vishaya was
known as vishayapati. ˆ The Mahabharatha and the Ramayana were
given final touches and written in the present
ˆ The vishayas were further divided into villages.
form during this period.
ˆ The village headman called gramadhyaksha ˆ Aryabhatta wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499
looked after the affairs of the village with the C.E.
help of village elders.
ƒ It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar
ˆ The artisans and merchants took an active part and lunar eclipses.
in the town administration during the Gupta
ƒ He was the first to declare that the earth was
period
spherical in shape and that it rotates on its
ˆ Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after own axis.
the city administration. ˆ Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika,
ˆ During the Gupta period land taxes increased the five astronomical systems.
considerably. The land tax called bali varied ƒ His Brihadjataka is considered to be a
from 1/4th to 1/6th of the total produce. standard work on astrology.
ˆ The villagers were also subjected to forced ƒ His work Brihadsamhita deals with a
labour (vishti). variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology,
geography, architecture, weather, animals,
marriage and omens.

www.sleepyclasses.com 99 1800-890-3043
 PYQ
Q. The silver coins issued by the Guptas were
called: [1997]
(a) Rupaka (b) Karshapana
(c) Dinara (d) Pana

GUPTA COINS

Answer: A
Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer: [1996]
List-I List-II
A. Vishakhadatta 1. Medicine
B. Varahamihira 2. Drama
C. Charaka 3. Astronomy
D. Brahmagupta 4. Mathematics
Codes:
(a) A – 1; B – 3; C – 4; D – 2
(b) A – 2; B – 1; C – 3; D – 4
(c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 1; D – 4
(d) A – 3; B – 4; C – 1; D – 2

Answer: C

www.sleepyclasses.com 100 1800-890-3043

Q. Which one of the following ports handled the
North Indian trade during the Gupta period?
[1999]
(a) Tamralipti (b) Broach
(c) Kalyan (d) Cambay
Answer: A
Explanation:

Tamralipta or Tamralipti was the name of an ancient

city on the Bay of Bengal corresponding with Tamluk
in modern-day India. Tamralipta may have been one
of the most important urban centres of trade and
commerce of early historic India, trading along the
Silk Road with China, by Uttarapatha, the northern
high road, the main trade route into the Middle East
and Europe; and by seafaring routes to Bali, Java and
the Far East.

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 101 1800-890-3043

 VAKATAKAS

VAKATAKAS - SOURCE OF INFORMATION

ˆ Inscriptions and Texts such as Puranas which
were being finalised around that period.
ˆ Religion - Brahmanas and they are known from
a large number of copper plate land grants issued
by them.
ˆ Founder - Vindhyashakti I
ƒ They were great champions of the brahmanical
religion and performed numerous Vedic
sacrifices.
ƒ They served as a channel for the transmission
of brahmanical ideas and social institutions
to the south.
ˆ In northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha (Berar), the VAKATAKAS - GUPTA ALLIANCE
Satavahanas were succeeded by the Vakatakas,
a local power. They were contemporaneous with ˆ Matrimonial Ties –
the Guptas in northern India. ƒ Chandragupta II married his daughter
ˆ The Vakaṭaka Empire was a royal Indian dynasty Prabhavati Gupta into the Vakataka royal
that originated from the Deccan in the mid- family and with its support conquered Malwa
third century CE. Their state is believed to have and Gujarat from the Shaka Kshatrapas in
extended from the southern edges of Malwa and the last quarter of the fourth century AD.
Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River ƒ This dynasty had matrimonial ties with
in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the imperial Guptas, Nagas of Padmavati,
the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. Kadambas of Karnataka, and Vishnukundins
of Andhra.

VAKATAKAS - REFERENCE IN PURANAS

ˆ Inscriptions and the Puranas indicate that
this dynasty initially established its base in the
Vindhyan region, north of the Narmada.
ƒ The Puranas refer to the dynasty as the
Vindhyakas.
ˆ This clearly indicates that the Vakatakas first
established themselves in the Vindhyan region.
From here they extended their power southwards,
eventually becoming a major political power in
the Deccan.

www.sleepyclasses.com 102 1800-890-3043

VAKATAKAS - CHRONOLOGY ˆ A Prakrit work called Setubandha or
Ravanavaho, woven around Rama’s journey to
Vindhyashakti I (250-270 CE)
Lanka and his victory over Ravana, has been
ˆ In the Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta he was attributed to Pravarasena II.
described as the banner of the Vakataka family ˆ Prabhavatigupta continued to issue inscriptions
and a Dvija. in her own right and died during the later part
ˆ It is stated in this inscription that he added to of her son’s reign.
his power by fighting great battles and he had a
Harishena (475 - 500 CE) [Vatsagulma]:
large cavalry.
ˆ He was a great patron of Buddhist architecture,
Pravarasena I (270-330 ???) - art and culture.
ˆ Second king in line of succession, extended ˆ Ajanta is surviving example of his works.
the empire southwards into Vidarbha and the ˆ The rock cut architectural cell-XVI inscription
adjoining areas of the Deccan. of Ajanta states that he conquered:
ˆ He conducted wars with the Naga kings. ƒ Avanti (Malwa) in the north,
ˆ The marriage between his son Gautamiputra ƒ Kosala (Chhattisgarh),
and the daughter of the Naga king Bhavanaga ƒ Kalinga and Andhra in the east,
cemented an important political alliance. ƒ Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and
ˆ Pravarasena I was the only Vakataka king with ƒ Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and
the imperial title samrat; the others had the Kuntala (Southern Maharashtra) in the south.
relatively modest title maharaja.
END OF VAKATAKAS
Prabhavatigupta (385 - 405 CE)
ˆ According to Dasakumaracarita of Dandin,
ˆ Rudrasena II was married to Prabhavatigupta, which was written probably around 125
daughter of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. years after the fall of the Vakataka dynasty,
ƒ When Rudrasena died fortuitously after Harishena’s son, though intelligent and
a very short reign in 385 C.E, his sons accomplished in all arts, neglected the study
Damodarasena, and Pravarasena II were of the Dandaniti (Political Science) and gave
minors, and Prabhavatigupta held the reigns himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and
of government for a very long time as a regent indulged in all sorts of vices.
on behalf of her two sons. ˆ Succeeded by Chalukyas of Badami.
ˆ During this period the Vakataka realm was
LAND GRANTS BY VAKATAKAS
practically a part of the Gupta Empire. Many
historians refer to this period as the Vakataka- ˆ The tally of the gifted villages mentioned in
Gupta age. Vakataka inscriptions is 35.
ˆ The seal of Prabhavatigupta’s Miregaon plates ˆ A large number of these gifts were made during
describes her as ‘mother of two kings’. the reign of Pravarasena II—his 18 inscriptions
record the gift of 20 villages in all.
VAKATAKAS
VAKATAKAS - CULTURE
Pravarsena II (420-455AD) [Nandivardhana]
ˆ The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons
ˆ The largest number of Vakataka inscriptions of the arts, architecture and literature. They led
including copper plate inscriptions belong to public works and their monuments are a visible
the reign of Pravarasena II. legacy.

www.sleepyclasses.com 103 1800-890-3043

ˆ The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of ˆ Panchtantra stories - example of a nidarshana—a
Ajanta Caves was built under the patronage work which shows through illustration what
of Vakataka King Harishena of Vatsagulma should and should not be done.
branch. ƒ The date and authorship of this text are
ˆ There were two phases of activity at this site— uncertain. Its stories are presented as narrated
five caves were excavated in the Satavahana by a sage named Vishnusharman.
period, while 23 belong to the Vakataka period ˆ The three princes whom Vishnusharman
(inscriptional evidence establishes this). instructs in niti (policy, statecraft) through many
engaging stories have names ending in the suffix
‘shakti’, which suggests the possibility that the
work was composed in the Vakataka empire.

VAKATAKAS - TERMS
ˆ Klipta -the former may have meant a purchase
tax or a sale tax or it may refer to to some royal
right over land.
ˆ Upaklipta - additional or minor taxes
ˆ Important Point - Vakataka coins???

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 104 1800-890-3043

 VAKATAKAS
Vardhana Dynasty ˆ Prabhakara Vardhana founded the Vardhana
dynasty.
ƒ The dynasty became influential with the
accession of Prabhakarvardhana, who was
able to defeat the Hunas and strengthen
his position in the regions of Punjab and
Haryana.
ƒ Some scholars suggests that in early days
they were probably a feudatory of the
Maukhari kings of Kannauj.
ƒ Prabhakara’s daughter Rajyashri married the
Maukhari ruler Grahavarman .
y As a result of this marriage, Prabhakara’s
political status increased significantly.
ˆ The down fall of Gupta Empire in the mid-6th
ƒ Prabhakarvardhana was succeeded by his
century CE, led to formation of number of small
elder son Rajyavardhana (Harsha’s brother).
independent kingdoms in North India.
y Prabhakara Vardhana had two sons called
ˆ The Huns established their supremacy over the
Rajya Vardhana & Harsha Vardhana and
Punjab and certain other parts of central India.
one daughter, Rajyashri.
ˆ The northern and western regions of India into
ƒ According to the Harshacharita, after
the hands of a dozen or more feudatories.
Prabhakarvardhana’s death
ˆ Gradually, one of them, Prabhakar Vardhana,
y Devagupta, the king of Malwa attacked
the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the
Kannauj, supported by Shashanka, the
Pushyabhuti family, extended his control over
ruler of Gauda. Devagupta killed Graha-
all other feudatories.
Varman, and captured Rajyashri.
y Bana does not mention this king of Malwa,
but historians speculate him to be a ruler of
the Later Gupta dynasty.
ˆ Harsha’s brother, Rajya Vardhana, then the king
at Thanesar, could not accept this affront on his
family.
ƒ So he marched against Devagupta and
defeated him. But he was treacherously killed
by Shashanka (ruler of the Gauda kingdom)
who had joined the battle as an ally of
Devgupta.

www.sleepyclasses.com 105 1800-890-3043

ˆ Harshavardhana then ascended the throne of Harsha as the Lord of Northern India or
both Thanesar and Kannauj (in AD 606). He Sakalottarpatha natha i.e. the sovereign of the
was only sixteen years of age at that time. entire uttarapatha.
ƒ He rescued his sister Rajyashri, just as she ˆ Harshavardhana Military campaign and
was going to commit sati. expansion
ƒ He united the two important kingdoms ƒ Hiuen-Tsang’s account also says that Harsha
Kannauj and Thaneshwar and shifted the was the “Lord of Five Indias”.
capital to Kannauj. ƒ These five Indias are equivalent to Punjab,
ƒ Shashanka continued to rule Gauda with Kanauj (in U.P.), Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
frequent attacks from Harsha which he is y Thus Harsha was not the Lord of whole
known to have faced bravely. North India. Kashmir, Western Punjab,
ˆ Shashanka was famous for destroying the Sindh, Gujrat, Rajputana, Nepal, Eastern
Buddhist stupas of Bengal and persecuting and Northern Bengal, Kamrupa or Assam
Buddhists. remained out of his sway.
ˆ Harshavardhana (606 - 647 CE) - y Yet his vast empire from Punjab to Orissa
ƒ Harsha ruled over the northern parts of India was indeed an evidence of his military
for a period 41 years. He united the two genius.
kingdoms of Thanesar (Kurukshetra) and ƒ Hiuen Tsang mentions that India of that
Kannauj and transferred his Capital from period had about seventy kingdoms.
Thanesar to Kannauj. y His long run of victories was only broken
ƒ His reign is comparatively well documented, when he was defeated by the south Indian
thanks to his court poet Bana in Harschacharita Emperor Pulakesin II of the Chalukya
and by Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Hieun dynasty.
Tsang) in Si-Yu-Ki.
VARDHANA DYNASTY - ADMINISTRATION
y Xuanzang wrote a full description of his
travels in India. The administration of Harsha was similar to the
Gupta Empire.
y Bana composed an account of Harsha’s
rise to power in Harshacharitha, the ˆ Bhukti - Provinces
first historical poetic work in Sanskrit ƒ The kingdom was divided into various
language. provinces or divisions called Bhukti.
ˆ Harshavardhana Military campaign and ˆ Vishyas - Districts
expansion
ƒ They were further divided into Vishyas
ƒ Harsha waged many wars. corresponding to modern districts.
y He also brought eastern Punjab (The ˆ Pathaka - City
present-day Haryana), Kannauj, Bihar and
Orissa- under his control. ƒ It was a smaller territorial term perhaps of the
size of the present day taluk.
y He conquered Vallabhi King Dhruvasena
of Gujarat. He also conquered Ganjam, a ˆ Grama - Village
part of the modern Orissa state. ƒ The lowest unit of administration was Grama.
ƒ Hiuen -Tsang’s record, Banabhatta’s narrative
and the Chalukya records all claimed

www.sleepyclasses.com 106 1800-890-3043

ADMINISTRATION - CIVIL
RELIGION
ˆ He suspended his inspection work during the
rainy season on account of the difficulties of ˆ Prabhakaravardhana was a devotee of the Sun
weather and communications. and is said to have offered daily a bunch of red
lotuses in a ruby bowl. Rajyavardhana was a
ˆ Hiuen-Tsang told us that during the reign of
Buddhist.
Harshavardhana there were very few criminals
and rebel. ˆ Harsha was a devotee of Shiva, Surya and
Buddha.
ƒ Whoever offended the law was strictly
punished. ƒ He is stated to have erected costly temples for
the service of all the three personalities.
ƒ The principal mode of punishment were
mainly mutilation of limbs, banishment into ƒ Harsha’s conversion to Buddhism is
the jungles, imprisonment etc. attributed by Bana to the influence of the
Buddhist ascetic Divakaramitra who lived in
ECONOMY UNDER HARSHA - the hermitage in the Vindhya forests.
ˆ Economy under Harsha’s reign became ƒ It was however Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang
growingly more self-sufficient and feudal in (Hiuen Tsang) who definitely gave both
nature as trade and commerce receded. Harsha and his sister their faith in Mahayana
ˆ This is reflected in the decline of trade Buddhism by his discourse on its doctrines
centres, paucity of coins and near complete and exposure of the deficiency of Hinayana
disappearance of trader and merchant guilds. at the very first meeting between Harsha and
(though initially the economy of northern India him.
prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a ƒ According to the Xuanzang, who visited
great centre of trade.) his kingdom in 636, Harsha built numerous
ˆ Diminishing trade and commerce affected stupas in the name of Buddha.
handicraft and other industries through want ˆ Religion-
of demand; and affected agriculture although ƒ His approach to religion is evident in his
not directly. celebrated play Nagananda.
ˆ As a result of the lack of trade, the need to ƒ The play’s theme is based on the Jataka tale
produce agricultural goods for sale externally of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana, but Harsha
vanished and people began producing amounts introduces the Goddess Gauri, as the saviour
adequate enough to meet their own local needs. of Jimutavahana, a feature not found in the
This marked the rise of self-sufficiency in the Jataka.
village economy and the growing dependence
on agriculture. ƒ Harsha’s enthusiasm for his new faith led
him at once to organize the grand assembly
HARSHA - PATRON OF SCHOLARS at Kanauj to give publicity to the masterly
ˆ Harsha is credited with the composition of three treatise of Hiuen Tsang on Mahayana and
Sanskrit dramas- Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and establish its supremacy over all other creeds
Nagananda. of the times.
ƒ Harsha’s authorship has been disputed on KANAUJ ASSEMBLY -
several occasions, but no decisive contrary
arguments have been proposed. ˆ In 643 A.D. Harsha summoned an assembly at
Kannauj.
ˆ In his court lived the famous literary figure, Bana
who wrote Kadambari and Harshacharita.

www.sleepyclasses.com 107 1800-890-3043

ˆ The object of the assembly was to take advantage
of the presence of Hiuen Tsang to spread the
teachings of Buddha in the country.
ˆ A large number of kings attended the assembly.
ˆ There were 3000 Mahayana and Hinayana
Buddhist monks, 3000 Brahmanas and about
1000 Buddhist scholars from the Nalanda
University.
ˆ The meeting was presided by Hiuen Tsang
where a topic on Mahayana Buddhism was
discussed.
ˆ The meeting lasted for 23 days. On that occasion MEGALITHIC CULTURES OF SOUTH INDIA
a monastery and shrine was erected on the
ˆ Chronologically, the Southern Neolithic is
banks of Ganga and a golden image of Buddha
broadly placed between 3300 B.C.E. and 1400
was kept in a tower, 100 feet high.
B.C.E.
VARDHANA DYNASTY - AFTERMATH ˆ The Southern Neolithic is slightly later in
ˆ Harsha died in 647, having ruled for 41 years. His date when compared with the Neolithic in
empire died with him, disintegrating rapidly Baluchistan (6000 B.C.E.- ) and it is a late
into small states. contemporary of the Mature Harappan period it
stands out because of its distinct characteristics.
ˆ In 648, Chinese Emperor Taizong of Tang
Dynasty sent Wang Xuance to India in response
to Harshavardhana sending an ambassador to
China. However once in India he discovered
Harshavardhana had died and the new king
(Arunashwa, the minister of Harsha, who
usupred the throne) attacked Wang and his 30
mounted subordinates. This led to Wang Xuance
escaping to Tibet and raising the army of over
Nepalese mounted infantry and Tibetan infantry
and attack on the Indian state.
ƒ The success of this attack won Xuance the
prestigious title of the “Grand Master for the
Closing Court.” He also secured a reported ˆ The neolithic phase of south India, was succeeded
Buddhist relic for China. by the Megalithic cultures (1200 BCE–300 BCE)
ˆ Chinese history texts tends to over-play Wang’s ƒ Megaliths were tomb spots consisting of
influence at ending the Harsha Empire. Neither burials or graves covered with huge (mega)
Bana’s nor Xuanzang’s account gives any details stones. They were, in most cases, located
of this period. outside the settlement area.
ƒ These Megalith burials have yielded the first
iron objects from south India.
ƒ Besides these the use of Black and Red ware
pottery was also a distinctive feature of the
Megalithic people.

www.sleepyclasses.com 108 1800-890-3043

ˆ Prominent Sites - Brahmagiri, Maski (Karnataka), ˆ Manimekalai – Written by Sittalai Sattanar
Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, continues the story of Silappadikaram in next
Adichanallur (Tamilnadu) and Junapani near generation in which Manimekalai is the daughter
Nagpur (Maharastra). of Madhavi and Kovalan.
ƒ Identical iron tools have been found ˆ Tolkappiyam – written by Tolkappiyar was
universally from all the Megalith graves. product of 2nd Sangam and it is basically a work
ˆ These tools which indicate their craft on Tamil grammar & poetics.
activities and include arrowheads, daggers, ˆ Tirrukural – Deals with philosophy and wise
swords, spearheads, tridents, battle axe, hoes, maxims & was written by Valluvar
ploughshares, sickles etc.
ˆ These artefacts, along with the food grains such
as wheat, rice etc., found at various megalithic
sites indicate that the megalithic people followed
for their livelihood agro-pastoral and hunting
activities.

INTRODUCTION TO SANGAM AGE

ˆ According to Tamil legends, there were three
Sangam period putras of Malabar) Pandyas and
Satyaputras.

LITERARY SOURCES
ˆ The ancient Tamil literature consists of the
grammatical work Tolkappiyam (Tolkappiyar)
ˆ The anthology of ten mid-length books
collection Pattupattu
ˆ The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature
composed in classical Tamil language —
Manimekalai (Buddhism), Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi
(Jain; numerouswives), Silappadikaram,
Valayapathi (lost; Jain; 2 wives, son searching for
father) and Kundalakesi(Buddhism; murder)
ƒ Silappadikaram - Elango Adigal
ƒ Manimekalai - Sittalai Sattanar
ˆ Silappadikaram – written by Ilango Adigal. It is
about love affair of Kovalan, Kanaggi and Madhavi.
Later, a Kannagi Cult developed in South India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 109 1800-890-3043

 ƒ His younger brother was Elango Adigal, the
author of Silappadikaram.
y His military achievements have been
chronicled in epic Silappadikaram,
with details about his expedition to the
Himalayas where he defeated many north
Indian rulers.
y He was the first to send an embassy to
China from South India.
ƒ Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or
the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in
Tamil Nadu.
y The stone for making the idol of Kannagi
was brought by him after his Himalayan
expedition.
SANGAM AGE – DYNASTIES
y Romans settled at Mujirispattanam - A
ˆ Basically there are 3 Kingdoms that emerged
temple of Roman emperor Augustus was
in the area of Ancient South India - known as
constructed here.
Tamilakam back them –
y Jack Fruit was famous.
ƒ The principality of the Cholas in the lower
Kaveri valley corresponded roughly to CHOLAS
modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts of
ˆ Area - Modern Tiruchi district to southern
Tamil Nadu, and had its capital at Uraiyur.
Andhra Pradesh (Core Area - Kaveri Delta later
ƒ The kingdom of the Pandyas in the valleys known as Cholamandalam)
of the Tamraparni and Vaigai roughly
ˆ Capital - At first Uraiyur and then shifted to
correspond to modern Tirunelveli, Madurai,
Puhar.
Ramnad districts, and south Travancore and
had its capital at Madurai. ˆ Port - Puhar
ƒ The Cheras on the Kerala coast had their ˆ Emblem – Tiger
capital at Karuvur, also known as Vanji. ˆ Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam
Cholas.
CHERAS
ƒ Pattinappalai portrays his life and military
ˆ Area - Parts of modern Kerala. conquests.
ˆ Capital - Vanji ƒ He founded the port city of Puhar (identical
ˆ Important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. with Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160
ˆ Emblem - Bow and Arrow. km of embankment along the Kaveri River.

ˆ Owned their importance to to trade with the ƒ In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty
Romans. They also built a temple of Augustus confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas
there. and eleven minor chieftains, This event is
mentioned in many Sangam poems.
ˆ Famous Ruler - Cheran Senguttuvan (Pugular
Inscription) ƒ Karikala’s military achievements made him
the overlord of the whole Tamil country.
ƒ He belonged to 2nd century A.D.

www.sleepyclasses.com 110 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Trade and commerce flourished during ˆ The king was responsible for maintaining the
his reign period. He was responsible for the law and order in the state. He also looked after
reclamation of forest lands and brought them the welfare of his subjects, worked hard for
under cultivation thus adding prosperity to their good and frequently toured the country to
the people. put things in order.
ˆ Of the three crowned monarch:
PANDYAS
ƒ Cholas controlled the fully irrigated fertile
ˆ Area - Present day southern Tamil Nadu
Cauvery (Kaveri) basin with their capital at
ˆ Capital - Madurai. Uraiyur
ˆ Famours Port - Korkai ƒ Pandyas ruled over the pastoral and littoral
ˆ Emblem - Fish parts with the capital at Madurai
ˆ Important Points – ƒ Cheras had their sway over the hilly country
ƒ Sati, caste, idol worship were common. in the west with Vanji (Karur) as the capital.
Widows were treated badly. ˆ Respective Kingdoms had their special insignia
ƒ They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice of royalty such as staff, drum, umbrella which
and patronized Brahmin priests. had a particular royal emblem -

ƒ Important King – Neduncheliyan ƒ Fish for the Pandyas

ƒ Tiger for the Cholas
POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION
ƒ Bow for the Cheras
ˆ The chief source of state’s income was land
revenue while a custom duty was also imposed SANGAM AGE - MILITARY SETUP
on foreign trade. ˆ The wars were frequent and were fought not
ˆ Kingdom was divided into Mandalam, Nadu only for defence but also with a desire to extend
(province), Ur (Town), Sirur (Small village), one’s territories or to save suffering people of
Perur (Big Village). neighboring kingdoms from tyranny or misrule.
ƒ Sometimes the wars occurred for matrimonial
SANGAM AGE - POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT
alliances.
KINGSHIP
ƒ Such was the mental state of the people that
ˆ Monarchy was the form of government during almost everyone trained himself for war and
the Sangam period. besides the army maintained by the kings
ˆ According to the Sangam classics, kingship potential soldiers were all over the country to
descended by heredity from father to son. join the royal force in times of need.
ˆ The “king” was called ventan. He was the head ˆ The king maintained all the four kinds of armies
of the society and government. mentioned in Sangam literature —
ˆ As the head of the society, he took the lead in ƒ the chariot,
every event of social importance like the festival ƒ the elephant,
of Indra, inaugurations of dance performances,
etc. ƒ the cavalry

ˆ The “king” assumed important titles at the time ƒ the infantry.

of coronation. He was equated with gods so as
to provide divine sanctity.

www.sleepyclasses.com 111 1800-890-3043

SANGAM AGE - MILITARY RESPECT ƒ Vellalar(Agriculturists).
ƒ Kadasiyar (lower classes people)
ˆ War heroes occupied a special position in
society, and memorial stones called nadukal or
virukkal were raised in honour of those who
died in fighting.
ˆ However, the cruel practice of Sati was also
prevalent in Tamil society, and it was known as
Tippayadal.
ˆ Paddy was the most important crop. It formed
the main part of peoples’ diet and also served as
a medium of barter exchange for inland trade.
ˆ Though the concept of varna was known, social
ˆ Tamil people had a great respect for the warrior classes in the Sangam period were not marked
and particularly the hero who died in the battle by higher or lower rankings as in north India.
field.
ƒ For example, Brahmans were present in the
ƒ Suffering a back-wound was considered as society and they performed vedic ceremonies
highly disreputable as there are instances and sacrifices and also acted as advisers to the
of kings who died fasting because they had chief but they enjoyed no special privileges.
suffered such a wound in battle.
ˆ People were known on the basis of their
ƒ The Herostones (Nadukal) were erected to occupation they followed, such as artisans, salt
commemorate heroes who died in war. merchants, textile merchants, etc.
SOCIETY - LAND DIVISION ˆ The most important feature of the Sangam
economy was flourishing trade with the Roman
ˆ Tolkappiyam refers to the Five-fold division of
world. It is confirmed by the recovery of a large
lands –
number of Roman gold coins in south India.
ƒ Kurinji (hilly tracks) - hunting and gathering
ˆ The discovery of monsoons and the use of
ƒ Mullai (pastoral) - animal husbandry direct sea route between Indian coasts and the
ƒ Marudam (agricultural) - plough agriculture western world, as mentioned earlier, was the
main reason for the growth of this trade. It led to
ƒ Neydal (coastal) - fishing and salt making
rise of important towns and craft centres in the
ƒ Palai (desert) - people could not produce Tamil region.
anything they took to raiding and plundering
ˆ Prostitution was a recognized institution.
ˆ These zones were not clearly demarcated, and
were scattered all around the region. AKAM AND PURAM
ˆ Sangam literature reflects a society with its
SOCIETY
distinctive cultural traditions, one which
ˆ Tolkappiyam also refers to classes namely celebrated war and love.
ƒ Arasar(Ruling Class) ˆ The puram poems that praised the valour and
ƒ Anthanar (Priests) generosity of kings.
ƒ Vanigar(carried on trade and commerce) ˆ There are also the beautiful love (akam) poems
that speak of the love between man and woman.

www.sleepyclasses.com 112 1800-890-3043

 ƒ The poet does not speak through his or her the Sangam period.
own persona, but uses various characters such ƒ A high expertise was attained in spinning
as the heroine, her friend, her foster mother, and weaving of cotton and silk clothes. These
or the hero as his mouthpiece. were in great demand in the western world
ƒ The poems use vivid imagery and often rely especially for the cotton clothes woven at
on understatement and suggestion to convey Uraiyur.
deep emotion. ˆ The port city of Puhar became an important
place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this
SOCIETY - WOMEN’S STATURE port containing precious goods.
ˆ Women had respect and were allowed ˆ ITEMS OF EXPORT:
intellectual pursuits.There were women ƒ Maslin, glass beeds, pearls, sandalwood,
poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar etc. who perfumes, black pepper (Yavanapriya),
flourished and contributed to Tamil literature. tortoise shell, medicines, animals and birds.
ˆ Women were allowed to choose their life ˆ ITEMS OF IMPORTS:
partners. But life of widows was miserable. ƒ Gold, Silver, Munga, wine, olive oil dry fruits,
Marriage was a sacrament and not a contract. raw glass, ivory, copper, tin, medicine and
Women remained a widow or performed sati, slaves.
which was considered almost divine. ƒ Gold and Silver in huge quantities were
ˆ There is also a mention about the practice of Sati brought into India and made the trade greatly
being prevalent in the higher strata of society. in favour of India. Pliny, the Roman author
ˆ Prostitution was a recognized institution. and member of senate, in his Naturalis Historia
(77CE) regrets the drain out of wealth.
SOCIETY - RELIGION ƒ Ptolemy and Strabo also describe this trade
imbalance of Roman empire with India.
ˆ The primary deity of the Sangam period was
Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. ƒ Discovery of Monsoon winds by
Hippalus around 45-47 CE further promoted
ƒ The worship of Murugan was having an the trade between India and the west.
ancient origin and the festivals relating to
ƒ Tamilmandalam served as the zone of
God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam
interaction for silk trade with China.
literature.
ƒ Land revenue, customs duty on foreign trade
ˆ The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was and booty captured in wars were the main
significant in the Sangam period and was erected sources of the income.
in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors ƒ Other Sangam age ports of commercial activity
in the battle. include Tondi, Musiri (Musukundapuri),
ECONOMY Korkai, Arikkamedu.

ˆ Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice DECLINE

was the most common crop. ˆ The Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline
ˆ The handicraft included weaving, metal works towards the end of the 3rd century A.D.
and carpentry, ship building and making of
ˆ The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country post-
ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
sangam period between 300 AD to 600 AD, whose
ƒ These were in great demand in the internal period was called an interregnum or ‘dark age’
and external trade that was at its peak during by earlier historians. The Kalabra’s occupied

www.sleepyclasses.com 113 1800-890-3043

 entire Tamil country for 250 years. Jainism and
Buddhism grew in prominence in their rule.
ˆ Finally the Pallavas and Pandya’s drew them
out of Tamil country and re-established their
rule again.

PYQ
Q. Which one of the following statements about
Sangam literature in ancient South India is
correct? (2022)
(a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to
material culture.
(b) The social classification of Varna was known
to Sangam poets.
(c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior Q. The term ‘Yavanapriya’ mentioned in ancient
ethic. Sanskrit texts denoted: [1995]
(d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as (a) a fine variety of Indian Muslim
irrational. (b) ivory
Answer: (b) (c) damsels sent to the Greek court for dance
Q. From the decline of Guptas until the rise of performance
Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, (d) pepper
which of the following kingdoms were holding
Answer: (d)
power in Northern India? (2021)
1. The Guptas of Magadha Explanation

2. The Paramaras of Malwa ˆ Yavanas were Indo-Greeks. They liked pepper,

3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar ˆ that is why pepper was known as Yavanapriya.
4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi
Select the correct answer using the code given
below:
(a) 1, 2 and 5 (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 5 and 6
Answer: (b)

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 114 1800-890-3043

 CULTURE OF INDIA
Orthodox Schools of
Indian Philosophy

VEDAS

www.sleepyclasses.com 115 1800-890-3043

 ƒ The universe is described as one created by
Sankhya School Purusha-Prakiti entity combination infused
with various permutations and combinations
SANKHYA/ SAMKHYA SCHOOL OF INDIAN of variously enumerated elements, sense,
PHILOSOPHY feelings, activity and mind.
ˆ Founder - Kapil Muni ƒ It is a dualist philosophy, between the self
ˆ The Concept - and matter.
ƒ Samkhya literally means ‘count’, probably
the oldest one of all the Indian School of
Philosophies.
ƒ Samkhya school forms the theoretical
foundation of Yoga school.
ƒ It is based on a rational and scientific view
and according to early Samkhya Philosophy,
the presence of divine agency is not essential
for the creation of the world.
ƒ The world owes its creation and evolution
more to Nature or Prakriti than to God.
ƒ Samkhya School like other orthodox schools
consider Vedas to be a reliable source of
knowledge.
ˆ Path to Salvation
ˆ During the 4th century AD, Purusha or spirit
ƒ Samkhya considered ignorance as the root
was introduced as an element in the Samkhya
cause of suffering and bondage and a person
system, and the creation of the world was
can attain salvation through the acquisition
attributed to both.
of real knowledge.
ˆ With the Progress in new ideas, it was believed
ƒ A living being can become free from ignorance
that Nature (Prakriti) and Spirit (Purusha)
by understanding that Purusha is distinct
element together created this world.
from Prakriti, and this knowledge can be
ˆ Thus initially, The Samkhya school of Philosophy acquired through
was materialistic (owing existence to Nature),
y Perception - Pratyaksha
but later it tended to become spiritualistic (owing
existence to both Prakirti+ Purusha) y Inference - Anumana
ˆ Thus Sankhya accepts two basic tattvas or y Hearing - Shabada
principles y And all these combined, form the scientific
ƒ Prakriti or Primordial matter (matter, energy) system of inquiry.
ƒ Purusha or individual conscious being (self or ˆ Existence of God or supreme being is not directly
soul or mind) asserted, nor considered relevant by Samkhya
philosophers.
ˆ And when these both are combined (Prakiriti
along with Purusha), it manifests itself in the
form of JIVA (a living being)
ˆ According to Samkhya School -

www.sleepyclasses.com 116 1800-890-3043

 Yoga School
YOGA SCHOOL (SAMKHYA SCHOOL WITH ˆ As SAMKHYA school, it also relies on following
GOD) OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Pramanas as a proof of reality
ˆ Founder - Patanjali ƒ Pratyaksa (Perception)
ƒ Early references to Yoga philosophy are made ƒ Anumana (Inference)
in Brihadarayanka Upnishad (the oldest ƒ Sabda (Word/testimony of reliable sources)
Upnishad).
ˆ In Yoga philosophy, the values to be observed
ˆ Yoga School is closely related to SAMKHYA are called Niyamas while those to be avoided
school. It systematically studies to better are called Yamas.
oneself - physically, mentally and spiritually
ˆ According to Yoga school , Cause of Suffering is
and thus has influenced all other schools of
Ignorance.
Indian philosophy.
ƒ Removal of ignorance, can be achieved
ˆ As in SAMKHYA, the foundational concepts
through knowledge and self-awareness.
includes 2 realities - Purusha and Prakriti, and
thus can also be categorised as a DUALIST ƒ Samadhi is the state where ecstatic awareness
SCHOOL. develops, and this is how one starts the
process of becoming aware of Purusha and
ˆ Yoga is based on dualist foundation as the
true self.
Samkhya school.
ˆ It further claims that this awareness is eternal,
ƒ The universe is composed of 2 realities
and once this awareness is achieved, a person
, Samkhya - Yoga schools : Purusha
cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha.
(consciousness) and Prakriti (matter).
ƒ Yoga literally means the union of two principal
ˆ Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in
entities.
which purusha is bonded to prakriti in some
form, in various permutations and combinations ƒ Yogic techniques control body, mind and
of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and sense organs, thus considered as a means of
mind. achieving freedom or mukti.
ˆ During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one ˆ This freedom can be attained by –
or more constituents overwhelm the others, ƒ Yama - practising self control.
creating a form of bondage. the end of this
ƒ Niyama - observation of rules.
bondage is called liberation or Moksha.
ƒ Asana - fixed postures.
ˆ Yoga school differs from closely related atheistic
Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of ƒ Pranayama - Breath control.
“essential personal God”. ƒ Pratyahara – Withdrawal of the senses
ˆ Samkhya school says that jnana (Knowledge) ƒ Dharna - Concentration
is sufficient means to moksha, while Yoga ƒ Dhyana - Meditation
school suggests that systematic techniques
and practices, or personal experimentation, ƒ Samadhi - Complete dissolution of the self,
combined with Samkhya’s approach to merging the mind and the object.
knowledge, is the path to moksha.

www.sleepyclasses.com 117 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Anumana (inference)
Nyaya School ƒ Upmana (comparison and analogy)
ƒ Sabda (word, testimony of past or present
NYAYA SCHOOL OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
reliable experts)
ˆ Founder - Gautam Muni
ˆ Nyaya school states that - Human sufferings
ˆ Literal Meaning - Justice, rules, methods or results from mistakes/defects produced by
judgements, specially a collection of general or activity under wrong knowledge (notions and
universal rules. ignorance).
ƒ In simple words it means - “Anything that ˆ Moksha (liberation) it states is gained through
shows the way” right knowledge and this premise led Nyaya
ˆ Nyaya encompasses propriety, logic and to concern itself with epistemology, that is the
method. reliable means to gain correct knowledge and
to remove wrong notions.
ˆ Most significant contribution of Nyaya School to
Indian philosophy was systematic development ˆ Correct knowledge
of logic, methodology and its treatises on ƒ It is discovering and overcoming one’s
epistemology. delusions and understanding true nature of
ˆ It forms its pair with Vaisheshika school of soul, self and reality.
Hinduism. ƒ This school of philosophy is close to principle
of direct realism, stating that anything
PRAMANS
that really exists is in principle humanly
knowable.
ˆ Nyaya on God and Salvation
ƒ Early Naiyyayikas wrote very little about
Ishvara (literally, the Supreme Soul).
ƒ Evidence available so far suggests that early
Nyaya scholars were non- theistic or atheists.
ƒ Later, and over time, Nyaya scholars tried to
apply some of their epistemological insights
and methodology to the question: does God
exist? Some offered arguments against and
some in favor.

Vaisheshika School
VAISHESHIKA SCHOOL OF INDIAN
PHILOSOPHY
ˆ Founder - Kanada Kashyapa.
ˆ In its early stages, the Vaiśheshika was
ˆ Accepted four pramanas as reliable means of an independent philosophy with its own
gaining knowledge epistemology, logic and ethics. Over time,
ƒ Pratyaksha (perception) the Vaiśheshika system became similar in its

www.sleepyclasses.com 118 1800-890-3043

 philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions
to the Nyāya school of Hinduism.
Mimamsa School
ˆ Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, like Buddhism,
accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: MIMAMSA SCHOOL OF INDIAN
Perception and Inference. PHILOSOPHY
ˆ Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in ˆ Founder - Jaimini
naturalism. It is a form of atomism in natural
philosophy. ˆ Literal Meaning - In Sanskrit, it means Reflection
or critical investigation
ƒ It postulated that all objects in the physical
universe are reducible to paramānu (atoms), ƒ Also refers to examination of the Vedas.
and one’s experiences are derived from the ˆ All known as Purva Mimamsa because of of its
interplay of substance (a function of atoms, focus on the earlier Vedic texts dealing with
their number and their spatial arrangements), ritual actions, and similarly as Karma- Mīmāmsā
quality, activity, commonness, particularity due to its focus on ritual action (karma).
and inherence. ˆ The Mīmāmsā school was foundational and
ˆ Everything was composed of atoms, qualities influential for the vedāntic schools, which
emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the were also known as Uttara-Mīmāmsā (Jnana
aggregation and nature of these atoms was Mimamsa) for their focus on the “later” (uttara)
predetermined by cosmic forces. portions of the Vedas, the Upanisads.
ˆ Ajivika metaphysics also included a theory of ƒ Mīmāmsā has several sub-schools, each
atoms which was later adapted in Vaiśheshika defined by its epistemology.
school.
ˆ The Prābhākara sub-school, which takes its
ˆ According to Vaisheshika school, knowledge name from the seventh- century philosopher
and liberation were achievable by a complete Prabhākara, described the five epistemically
understanding of the world of experience. reliable means to gaining knowledge:
ˆ Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism, that the
ƒ Pratyaksa or perception;
reality is composed of five substances (examples
are earth, water, air, fire, and space). ƒ Anumāna or inference (based on previous
truths);
ƒ Each of these five are of two types, paramānu
and composite. ƒ Upamāna, by comparison and analogy
ƒ A paramānu is that which is indestructible, ƒ Arthāpatti, the use of postulation and
indivisible, and has a special kind of derivation from circumstances (includes
dimension, called “small” (anu). A composite supposition, presumption);
is that which is divisible into paramānu. ƒ Sabda, the word or testimony of past or
ˆ Parama means “most distant, remotest, extreme, present reliable experts.
last” and anu means “atom, very small particle”, ˆ The Bhātta sub-school, from philosopher
hence paramānu is essentially “the most distant Kumārila Bhatta, added a sixth means to its
or last small (i.e. smallest) particle”. canon;
ˆ Views on God – ƒ Anupalabdhi meant non-perception, or
proof by the absence of cognition (e.g., the
ƒ Inactive and motionless in themselves, the
lack of gunpowder on a suspect’s hand)
atoms are put into motion by God’s will,
through the unseen forces of moral merit and ˆ View on God -
demerit. ƒ The school of Mīmāmsā consists of both
atheistic and theistic doctrines, but the

www.sleepyclasses.com 119 1800-890-3043

 school showed little interest in systematic ˆ It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, which means
examination of the existence of Gods. the ‘latter enquiry’ or ‘higher enquiry’; and is
ƒ Rather, it held that the soul is an eternal, often contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, the
omnipresent, inherently active spiritual ‘former enquiry’ or ‘primary enquiry’.
essence, and focused on the epistemology and ˆ Main traditions of Vedanta are –
metaphysics of dharma.
ƒ Bhedabheda (difference and non difference)
ƒ For the Mīmāmsā school, dharma meant - Sub school of Vedanta, which teaches the
rituals and social duties, not devas, or gods, individual self is both different and not
because gods existed only in name. different from the ultimate reality known as
ˆ The Mīmāmsakas also held that Vedas are Brahman.
“eternal, author-less, infallible”, that Vedic ƒ Advaita (monistic) Vedanta - It refers to idea
vidhi, or injunctions and mantras in rituals are that Brahman alone is ultimately real, the
prescriptive kārya or actions, and the rituals are phenomenal transient world is an illusory
of primary importance and merit. appearance (maya) of Brahman, and the true
ˆ They considered the Upanisads and other texts self, atman, is not different from Brahman.
related to self- knowledge and spirituality as (Adi Shankaracharya)
subsidiary, a philosophical view that Vedānta y He considers Knowledge or jnana/gyan to
disagreed with. be the main means of attaining salvation.
ˆ Mīmāmsakas considered orderly, law driven, ˆ Vishishtadvaita (qualified monism) – Ramanuja
procedural life as central purpose and noblest
ƒ Non dualism of the qualified whole, in which
necessity of dharma and society.
Brahman alone is seen as the Supreme Reality,
but is characterised by multiplicity.
Vedanta School ƒ It believes in all diversity subsuming to an
underlying unity.
VEDANTA SCHOOL OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
ƒ He considers loving the faith and practising
ˆ Literal Meaning - “End of the Vedas” devotion as the path to attain salvation.
ˆ Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or ˆ Dvaita (dualism) - Madhavacharya
aligned with, the speculations and philosophies
ƒ Dvaita school believes that God (Vishnu,
contained in the Upanishads, specifically,
supreme soul) and the individual souls
Knowledge and liberation.
exists as independent realities, and these are
ˆ Vedanta is concerned with jnanakanda or distinct and being said that Vishnu (Narayan)
knowledge section of the Vedas which is called is independent, and souls are dependent on
Upanishads. him.
ˆ The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of ƒ The Vedanta theory also gave credence to the
Vedas in different senses – Theory of Karma, they believed in the theory
ƒ These were the last literary products of the of Punrajanama or rebirth.
Vedic period. ƒ They argued that a person would have to bear
ƒ These mark the culmination of Vedic thought. the burnt of their actions from the previous
birth in the next one.
ƒ These were taught and debated last, in the
Brahmacharya stage.

www.sleepyclasses.com 120 1800-890-3043

 Explanation

PYQ ˆ Statement 1 is incorrect as fourth Buddhist

Council was held in Kashmir during the reign of
Q. Which one of the following pairs does not form Kanishka under the presidentship of Vasumitra.
part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy? Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of Chandra
(2014) Gupta-II and not during Kanishka’s reign.
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta ˆ Statement 2 is incorrect as Harsha was not
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika antagonistic to Buddhism when Hiuen -Tsang
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika met him.
(d) Sankhya and Yoga
Answer: C
n n n n
6 Systems of Indian Philosophy

REVISION
Q. Consider the following statements: [2004]
1. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien attended the
fourth Great Buddhist Council held by
Kanishka.
2. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang met
Harsha and found him to be antagonistic to
Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D

www.sleepyclasses.com 121 1800-890-3043

 WEEKLY CURRENT AFFAIRS
HISTORY ANCIENT HISTORY
World Sanskrit Day
ˆ Recently, World Sanskrit Day, also known as ˆ Vedic Sanskrit is a part of the Rig Veda, among
World Sanskrit Diwas was observed. other texts.
ˆ Classical Sanskrit is the latter and more
standardised form of Sanskrit.
ˆ Classical form is based on the grammar of
Panini and used in philosophy, literature, and
art.
Background Information on Panini:
ˆ Panini probably lived in the 4th century BC,
even though he has also been dated to the 6th
century BC.
ˆ He likely lived in Salatura (Gandhara), which
today would lie in north-west Pakistan.
ˆ He was probably associated with the great
university at Takshashila.
Important Points to remember: ˆ His text - ‘Ashtadhyayi’ is a linguistics text that
set the standard for how Sanskrit was meant to
ˆ The day is celebrated to mark the greatness be written and spoken.
of the language and as a tribute to the birth
ˆ By the time the ‘Ashtadhyayi’, or ‘Eight Chapters’
anniversary of Paṇini.
was composed, Sanskrit had virtually reached
ˆ The first World Sanskrit Day was celebrated in its classical form.
1969.
ˆ Panini’s grammar, which built on the work of
ˆ It is celebrated on the Purnima tithi (full moon) many earlier grammarians, effectively stabilised
of the Shravana month. the Sanskrit language.
ˆ Sanskrit language is considered to be one of the
oldest languages and is considered as mother of
all languages.
ˆ It is believed to have originated in India around
3500 years ago.
ˆ Sanskrit language is divided into two parts
which is Vedic and Classical.

www.sleepyclasses.com 122 1800-890-3043

ˆ The Ashtadhyayi laid down more than 4,000 Mitakshara Law
grammatical rules.
ˆ In a recent case, the Supreme Court referred to
ˆ It effectively set the standard for how Sanskrit the ancient Mitakshara Law stating that children
was meant to be written and spoken. born of void or voidable marriages can inherit
ˆ It delves deep into the language’s phonetics, their parent’s share in a joint Hindu family
syntax and grammar. property.
ˆ Later Indian grammars such as the Mahabhashya Important Points to remember:
of Patanjali (2nd century BC) and the Kasika
Vritti of Jayaditya and Vamana (7th century ˆ The Mitakshara Law is a traditional legal Hindu
AD), were mostly commentaries on Panini. law system that primarily governs the rules of
inheritance and property rights.
ˆ It was written by Vijnaneswara, a scholar in
the Western Chalukya court in the late eleventh
century, as a commentry on the Yajnavalkya
Smriti.
ˆ In present times, it forms the basis for rules of
inheritance of property for a Hindu Undivided
Family (HUF).
ˆ It is one of the two major schools of Hindu law,
the other being the Dayabhaga school.
ˆ The Mitakshara law of succession applies to the
entire country except West Bengal and Assam.
ˆ The term Dayabhaga is derived from a similarly
named text written by Jimutavahana and is
Q With reference to the scholars/litterateurs observed in Bengal and Assam.
of ancient India, consider the following
statements: (2020) ˆ In the Mitakshara system, the sons can claim
right to the property during the lifetime of the
1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra
father.
Shunga.
ˆ While in the Dayabhaga system, a son has no
2. Amarasimha is associated with
automatic ownership right by birth but acquires
Harshavardhana.
it on the death of his father.
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta-
II. Q. In reference to the history of ancient India,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
Which of the statements given above is/are
(2021)
correct?
1. Mitakshara was the civil law for upper castes
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
and Dayabhaga was the civil law for lower
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 castes.
Answer: C 2. In the Mitakshara system, the sons can claim
right to the property during the lifetime of the

www.sleepyclasses.com 123 1800-890-3043

 father, whereas in the Dayabhaga system, it is
only after the death of the father that the sons
can claim right to the property.
3. The Mitakshara system deals with the
matters related to the property held by
male members only of a family, whereas
the Dayabhaga system deals with the matters
related to the property held by both male and
female members of a family.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 Only
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 Only
Answer: B
n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 124 1800-890-3043

 HETERODOX PHILOSOPHIES

BUDDHISM & JAINISM

ˆ 6th century BCE - A period of great Religious upheaval - As many as 64 Heterodox sects came forward
to challenge the Brahmanical dominance prevalent at that time.
ˆ Out of these 64 - Buddhism and Jainism came to the forefront and laid a strong foundation that exists
even to this day.

CAUSES OF ORIGIN OF THESE SECTS

Sources of Buddhism and their ideology

ˆ Canonical texts - Directly linked to Gautam Buddha in one way or the other. (Difference among various
sects as to, which source can be considered as canonical).
ˆ Books which lay down the basic tenets and principles of Buddhism such as the Tipitakas (The Three
Baskets/Collections). These are the Buddha’s teachings written on long Narrow Leaves.
ƒ Vinaya Pitaka (Disciplinary Code) - recited by Upali

www.sleepyclasses.com 125 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Sutta Pitaka (Conventional Teaching) - ƒ Sutta Pitaka - 5 collections
recited by Ananda ƒ Vinaya Pitaka - 5 books
ƒ Abhidhamma Pitaka (Moral Psychology) ƒ Abhidhamma Pitaka - 7 books.
ˆ Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) - This
Non-canonical texts or semi-canonical texts –
contains the rule for monks and nuns of the
Monastic Order (Sangha). ˆ Commentaries and observation on canonical
texts, Historic information, quotes, etc.
ˆ Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) - These texts
are known as words of Buddha as it refers to ƒ Milindapanho – A dialogue in Pali language
what the Buddha himself said, The authority of consisting of a conversation between Indo-
these texts has been accepted by all the schools Greek King Milinda/Menander and the monk
of Buddhism. These texts are arranged in the Nagasena.
manner of how they were delivered by Buddha. ˆ Vishuddhimagga - The Path to Purity, written
ˆ Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher by Buddhaghosa, deals with the development
Teachings) - contains a thorough study and from the purity of discipline to Nibbana/
systemization of the teachings of the Sutta enlightenment.
Pitaka through summaries, questions, and ˆ Dipavamsa and Mahavamasa - Historical
answers. cum mythical account of Buddha’s life in Pali
ˆ These 3 Pitakas are divided into Nikayas (Books). Language-based out of Srilanka.

BUDDHA - THE STORY

www.sleepyclasses.com 126 1800-890-3043

LIFE OF BUDDHA

www.sleepyclasses.com 127 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Buddha delivered his first sermon on the
deliverance of suffering to his five former
companions who had deserted him in a deer park
at Sarnath.
ˆ This event is known as ‘Dharma Chakra
Pravartana’ meaning ‘turning the wheel of
Dharma’ - and this way his disciples became
Arhats. (A perfected person, one who has gained
insight into the true nature of existence and has
achieved nirvana (spiritual enlightenment)
ˆ Thus, Buddha constituted an audience of his
ˆ Thus, at the age of 35, he ultimately attained disciples which came to be known as Sangha.
Nirvana/Enlightenment at Gaya under a ˆ He finally attained Mahaparinirvana at the age
Peepal Tree at Uruvela, on the banks of river of 80 at Kusinara (Malla Mahajanapada).
Niranjana, and came to be known as Buddha, the
ˆ His last words were - ‘All composite things
enlightened one.
decay, strive diligently’.-???
ˆ (Attempts to Destroy this tree - By Pushyamitra
Sunga in 2nd cen BCE and King Shasanka in 600
AD)

DOCTRINES OF BUDDHA
ˆ Buddha while giving the analogy of Boat and
raft, stresses the fact one should not cling to
anything, including his teachings.
ˆ The teachings are only Upaya and are thus not
dogma.
The core of Buddha’s doctrine on expressed in the -

www.sleepyclasses.com 128 1800-890-3043

ˆ The path of Buddha is often referred to as Middle Path (the one between extreme indulgence and extreme
asceticism)
ˆ Buddha says that when one follows this Eightfold path, One reaches the stage of Nirvana which means
non-attachment and dying of sense of ego.
ˆ As opposed to ritual action of Brahmanical tradition, Karma in the Buddhist tradition is the result of an
action depending upon the intention more than the action itself.
ƒ Bodhisattva - An enlightened being destined to be a Buddha, but purposely remains on earth to teach others.
ƒ Maitreya - Future Buddha.

www.sleepyclasses.com 129 1800-890-3043

ˆ Buddha also established a code of conduct both ˆ However it was not all-inclusive, there were
for the monastic order and the laymen to follow a certain number of conditions which a joinee
which are also known as the Five Precepts or must adhere to - entry of debtors, slaves, soldiers
Pancasila and refrain from them. without permission from their respective masters was
ƒ Violence prohibited.

ƒ Stealing
ƒ Sexual misconduct
ƒ Lying or gossip
ƒ Taking intoxicating substances e.g. drugs or
drink

BUDDHA AND BRAHMANISM

ˆ Buddha considered Varna based on Action and
not based on birth, thus Sangha had members from
all the castes.

Buddhist Time Place Ruler President Important Term

Council
First 483 BCE Sattapani Ajatshatru Mahakassapa Held after the death of Buddha to
Caves, compile the teachings of Buddha.
Rajagriha Led to the formation of - Vinaya
Pitaka - Rules of the Order -
Recited by Upali and Sutta Pitaka
– a collection of Buddhas Sermon
- recited by Ananda.

www.sleepyclasses.com 130 1800-890-3043

Second 383 BCE Vaishali Kalashoka Sabbakami To settle the debate on certain
practices among Buddhist Monks,
led to the division of Buddhism
into sects - Sthaviravadins
and Mahasangikas - These 2
groups will eventually evolve
into Hinayana and Mahayana
Buddhism.
The group which remained stuck
to the original spirit and teaching
of Buddha called themselves the
Elders (Thera in Pali).
The other group, the greater
community (Mahasangikas in
Sanskrit) interpreted Buddha’s
teaching more liberally but in a
way that they felt was truer to his
intentions.
Third 250 BCE Patliputra Ashoka Mogaliputtatissa The objective was to purify
the Buddhist movement from
opportunistic factions.
Abhidhamma Pitaka was
composed, Completing the
Tripitaka, coded in Pali Language.
Sent Buddhist Missionaries to
other countries
Fourth 1 Cen Kashmir Kanishka Vasumitra and Reconciliation of various
CE Ashvagosha conflicts between different
schools.
Buddhism further divided into
Mahayana and Hinayana Sect.
Tripitaka translated from Pali to
Sanskrit.

ˆ Its scriptures are in Pali, the language in which

DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
Buddha taught.
Hinayana School (Theravada)
ˆ It treats Buddha as nothing more than a Human
ˆ Literal Meaning - ‘The Lesser Path’ and Being who does not believe in Idol Worship
Theravada means ‘Doctrine of the Elders’. and tries to attain Individual salvation through
ˆ It is considered as an orthodox school and to self-discipline and meditation.
follow the original thought and teaching of Buddha. ˆ Ultimate aim is Nirvana
ˆ Theravada is considered to be the original school ˆ At present, found in Sri Lanka - Myanmar -
of Buddhism. Thailand.

www.sleepyclasses.com 131 1800-890-3043

ˆ Ashoka patronised Hinayana. ˆ Popular in eastern India – Bengal and Bihar and
ˆ Salvation can be attained through self-discipline is predominant in Himalayan nations of Tibet,
and meditation. Nepal, Bhutan, and also Mongolia.

MAHAYANA SCHOOL GREAT BODHISATTVAS

ˆ Literal Meaning - ‘The Greater Path’ ˆ Manjushri - Bodhisattva of wisdom and insight.
ˆ Avalokiteshvara / Padmapani / Lokesvara -
ˆ It is the heterodox School, as it originated later
Bodhisattva of infinite compassion.
than Hinayana.
ˆ Vajrapani - Bodhisattva that represents power and
ˆ It has 2 further philosophical schools -
forceful energy.
Madhyamika and Yogachara.
ˆ Maitreya - Bodhisattva who has not lived yet,
ˆ Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
future Buddha.
ˆ It treats Buddha as equal to God and worships ˆ Kshitgarbha - Bodhisattva destined to save the
idols of Buddha and Boddhisattvas. souls of all beings between Buddha’s death and
ˆ It believes in universal liberation from suffering the age of Maitreya.
for all living beings.
MUDRAS IN BUDDHISM
ˆ The ultimate aim is ‘spiritual upliftment’.
ˆ Mudras are a non-verbal mode of communication
ˆ At present practiced in Japan, China.
and self-expression, consisting of hand gestures
ˆ Kanishka patronized Mahayana Buddhism. and finger postures.
VAJRAYANA SCHOOL ˆ They are symbolic sign-based finger patterns
taking the place, but retaining the efficacy of the
ˆ Literal Meaning ‘Vehicle of the Thunderbolt’. spoken word, and are used to evoke in the mind
ˆ Vajrayana or Diamond Vehicle is also referred to ideas symbolizing divine powers or the deities
as Mantryana, Tantrayana, or Tantric Buddhism. themselves.
ˆ It was a form of Buddhism which appeared in ˆ They ae also used by monks in their
eastern India and was finally established in spiritual exercises of ritual meditation and
Tibet in the 11th century as a result of the mission concentration and are believed to generate
sent from the great Vajrayana monastery of forces that invoke the deity.
Vikramshila.
ˆ It is based on ‘Two Truths Doctrine’, which DHARMACHAKRA MUDRA - MEANS ‘WHEEL
means ‘conventional’ and ‘ultimate’ truths. OF DHARMA’

ƒ Conventional truth is the truth of consensus ˆ Symbolises one of the most important moments
reality and common sense notions of what in the life of Buddha, the occasion when he
does and does not exist. preached to his companions the first sermon after
his Enlightenment in the Deer Park at Sarnath.
ƒ Ultimate truth is reality as viewed by an
awakened or enlightened mind. ˆ It thus denotes the setting into motion of
ˆ Great emphasis is placed on the role of guru in the Wheel of the teaching of the Dharma.
Vajrayana and the Tibetan translation of Guru
is Lama.

www.sleepyclasses.com 132 1800-890-3043

 goddess, Sthavara, to bear witness to his
attainment of enlightenment.
ˆ It is in this posture that Sakyamuni overcame the
obstructions of Mara while meditating.

Bhumisparsha Mudra VARADA MUDRA

ˆ This mudra symbolizes charity, compassion,
ˆ Literally, Bhumisparsha translates into ‘touching
and boon-granting.
the earth’. It is more commonly known as
the ‘earth witness’. ˆ It is the mudra of the accomplishment of the
wish to devote oneself to human salvation.
ˆ This mudra, formed with all five fingers of
the right hand extended to touch the ground, ˆ The five extended fingers in this mudra
symbolizes the Buddha’s enlightenment under symbolize the following five perfections-
the Bodhi tree, when he summoned the earth Generosity, Morality, Patience, Effort,
Meditative concentration.

www.sleepyclasses.com 133 1800-890-3043

 Buddhism PYQ
Q. Who among the following presided over the
Buddhist Council held during the reign of
Kanishka at Kashmir ? [2001]
(a) Parsva (b) Nagarjuna
(c) Sudraka (d) Vasumitra
Q. Which of the following Kingdoms were
associated with the life of the Buddha? (2014,2015)
1. Avanti 2. Gandhara
3. Kosala 4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 3 and 4
Answer: C

KINGDOMS ASSOCIATED WITH BUDDHA

www.sleepyclasses.com 134 1800-890-3043

Q. In the Mahayana Buddhism, the Bodhisatva Q. With reference to the religious history of India,
Avalokitesvara was also known as: [1997] consider the following statements: (2016)
(a) Vajrapani (b) Manjusri 1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to
(c) Padmapani (d) Maitreya Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
Answer: C 2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his
way to enlightenment.
Explanation
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own
Avalokiteśvara is a bodhisattva who embodies salvation to help all sentient beings on their
the compassion of all Buddhas. He is one of the path to it.
more widely revered bodhisattvas in mainstream
Which of the statements given above is/are
Mahayana Buddhism. In Sanskrit, Avalokitesvara is
correct?
also referred to as Padmapāni (“Holder of the Lotus”)
or Lokeśvara (“Lord of the World”). (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3.
Q. With reference to the Indian History, who
among the following is a future Buddha, yet to n n n n
come to save the world? (2018)
(a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara
(c) Maitreya (d) Padmapani

www.sleepyclasses.com 135 1800-890-3043

 HETERODOX PHILOSOPHIES

JAINISM - EARLY JAIN LITERATURE

ˆ Initially they were preserved as an Oral tradition, but later they were collected and recorded.
ˆ In olden times, Monks strictly followed the great five vows of Jainism(AAABS) and even the religious
scriptures were considered possessions and therefore knowledge of the religion was never documented.
ˆ Since it was difficult to memorise entire Jaina literature, therefore they decided to compile them.
ˆ Lord Mahavira’s immediate disciples are known as Ganadharas, and all these Ganadharas possessed
perfect knowledge (Keval-Gyan). They orally compiled the direct preaching of Lord Mahavira into 12
main texts (sutras). These are called as Angas and are the oldest religious scripture of Jaina Literature.
ƒ Shvetambara canon includes 12 Angas, 12 Upanagas (commentary on these Angas), 10 Prakirnas
(Scriptures which describe independent or miscellaneous subjects of Jain religion).

JAINISM
ˆ Digamabars consider that original Angas had been lost for centuries, and thus they have different
canons (known as Siddhanta).
ˆ The Tattvartha Sutra - contains the main doctrine of Jaina faith, though the two main sects have slightly
different versions and composition dates.

PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM
ˆ Jainas believe that each Jina reveals the same essential truths, according to the need of the society and
the era in which they are born.
ˆ When he reaches omniscience, he can make the divya-dhvani (divine sound), through which he transmits
his teachings to all sentinent beings (Samavasarana).
ˆ Non canonical Jaina texts are partly in dialects of Prakrit and partly in Sanskrit.
ˆ It also includes vast collection of lyrical poetry, hymns in different language such as Prakrit, Sanskrit
and Kannada.

www.sleepyclasses.com 136 1800-890-3043

ˆ Some important non canonical works - ˆ Mahavira - 24th Tirthankara (symbol - Lion)
ƒ Adi Purana - 9th century compilation, ˆ The core of the Jaina doctrine is expressed in the
tells us about the life of 1st Tiranthakara - principle of -
Rishabhanatha. ƒ Anekantavada - Doctrine of manyfold nature
ƒ Harivamsha Purana - 8th century Jaina version of reality.
of the stories of Krishna, Pandavas etc. ƒ Triratnas - Three gems
ˆ Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana - 9th ƒ Panch Mahavrata - Five great vows
century compilation authored by Jinasena and
Gunabhadra which contain the life stories of ƒ Ahimsa - Doctrine of Non Violence
Jaina saints, kings and heroes. THREE JEWELS OF JAIN ETHICS CALLED AS
ˆ Parishishtaparvan - 12th century compilation TRIRATNAS
by Hemachandra gives details about political ˆ Right Faith - Samyag Darshana
History of Jaina teachers.
ˆ Right Knowledge - Samyag Jnana
VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA ˆ Right Conduct - Samyag Charitra - 5 Vows
ˆ He is considered to be the 24th Tiranthakara or
Jina . He came to be known as Mahavira, other
names - Jintendriya (One who has conquered his
inner desires)
ˆ According to tradition, he was a contemporary
of Buddha and was born in 599 BCE at a place
called Kundagrama near Vaishali.
ˆ He was the son of King Siddhartha and queen
Trishala. PANCH MAHAVRATAS
ˆ At the age of 30 he renounced his family in order ˆ Non Violence (Ahimsa Parmo Dhrama) (Jainism
to attain enlightenment and at the age of 42, it is prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture
believed that on the banks of Rijupalika river, for its followers) (Eventually Jainas, confined
outside the town of Jrimbhikagrama, in the fields themselves to trade and mercantile activities)
of a householder named Samaga, he attained
Kevalajnana. ˆ Truth (Satya)

ˆ He passed away and became a Siddha (fully ˆ Non Stealing (Asteya) -To take more than one’s
liberated) at the age of 72 years in 527 BCE at need is also considered Theft in Jainism
Pavapuri near Patna. ˆ Celibacy/Chastity (Brahmcharaya added by
Mahavira)
DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
ˆ Non Attachement/Non Possession (Aparigraha)
ˆ Jaina doctrines are believed to be much older
than Buddhism .
ˆ Jaina conception of time is based on endless
sequences of progressive (utsarpinis) and
regressive half cycles (avsarpinis) in terms of
degrees of happiness.
ˆ First Tirthankara - Rishabhanatha (Symbol - bull).
ˆ 23rd Tirthankara - Parshvanatha (symbol - Snake)

www.sleepyclasses.com 137 1800-890-3043

ˆ These Panch Vratas are for the Jain monks and not of Annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
for the all people. The same vratas or vows when
partially observed - are termed as Anuvratas i.e FOR SPREADING THEIR RELIGION
small or partial vows. ˆ Jainas adopted Prakrit language of the common
ˆ Jainism is fundamentally atheistic, though it people to preach their doctrines and discarded
recognises the existence of God, yet it refuses to Sanskrit.
give them importance in the universal scheme of ˆ Patronisation by big Kings like Kharavela,
themes and places the God lower than Jina (the Chandragupta Maurya. (During the last years of
conqueror)-??? his life, he went with Bhadrabahu (Digambaras)
ˆ According to Jaina doctrine - Karma is the bane to Shrvanabelagola, Karnataka and dies there by
of the soul and must be ended and the surest way fasting, A process known as Sallekhana/Santhara.

DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF JAINISM

Digamabara Shvetamabara
Clothing Means Sky Clad, They stress on practice of nudity Means White Clad, According to
as an absolute pre-requisite. them practice of complete nudity
is not essential.
Starting of According to Tradition, during the famous According to tradition, during the
Difference Magadha famine, they are the ones who migrated famous Magadha famine, they had
to Karnataka under the leadership of Bhadrabahu stayed back under the leadership
and lived in the old traditional way. of Sthulabhadra.
Views on On the point of liberation of women, Digambara They acknowledge the possibility
Women tradition holds that a women lacks the body of a women attaining Jina-hood
and rigid will necessary to attain Moksha, i.e and maintain that women are
Liberation, hence she has to be reborn as a man capable in the present lifetime of
before such attainment is possible same spiritual accomplishments as
men.
After On attaining enlightenment, an omniscient is They believe that even omniscient
Enlightenment freed from the needs of ordinary existence such requires food and other
as hunger, thirst, sleep, disease etc. requirements of ordinary existence.
View on This tradition holds that Mahavira never married They believe that Mahavira married
Marriage of and renounced the world while his parents were Princess Yashoda at a fairly Young
Mahavira alive. age and had a daughter, and it
was only after parents death, that
Mahavira became ascetic.
Worship of Regarding idols of Tirthankaras, Digamabara tradition Whereas, the Shvetambara tradition
Idols represents the idols of Tirthankaras as nude, unadorned depicts the idols of Tirthankaras as
and with downcast eyes in the contemplative mood. wearing lion cloth, decked with jewels
and with glass eyes inserted in marble.
Scripture They believe that original and genuine texts were lost They believe in the outcome of the
long ago, they also refuse to accept the outcome of the first council and thus in the validity
first council under Sthulabhadra and consequently of 12 Angas and Sutra
the recasting of Angas

www.sleepyclasses.com 138 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Terapantha - They arose as a revolt against the
domination and conduct of the Bhattarakas.
ƒ They worship the idols of Tirthankaras but
not other deities in their temples.
ƒ They worship the idols without any offerings
but scared rice called Aksata.
ƒ They do not perform Aarti, nor do they
distribute any Prasad
ƒ While worshipping they stand and do not sit.
ˆ Totapantha - 16 and a half

DIGAMABARA SUB SECTS ƒ They came into being as a result of differences

between the BisaPantha (i.e Twenty) and
ˆ Bispantha - They support the Dharam gurus i.e Terapantha (13), the average of that comes out
religious authorities known as Bhattarakas, the to be Totapantha, so they partially follow the
head of Jaina Mathas. precepts of both of these schools.
ˆ They worship the idols of Tirthankaras and
idols of other deities in their temples. SHVETAMABARS SUB SECTS
ˆ They worship these idols with saffron, flowers, ˆ Murtipujakas - They worship the idols and offer
sweets, scented incense sticks etc. They perform flowers, fruits etc, and adorn them with rich clothes
Aarti and even distribute Prasad. and jewelled ornaments. They stay in temples or
in the specially reserved buildings known as
ˆ While worshipping they sit on the ground and do upasrayas.
not stand.
ˆ Sthanakvasi - They do not believe in idol worship
and thus do not have temples at all instead they
have ‘Sthankas’ that is prayer halls, where they
carry on their religious fasts, festivals, practices
etc. They do not have belief in the places of
pilgrimage. The word Dhundiya is associated with
them which means the searchers.
ˆ Terapanthis - They are non idolatrous and are
very finely organised under the complete direction
of one Acharya, One code of conduct and one line of
thought.
ƒ They attach much importance to the practice
of meditation.
ƒ They are considered as reformists as they
emphasise on simplicity in religion.

www.sleepyclasses.com 139 1800-890-3043

JAINA COUNCILS

Council Year Place Outcome President

I 310 BCE Patliputra Led to division in Sthulbhadra
Jainism - Digambars and
Shvetambars
II 453 or 466 CE Vallabhi Final Compilation of 12 Deeridhiganj
Angas and 12 Upanagas

3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be

PYQ ended.
Q. Which of the following statements is/are Select the correct answer using the codes given
applicable to Jain doctrine?(2013) below.
1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
practice penance. (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a Answer: D
soul.

www.sleepyclasses.com 140 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Vardhamanaka - Earthen bowl used as a
Jainism and Symbols – lamp, symbolic of light (knowledge) banishing
darkness (Ignorance).
Ashtamangala

ˆ Swastika - Symbol of peace and well being.

ˆ Bhadrasna - Holy seat representing the seat of

Mahavira and other venerated and liberated
souls.

ˆ Shrivasta - It is said to be a mark on the chest

of Mahavira and other Tirthankaras which
symbolises purity of soul, compassion etc.

ˆ Kalasha - Pot filled with holy water, represents

purity and wisdom to fill our minds.

ˆ Nandavarta - Complex form of Swastika with

nine angles of corners.

ˆ Meenu Yugala - It is a figure of fish couple

considered auspicious and signifying flow of
divine life in the cosmic ocean.

www.sleepyclasses.com 141 1800-890-3043

 systematised materialist philosophy by setting
them down in the form of aphorisms in the 6th
century BCE.
ˆ Rejects supernatural concepts like God and soul
and also metaphysical concepts like afterlife (or
reincarnation) and moksha.
ˆ One of the widely studies principle of Charvaka
philosophy was the rejection of inference as a
ˆ Darpana - Mirror (Darpana) signifies reflection means to establish valid, universal knowledge,
of one’s true self that is the soul. and metaphysical truths. (The Charvaka
epistemology states that whenever one infers a
truth from a set of observations or truths, one
must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is
conditional).
ˆ They held perception and direct experiments to
be the valid and reliable source of knowledge.
ˆ In Charvaka Philosophy, Perception is of 2 types
- External and Internal. (External perception is
described as that arising from the interaction of
five senses and worldly objects, while internal
perception is described by this school as that of
Parasparo Graho Jivanam inner sense, the mind).
ˆ Charvakas further state that full knowledge is
reached when we know all observations, all
premises and all conditions.
ƒ But the absence of conditions, state Charvakas,
can not be established beyond doubt by
perception, as some conditions may be hidden
or escape our ability to observe, and thus
Pratyaksha (Perception) is the only valid way
to knowledge and other means of knowledge
are wither always conditional or invalid.
CHARVAKA SCHOOL OF INDIAN
PHILOSOPHY ˆ Charvaka believed that there was nothing wrong
with sensual pleasure. Since it is impossible to
ˆ Charvaka/Lokyata is an ancient school of have pleasure without pain, Charvaka thought that
Indian materialism, one of the popular belief wisdom lay in enjoying pleasure and avoiding
system in Ancient India. (Traditional name of pain as far as possible.
Charvaka is Lokyata)
ˆ The Charvakas pointed out the disagreements,
ˆ One of the Nastika or “heterodox” schools of debates and mutual rejection by karmakanda Vedic
Indian Philosophy. priests and jñānakanda Vedic priests,
ˆ Founder - Brihaspati - Brihaspati Sutra (lost) ƒ As proof that either one of them is wrong or
ˆ Time Period - Around 5-6th century BCE. both are wrong, as both cannot be right, They
ˆ Although materialist schools existed before also held the belief that Vedas were invented
Charvaka, it was the only school which by man, and had no divine authority.

www.sleepyclasses.com 142 1800-890-3043

ˆ Charvakas rejected the need for ethics or morals, the Mauryan emperor Bindusara, around
and suggested that “while life remains, let a the 4th century BCE. This school of thought
man live happily, let him feed on ghee even thereafter declined, but survived for nearly 2,000
though he runs in debt” years through the 14th century CE in the southern
Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Ajivika School of Philosophy ˆ Decline - The Ājīvika philosophy, along with
the Cārvāka philosophy, appealed most to
the warrior, industrial and mercantile classes
of ancient Indian society.
ˆ Caves - Barabar caves in Bihar - date back to the
time period of Ashoka and are example of the
oldest surviving cave temples of ancient India

PYQ
Q. With reference to the history of ancient India,
which of the following was/were common to
both Buddhism and Jainism? (2012)
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and
enjoyment
ˆ Ajivika School - One of the Nastika or heterodox 2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
schools of Indian Philosophy, A shramana
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
movement and a major rival of Vedic religion,
Select the correct answer using the codes given
early Buddhism and Jainism.
below:
ˆ Time period - 5th century BCE by Makkhali
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Gosala.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
ˆ Original Scriptures of Ajivikas philosophy
Answer: B
may once have existed, but these are currently
unavailable and probably lost, and their theories
are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the
secondary sources of ancient Indian Literature.
ˆ Doctrine - Ajivika school is known for its Niyati
(Fate) doctrine of absolute determinism, the
premise that there is no free will, that everything
that has happened, is happening and will happen
is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic
principles.
ˆ Ajivika metaphysics included a theory of atoms
which was later adapted in Vaisheshika school,
where everything was composed of atoms,
qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but
the aggregation and nature of these atoms was
predetermined by cosmic forces.
ˆ Ājīvika philosophy reached the height 2023
of its popularity during the rule of
n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 143 1800-890-3043

 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE & SCULPTURE
shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a
pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India.
ˆ Amalaka - It is a stone disc like structure at the
top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
ˆ Kalasha - It is the topmost point of the temple
and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
ˆ Vahan - Mount or vehicle of the temple’s main
deity

BROAD OUTLINE OF TEMPLE STRUCTURES

ˆ Nagara Style - Temples in the North India
ˆ Dravida Style - Temples in the South India
ˆ Vesara Style - found as an independent style,
created through the selective mixing of the
Nagara and Dravida orders.

BASIC PARTS OF A HINDU TEMPLE

ˆ Sanctum - Garbhagriha, literal meaning ‘Womb
House’ - It was a small cubicle with a single
entrance which grew into a larger chamber in
time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main
icon.
ˆ Mandapa - The entrance to the temple that
incorporates space for a large number of
worshippers
ˆ Shikara/Vimana - Freestanding temples tend to
have a mountain-like spire, which can take the

www.sleepyclasses.com 144 1800-890-3043

SHRINES OF THESE TEMPLES WERE OF
3 KINDS -
Nagara Style
ˆ Sandhara
ˆ Nirandhara
ˆ Sarvatobhadra

NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Same defining characteristics -
ˆ Basically the temple in the North Indian side,
display a peculiar style of temple architecture
which with the time came to be known as Nagara
Style.
ˆ However, This style is not heterogeneous in
nature as there are spatial and geographical
distinctions across time and space.
ˆ I will try to keep it as simple as possible and
along with that we will also cover the basic
knowledge about temples that are given under
various heads in NCERT.
Same defining characteristics -
ˆ Do not have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways (Gopurams) as in southern India.
ˆ In North India, it is common for an entire temple
to be built on a stone platform with steps leading
up to it.
There are many subdivisions of nagara temples
depending on the shape of the shikhara.
ˆ Latina or Rekha Prasada Style
ˆ Phamsana Style
ˆ Valabhi Style

www.sleepyclasses.com 145 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and
Latina or Rekha Prasad Style shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are
composed of several slabs that gently rise to
a single point over the centre of the building,
unlike the latina ones which look like sharply
rising tall towers.
ˆ Phamsana roofs do not curve inward, instead
they slope upwards on a straight incline.
ˆ In many North Indian temples, Phamsana was
used for Mandapa and Latina for Garbhagriha.

NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Latina or Rekha Prasad Style
ˆ The most common name for the simple shikhara
which is square at the base and whose walls
curve or slope inward to a point on top is called VALABHI STYLE
the ‘latina’ or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
ˆ Latina types are mainly used for housing the
garbhagriha..
Phamsana Style

ˆ These are rectangular buildings with a roof that

rises into a vaulted chamber.
ˆ They are usually called ‘wagon- vaulted
buildings’.

www.sleepyclasses.com 146 1800-890-3043

 Nagara Style LAKSHAMANA TEMPLE - KHAJURAHO

ˆ Spatial and Geographical Variation

ˆ Inside the Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

DEOGARH TEMPLE - UP

LAKSMANA TEMPLE OF KHAJURAHO

ˆ Dedicated to God Vishnu - built by the Chandela
King - Yashovarman.
NAGARA STYLE - CENTRAL INDIA
ˆ There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of
ˆ Central India - UP, Madhya Pradesh and
them devoted to Hindu gods. There are some
Rajasthan.
Jain temples as well.
ˆ Most temples here are made of Sandstone and
ˆ Khajuraho’s temples are also known for
are relatively modest-looking shrines.
their extensive erotic sculptures; the erotic
ˆ Each having four pillars that support a small expression is given equal importance in human
mandapa which looks like a simple square porch- experience as spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as
like extension before an equally small room that part of a larger cosmic whole. (Both Hindu and
served as the garbhagriha. Jaina Temples)
DEOGARH TEMPLE (UP)
ˆ Classic Example of Gupta Period type of Temple.
ˆ This temple is built in the form Of Panchyatan
Style.
ˆ Panchayatan Style - Where the main shrine is
built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller
subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it
a total number of five shrines, hence the name,
panchayatana).
ˆ West Facing Vishnu Temple (Most of the
temples are east facing)

www.sleepyclasses.com 147 1800-890-3043

CHAUSATH YOGINI TEMPLE ˆ It is also a very rare temple as there are few such
temples around in India, Such as in Orissa -
Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial, 3 in MP - Bhedaghat
(Jabalpur) and Mitawali.

NAGARA STYLE - WEST INDIA

ˆ West India - Gujarat, Rajasthan, Western Madhya
Pradesh.
ˆ Sandstone is the most common element.
ˆ Noticeable thing here is the use of white soft
white marble in some of the tenth to twelveth
century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the
fifteenth century temple at Ranakpur.
ˆ It is located on a hill top and one of the rarest of
n n n n
rare Hindu temples in India. Its plan is circular
type temple and it is dedicated to the Tantric
sect of Chausath or 64 Yogini.
ˆ Most of the Hindu temples structure are based
on square or rectangular but circular temples like
this are very rare in India.
ˆ It is said that the design of Indian Parliament is
inspired by this temple in Morena.

www.sleepyclasses.com 148 1800-890-3043

 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE & SCULPTURE
SUN TEMPLE – MODHERA,GUJARAT ˆ Here terracotta is the main medium of
construction
ˆ Each of these three areas produced distinct types
of temples such as
ƒ Ahom Style.
ƒ Bengal Style.
ƒ Odisha Style.
Kamakhya Temple

NAGARA STYLE - WEST INDIA

Sun Temple, Modhera Gujarat
ˆ The Sun temple at Modhera dates back to early
eleventh century and was built by Raja Bhimdev
I of the Solanki Dynasty (caution-???) in 1026.
ˆ There is a massive rectangular stepped tank
called the surya kund in front of it.
ˆ Proximity of sacred architecture to a water body NAGARA STYLE - EAST INDIA
such as a tank, a river or a pond has been noticed Assam /Ahom Style
right from the earliest times. By the early eleventh
ˆ Style that came with the migration of the Tais
century they had become a part of many temples.
from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant
ˆ This hundred-square-metre rectangular pond is Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of
perhaps the grandest temple tank in India. what was later known as the Ahom style in and
ˆ A hundred and eight miniature shrines are around Guwahati.
carved in between the steps inside the tank. ˆ Kamakhya temple is dedicated to Goddess
ˆ Sabha mandapa (the assembly hall)is open on all Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth
sides, as was the fashion of the times in western century.
and central Indian temples. ˆ It is the site of the Ambubachi Mela, an annual
Nagara Style - East India festival that celebrates the menstruation of the
goddess.
ˆ Eastern Indian temples include those found in
the North- East, Bengal and Odisha.

www.sleepyclasses.com 149 1800-890-3043

Bangla Bamboo Roof ODISHA STYLE
ˆ The main architectural features of Odisha temples
are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida,
pidhadeul and khakra.
ˆ Most of the main temple sites are located in
ancient Kalinga—modern Puri District, including
Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri
and Konark.

Bengal / Pala Style

ˆ The style of the sculptures during the period
between the ninth and eleventh centuries in
Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar is
known as the Pala style, named after the ruling
dynasty at the time,
ƒ While the style of those of the mid-eleventh
to mid-thirteenth centuries is named after the
Sena kings.
ˆ While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of
many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from
that region are known to express the local Vanga
style. ˆ The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-
style within the nagara order.
ˆ Most prominent of these was the shape of the
curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of ˆ In general, here the shikhara, called deul in
a Bengali hut. This feature was eventually even Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when
adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Deuls
across North India as the Bangla roof. are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called
jagamohana in Odisha.
Terracotta Temple, Bishnupur, Bengal
NAGARA STYLE - EAST INDIA
Sun Temple, Konark.
ˆ At Konark, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal,
lie the majestic ruins of the Surya or Sun temple
built in stone around 1250AD.
ˆ Its shikhara was a colossal creation said to have
reached 70m, which, proving too heavy for its
site, fell in the nineteenth century.
ˆ The vast complex is within a quadrilateral
precinct of which the jagamohana or the dance-
pavillion (mandapa) has survived, which though
no longer accessible is said to be the largest
enclosed space in Hindu architecture.

www.sleepyclasses.com 150 1800-890-3043

 the joy and the rhythm of life all its wondrous
variety.
ˆ It was declared a UNESCO world heritage site
in 1984.

THE BLACK PAGODA

ˆ Konârak is the invaluable link in the history
of the diffusion of the cult of Surya, which
originating in Kashmir during the 8th century,
finally reached the shores of Eastern India.
ˆ Hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Kashmir have their own tradition of wooden
ˆ The Sun temple is set on a high base, its walls buildings with pitched roofs.
covered in extensive, detailed ornamental
carving. ˆ Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara
sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar) lent the region
a strong Gandhara influence by the fifth century
CE.
ˆ Here in the hills, we see a mixture of both
Buddhist and Hindu traditions.
ˆ The Hills have their own tradition of wooden
buildings with pitched roofs.
ƒ At several places in the hills, therefore, you
will find that while the main garbhagriha and
shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina
style, the mandapa is of an older form of
wooden architecture.

PANDRETHAN TEMPLE, KASHMIR

ˆ Konark Sun Temple, located in the East Odisha

near the sacred city of Puri.
ˆ Built in 13th century by King Narasimhadeva
I (AD 1238-1264). Its scale, refinement and
conception represent the strength and stability of
the Ganga Empire as well as the value systems
of the historic milieu.
ˆ The temple is designed in the shape of a colossal
chariot. It is dedicated to the sun God.
ˆ The Konark temple is widely known not only
for its architectural grandeur but also for the
PANDRETHAN TEMPLE, KASHMIR
intricacy and profusion of sculptural work.
(MERUVARDHANASWAMI TEMPLE)
ˆ It marks the highest point of achievement
ˆ One of the most important temples
of Kalinga architecture depicting the grace,
is Pandrethan, built during the 8th and

www.sleepyclasses.com 151 1800-890-3043

 9th centuries, belonging to Karkota period of ˆ During the Pallava rule, rock-cut architecture
Kashmir. was the most popular construction methodology.
ˆ In keeping with the tradition of a water tank
EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDA ARCHITECTURE
attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a
plinth built in the middle of a tank. ˆ In NCERT, there is reference about the PALLAVA
king Mahendravarman I, contemporary of
ˆ This temple is a Hindu one, possibly dedicated
Chalukyan king - Pulakeshin II.
to Shiva.
ˆ Then comes his son Narasimhavarman I of
ˆ The architecture of this temple is in keeping
Pallavas, also known as Mamalla, who acceded
with the age-old Kashmiri tradition of wooden
the Pallava throne around 630 CE, is celebrated
buildings.
for the expansion of the empire, avenging the
defeat his father had suffered at the hands of
Dravida Style Pulakeshin II, and inaugurating most of the
building works at Mahabalipuram which is
ˆ This style was pioneered by the Pallavas, known after him as Mamallapuram.
Although they were mostly Shaivite, several
ˆ The free-standing monolith Rathas (chariots
Vaishnava shrines also survived from their reign.
carved out of hard granite) built by King
ˆ Unlike the Nagara Style, the Dravida Style is Narsimhavarman Mamalla (a Pallava king)-???,
closed within the compound wall, The front wall was an important breakthrough in the evolution
has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is of Dravidian temple architecture.
known as Gopuram.
SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALIPURAM
ˆ The shape of the main temple tower known as
Vimana like a stepped pyramid that rises up
geometrically rather than the curving shikhara
of North India.

ˆ Built by Narasimhavarman II, also known as

Rajasimha who reigned from 690 to 725 CE(???).

EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDA ARCHITECTURE ˆ Three areas of worship

UNDER PALLAVAS -
EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDA ARCHITECTURE
ˆ The Dravidian style of temple architecture of UNDER CHOLAS -
South India was pioneered by the Pallavas who
ˆ Most of the temple structures constructed by
reigned in parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
the medieval Cholas were erected using local
and northern Tamil Nadu until the ninth century.
chieftains and were entirely built in stone.

www.sleepyclasses.com 152 1800-890-3043

 EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDA ARCHITECTURE
UNDER PANDYAS
ˆ After the collapse of the Cholas in the nineteenth
century, the Pandyas came back to power.
ˆ However, Pandyas did not focus on creative
architecture unlike the Cholas and rather
concentrated on building Gopurams to the
existing temples.
ˆ The main contribution of Pandyas was on the
development of temple gateways.

SUB STYLES OF DRAVIDAN STYLE

ˆ VijayalayaCholeesvaram, a ninth-century Shiva ˆ Vijayanagara Temple - Some Variations from the

temple located in Narthamalai, was named after Dravidian Style - Vitthala Temple at Hampi.
the first Chola king Vijayala. ˆ Defining Characteristics -
ˆ This temple is known for its unconventional plan ƒ Enlarged Gopuram is the entrance of the
where the sanctum is circular and its Prakara temple.
(enclosure wall) is square-shaped. ƒ High enclosure walls.
ƒ More intricate decoration.
ˆ The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar often
shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced
arches , domes , and vaults .

ˆ Completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola, and

is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
ˆ Shiva Temple - The main deity of the temple is
Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two- ˆ Nayaka Style - Example - Meenakshi Temple
storeyed sanctum. The walls surrounding the Madurai (Hall of Thousand Pillars)
sanctum have extended mythological narratives
ˆ Additional feature of that of Prakarms.
which are depicted through painted murals and
sculptures. ˆ Prakarms are huge corridors along with roofed
ambulatory passageways of Temple.
ˆ It is in this temple that one notices for the first
time two large gopuras (gateway towers) with
an elaborate sculptural programme which was
conceived along with the temple.

www.sleepyclasses.com 153 1800-890-3043

 ˆ The height of these temples was reduced
compared to its Nagara and Dravida counterparts.
The height of the temple tower over the sanctum
Vesara Style of Temple ˆ
is usually shorter than the Vimanas in Dravida
Architecture temples. They can be referred as miniature
Vimanas. The shape of these towers was
VESARA STYLE pyramidal in profile.
ˆ Vesara is a hybridised style that seems to have ˆ Vimana was crowned by a circular shikhara
become popular after the mid-seventh century. above the neck.
ˆ Vesara is a combination of Nagara and
Dravidian style of temple architecture styles.
The term Vesara is believed to have been derived
from the Sanskrit word vishra meaning an area
to take a long walk. Many historian agree that
the Vesara style originated in the what is today’s
Karnataka.

VESARA STYLE - MAIN FEATURES

ˆ They generally have Northern Indian Style
(Nagara Style) of Shikhara and the Mandap was
designed in Southern Indian Style (Dravidian
Style).
ˆ In the Vesara Style of temples Shikhara (top of HOYSALA STYLE
the temple) and Mandap are generally joined
ˆ The most characteristic feature of Hoysala
by the Antarala.
temples is that they grow extremely complex
ˆ The temples generally do not have ambulatory with so many projecting angles emerging from
passageways around Sanctum Sanctorum. the previously straightforward square temple,
that the plan of these temples starts looking like
a star, and is thus known as a stellate-plan.
ˆ Since they are made out of soapstone which is a
relatively soft stone, the artists were able to carve
their sculptures intricately.

www.sleepyclasses.com 154 1800-890-3043

 NALANDA UNIVERSITY
ˆ The Monastic university of Nalanda is a
Buddhist Architectural Mahavihara as it is a complex of several
monasteries of various sized.
Developments ˆ Till date, only a small portion of this ancient
learning centre has been excavated as most of
ˆ Buddhist Structures -
it lies buried under contemporary civilisation,
ƒ Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya. making further excavations almost impossible.
ƒ Nalanda University. ˆ Records of Xuan Zang provide us information
ƒ Sirpur in Chattisgarh about this site such as -
ƒ Port town of Nagapattinam. ˆ Foundation by Kumaragupta I in fifth century
CE.
ˆ Evidence that all the three Buddhist doctrines
- Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayan - were
taught here.

MAHABODHI TEMPLE, BODHGAYA

ˆ Now a reflection of the Colonial period
reconstruction.
ˆ The place where Buddha got enlightenment
under the Bodhi Tree.
ˆ This temple is an important reminder of
brickwork of that time and the design of the
temple is very unusual.

www.sleepyclasses.com 155 1800-890-3043

 Jaina Architectural
Developments
ˆ Jains were prolific temple builders like the
Hindus, and their sacred shrines and pilgrimage
spots are to be found across the length and
breadth of India.

ˆ Nalanda scriptures initially depict Buddhist SRAVANA BELAGOLA, KARNATAKA

dieties of Mahayana tradition such as standing
Buddhas, Boddhistavas etc. ˆ Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines
and at Sravana Belagola the famous statue of
ˆ During the late 11th and 12th century, Nalanda Gomateshwara.
emerged as an important Tantric tradition.
ˆ The granite statue of Lord Bahubali over here
ˆ Important - Depiction of Crowned Buddhas stands eighteen metres or fifty-seven feet high.
occur commonly only after the tenth century.
ˆ It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the
OTHER BUDDHIST CENTRES MENTIONED General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the
IN NCERT Ganga Kings of Mysore.
ˆ Sirpur in Chattisgarh. JAINA TEMPLES, MOUNT ABU
ˆ Port town of Nagapattinam - major Buddhist
ˆ The Jain temples at Mount Abu were constructed
centre right until the Chola period.
by Vimal Shah.
ˆ Notable for a simplistic exterior in contrast
with the exuberant marble interiors, their rich
sculptural decoration with deep undercutting
creates a lace-like appearance.
ˆ The temple is famous for its unique patterns on
every ceiling, and the graceful bracket figures
along the domed ceilings.

www.sleepyclasses.com 156 1800-890-3043

 PYQ
Q. Where is the famous Virupaksha temple
located? [2009]
(a) Bhadrachalam (b) Chidambaram
(c) Hampi (d) Srikalahasti
Answer: C

Q. With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple

situated near Morena, consider the following
statements:
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of
Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult
in the region.
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief
that it was the inspiration behind the Indian
Parliament building.
Which of the statements given above are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
ˆ The Chausath Yogini temple is in Morena district
40 kilometres from Gwalior. According to an
inscription dated to 1323 CE , the temple was
built by the Kachchhapaghata king Devapala
(1055 – 1075).
Hence statement 1 is correct.
ˆ The cells and the main shrine are flat topped, but
it is believed that initially each had a shikhara

www.sleepyclasses.com 157 1800-890-3043

 ontop. While the 64 Yoginis originally placed shape is likely to have represented a SriYantra
in the 64 subsidiary shrines are now missing, a in which the Yoginis reside, with the Supreme
Shiva linga has taken their places in each cell. Yogini or Maha Sakti residing in the centre
The central shrine also holds a Shivalinga. The (represented by the circular central main shrine).
uniqueness of this Yogini temple is its circular It is not the only circular temple built in India.
shape that is popularly believed to have inspired Hence statements 2 and 3 are not correct and
the design of the Indian Parliament. The circular statement 4 is correct.
Hence option (c) is the correct answer.
n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 158 1800-890-3043

 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
Transitory Period from Ancient to Medieval India y Gurjara-Pratiharas -> Rajput states under
the control of different Rajput dynasties
WHAT IS MEANT BY EARLY MEDIEVAL? such as the Chahmanas (Chauhans),
Chandellas, Paramaras, Ghadavalas,
ˆ First of all why classification as Ancient -
Kalachuris, Chalukyas, Tomars etc.
Medieval and Modern - This is correlated with
Hindu, Muslim and British Periods. y Senas and Gangas succeeded Palas
ƒ Ancient History begins with the Aryan
TRENDS OF POLITY IN EARLY
Invasion-??? MEDIEVAL INDIA -
ƒ Medieval History begins with the Muslim
ˆ A strong Feudal Character -
Invasion.
ƒ Modern History Starts with the coming of the ƒ Period of feudal consolidation.
Europeans. ƒ Overlord – subordinate relationship was an
ˆ There is no hard and fast rule to classify as this essential feature.
only - there are many ways and methods to ƒ Chain of personal allegiance which bound
classify Indian History - And this is just one of retainers to chief, tenants to lords, barons, to
these. Kings.
ˆ Early Medieval History marks the transitory
ƒ Hierarchical political structure represented by
period from Ancient to Medieval Period - various ranks.
ƒ How the features which defined Ancient India ˆ The central feature of polity being fiefs or
like centralising features of Polity, Strong estates:
Hand of King as the centralising authority ,
Cash being the prominent source of salary. ƒ Special pattern of land distribution.

ƒ All these gave way to defining features ƒ Land holding was a status symbol.
of Medieval India such as Feudalism, ƒ Consolidation of political status through
Decentralised and regional Polities, and land holding. Fiefs, estates consolidated the
states being predominantly agrarian. position of individuals.
ƒ These land holdings emerged as centres of
POLITICAL SCENARIO
local control and foci of power and on this was
ˆ 750 C.E. – 1200 C.E. based the existence of local ruling elites.
ƒ I. 750 C.E. – 1000 C.E. - ‘Tripartite struggle’ ˆ Greater degree of autonomy in political system
over control of Kannauj
ƒ At lower level, the autonomy of various
y Gurjara Pratiharas (mid-8th century C.E. – degree in administration, fiscal system and
1036 C.E.) in North India administration of justice and this autonomy
y Palas (8th century C.E. – 12th century C.E.) was to give birth to local politics and this
in Eastern India integrated into larger state politics.
ˆ Rashtrakutas (753 C.E. – 982 C.E.) in South India ƒ This was a hallmark of political system of the
Rajputs.
ƒ II. 1000 C.E. – 1200 C.E. II Break-up of the
above 3 powers

www.sleepyclasses.com 159 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Under feudal system the feudal lord fulfilled ƒ Devolution of powers, Feudal lords enjoyed
military & fiscal obligations. In fact feudal considerable powers.
authority rested on fulfilment of these ˆ The revenue system:
obligations.
ƒ The revenue system was mainly based on
ƒ They being provided military assistance paid land tax.
tributes in cash and kind to king.
ƒ Certain levies on trade and commerce too
ˆ Centralisation tended to be very weak: were collected.
ƒ This overlord – subordinate relationship being ƒ Revenue system was under great pressure
the core of the political system and the relative because of feudal economy.
strength of the feudatory vis a vis the suzerain
was a factor in determining the stability of the ƒ Centralised revenue system lost relevance.
system. ƒ It rested on feudal tribute.
ƒ Application of force and ability to overawe / MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN
overpower samantas. NORTHERN INDIA AND PENINSULA
ƒ This was important in maintaining this ˆ After the disappearance of the centralised polities
relationship because the tendency towards in northern India, the period between 800 -1200
autonomy was always powerful. A.D. saw the emergence of regional kingdoms.
ƒ This disrupted political stability. Centralised ˆ Centralised states gave way to decentralised
control weakened. political systems based on local interests.
ˆ The kingship concept: This change took place due to the emergence
ƒ The kingship concept was important i.e. of a politico-eco­nomic structure termed as
concept of all powerful king, through in a feudalism.
limited sense. A number of authorities vested ˆ Since the Gupta period, the political structure in
in the king. northern India was increasingly becoming feudal.
ƒ This does not mean centralised control but The relationship of the king to his subordinates
various authorities vested in him. was more like vassal and lord.

ˆ Existence of council of ministers: ˆ Feudatories were granted land along with

certain rights on the land. Later they were
ƒ Existence of council of ministers, their role given the right to sub-infeudation, i.e. making
being advisory. a further grant of the land, thus building a
ˆ Military being feudal in character: hierarchy of officials.
ƒ Military was feudal in character. King’s ˆ The feudatory had certain military obligations
standing army was greatly supplemented by towards the king and was required to supply
the army of the feudal lords. the king with armed men whenever needed.
ƒ Military aid or assistance being one of the two Theoretically the feudatory was a claimant of
main obligations of the feudatories. the land revenue and the land was re-assigned
after his death, but in reality, the feudatory held
ˆ Existence of bureaucracy:
the land in perpetuity and this tended to become
ƒ References show that bureaucracy was well hereditary with time.
organised and elaborate but this is not a
ˆ Gradually these feudatories assumed criminal
historical truth.
and judicial functions and administered
ƒ Bureaucracy did not play any significant role territories with minimum possible allegiance
because of the polity being feudal.

www.sleepyclasses.com 160 1800-890-3043

 ˆ These were the Pala empire, which dominated
to the central authority. They also began to eastern India ;
assume high sounding titles as Mahasamanta,
Mahamandaleshwara and so on. ˆ The Pratihara empire, which dominated western
India and the upper Gangetic valley, and
ˆ The outcome of the growth of feudalism was the
carving out of independent principalities by the ˆ The Rashtrakuta empire, which dominated the
various vassals in different parts of the country. Deccan and also controlled territories in north
It is under these conditions that decentralized and south India at various times.
regional power flourished in the eighth- ninth ˆ Each of these empires, although they fought
century A.D. in northern India. among themselves, provided stable conditions of
life over large areas, extended agriculture, built
THE TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE ponds and canals, and gave patronage to arts
and letters, including temples.
ˆ Of the three, the Rashtrakuta empire lasted
the longest. It was not only the most powerful
empire of the time, but also acted as a bridge
between north and south India in economic as
well as in cultural matters.

THE PALAS
ˆ The first significant ruler of Bengal was
Shashanka who ruled roughly between 606-637
A.D. Shashanka is considered the first historically
known ruler of the area that constituted Bengal.
ˆ The death of Shashanka was followed by a
period of political decline in the fortunes of
Bengal and faced many attacks on its territory.
It resulted in the weakening of central authority
and the rise of independent chiefs.
ˆ It seems that the prevailing anarchy led the chiefs
ˆ Tripartite struggle between the Rashtrakutas, to elect someone called Gopala as the ruler of the
the Palas and the Pratiharas who established whole kingdom, who founded the Pala dynasty
themselves in different regions. in 750 AD (Patron of Buddhism)

ˆ Ever since Harshavardhana made Kannauj the ˆ He consolidated his rule over Bengal and brought
capital of his empire, it remained the imperial the much needed stability and prosperity to
centre of North Indian politics for several the region. He died in about 780 A.D. and was
centuries, even though its political fortunes succeeded by his son Dharmapala.
changed frequently. ˆ Dharmapala was one of the greatest kings that
ƒ This implied a shift in political power from ever ruled in Bengal and one who raised the
the east to the west. Pataliputra, which was glory of the kingdom to great heights.
an important centre during the reigns of both ˆ He spent his whole life in military campaigns.
the Mauryas and Guptas, was now replaced After having suffered defeat at the hands of
by Kannauj as the centre of North Indian Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, he went on to
political dominance. establish an empire that embraced a considerable
part of Northern India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 161 1800-890-3043

ˆ Apart from his military campaigns, Dharmapala ˆ Although their raids did not result in the
is also known for his patronage of Buddhism. extension of the Rashtrakuta empire to the
He founded many Buddhist monasteries but, Ganga valley, they brought rich plunder, and
it was the famous Vikramshila University added to the fame of the Rashtrakutas.
founded by him, that earned him a lot of fame. ˆ Probably the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers were
ˆ Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala Govinda III (793- 814) and Amoghavarsha (814-
who ruled for about 40 years and was the last 878).
among the line of powerful kings of the Pala ˆ Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years but by
dynasty. temperament he preferred the pursuit of
religion and literature to war.
THE PRATIHARAS
ƒ He was himself an author and is credited with
ˆ The Pratiharas were an Indian dynasty that ruled
writing the first Kannada book on poetics.
a large kingdom in northern India from the 8th
to the 11th centuries. ƒ He was a great builder, and is said to have
built the capital city Manyakhet so as to
ˆ The ascendancy of the Pratihara power began
excel the city of Indra. There were many
with Nagabhatta I, who ascended the throne
rebellions in the far flung Rashtrakuta empire
in the middle of the 8th century. He extended
under Amoghavarsha. These could be barely
his control in the east and south from Mandor,
contained, and began afresh after his death.
conquering Malwa as far as Gwalior and the port
of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital CAUSE OF TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
at Ujjaini in Malwa.
ˆ Kannauj was the erstwhile capital of
ˆ The greatest achievement of Nagabhatta was Harshavardhana Empire in North India. The
his victory against the Arabs. The Arabs had following were the causes which provoked
snatched a portion of Malwa. Thus the strong tripartite struggle,
foundation of the Pratihara kingdoms was
ƒ Kannauj was the symbol of prestige and power
threatened. He inflicted a violent defeat to the
during early medieval period.
Arabs. Thus the Arabs remained confined in the
region of Sind and could not penetrate into India. ƒ Control of Kannauj also implied control of
Central Gangetic valley which had plenty of
ˆ In the political history of the Pratiharas,
resources and thus it was both strategically
Nagabhatta was succeeded by Vatsaraja (after 2
and commercial important.
weak successors). The famous tripartite struggle
began during Vatsaraja period. ƒ This center was best for trade and commerce
as it was connected to silk route.
THE RASHTRAKUTAS
ƒ Desire to loot through war.
ˆ While the Palas and the Pratiharas were ruling
over north India, the Deccan was being ruled by CONSEQUENCES OF TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
the Rashtrakutas. ˆ By the end of the tripartite struggle, the Pratiharas
ˆ The kingdom was founded by Dantidurga who emerged victorious and established themselves
set up his capital at Manyakheta or Malkheda as the rulers of central India.
near modern Sholapur. The Rashtrakutas ˆ The tripartite struggle lasted for two centuries and
soon dominated the entire area of northern made all three dynasties weak in the long run.
Maharashtra. They also engaged with the This resulted into the political disintegration of
Pratiharas for the overlordship of Gujarat and the country and benefited the Islamic invaders
Malwa. from Middle-east.

www.sleepyclasses.com 162 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Practice of sub-infeudation and thus
beginning of Hierarchical landed
Feudalism in India intermediaries leading to unequal distribution
of land and its produce.
Understanding the Concept and Basis of Feudalism
ˆ General Features of Feudalism -
FEUDALISM ƒ Vishti (Bonded labour) took a new shape in
ˆ One of the striking features of transition from the form of Serfdom - where even the peasants
Ancient to Medieval History in India is marked and artisans come within the jurisdiction of
by the expansion of the land grant system, also vishti. As a result, a kind of serfdom emerged,
known by the name of ‘Indian Feudalism’ as in which agricultural labourers were reduced
called by Marxist Historians. to the position of semi-serfs.
ˆ So basically, what is Feudalism? y Forced labour which was originally a
prerogative of the King or the state. It was
ƒ Feudalism refers to a practice of establishment
transferred to the grantees, petty officials,
of superior rights over land which becomes
village authorities and others.
basis of appropriation of a part of produce
and acquisition of several other rights related y The status and position of Peasants became
to land and several inhabitants. miserable and reduced to the position of
Ardhikas (share croppers).
ƒ The superior rights accord the beneficiaries,
the status of overlord and subordinate, the ˆ Economic Implications of Feudalism -
status of peasantry hence develops a typical ƒ New kind of land Distribution - A new class
overlord subordinate relationship agrarian of landlord and Hierarchy in land structure.
structure.
ƒ Development of a new kind of agrarian
ˆ Rise of Feudalism in India - structure.
ƒ Foundation lies in the aftermath of Gupta ƒ Development of land based economy, with
empire - which can be said to have started the agriculture being the dominant feature, thus
issuance of land grants alongside that System favouring the growth of village or rural
of land-grant: emerged under Satavahana in economy at the stake of city and Urban
100 BC in Maharashtra region and expanded life - Decline of Trade and craft and other
during Gupta and post-Gupta period. professional economic activities of city life.
ƒ The declining trend of urban economy, ƒ Growth of closed kind of economy - R S
beginning at about 4/5th century AD. Sharma points out that self-sufficiency in a
ƒ Power fragmentation and disintegration: country’s economy is an essential condition of
Rise of small kingdoms after Gupta period. feudalism.
ˆ General Features of Feudalism - ˆ Political Implications of Feudalism -
ƒ System based on land and land rights. ƒ Decentralisation became the dominant
feature.
ƒ Superior rights of feudal lords and
Hereditary - Propriety rights on Feudal lands ƒ With change in Economic System, Political
which includes Administrative, Judicial, system also came to based on Land and Land
military and fiscal powers of feudal lords. structure, upon that Hierarchy of feudal lords
emerged and the entire political structure
ƒ Beginning of assumption of titles by these
was based on Lord-Vassal relation.
feudal lords such as - Thakur, Raja, Rao,
ƒ Pyramidal structure of authority with
Rauts etc
peasants at the base and king at the base.

www.sleepyclasses.com 163 1800-890-3043

 ƒ With the decline of urban character and Many people got involved in the
rise of village economy - Bureaucracy lost profession of ‘Scribes’. Later this
its relevance and with little significance profession led to emergence of new caste
being left in areas which dealt with village Kayastha. (Earliest reference dates back to
occupations. Kushana Empire)
ƒ Standing Army was gradually being replaced y ’Peasantisation of tribes’ as a result of
by the Feudal Army. land grants expansion. i.e. Tribes took to
ˆ Social Implications of Feudalism - agriculture as their earlier occupation was
not cultivation.
ƒ With the rise of new type of social Hierarchy
based on land system - the social status based y Feudalism also led to emergence of
on Varna system became weak for example - various languages and art forms.
Declining trade and craft, led to the decline of ˆ Decline of Feudalism in India -
Vaishyas and at the same time many Shudras ƒ Since feudalism was based on the idea of land
took to agriculture and so there was rise in tenure paid for by governmental work, every
the status of shudras. process that tended to alter this adjustment
y The observation of Al-Biruni also suggest tended also to displace feudalism.
the same. He writes that both were ƒ Foundation of Delhi sultanate (in 1206) led
punished with amputation of tongue for to political centralization. It was a major blow
reciting Vedas. to the Feudal system.
ƒ Anyone receiving land grant and the related y Iqta system of Delhi sultanate word as a
rights and power rose in the political tool of centralization. As the grant of iqta
hierarchy. did not imply a right to the land nor was
ƒ Rise of closed kind of society, social relations it hereditary.
became restricted - Age of Feudal Localism. ƒ According to Mohammad Habib, the
y Feudal Localism was an important factor in economic changes that occurred as a
what is known as ‘Proliferation of caste’ in consequence of the establishment of the
early medieval times - Delhi Sultanate created an organisation
y This phenomenon represents rise of a large considerably superior to the one that
number of caste group making varnas had existed before. He felt that the changes
insignificant and meaningless as the main were drastic enough to deserve the
pillar of social structure and caste became designation of ‘Urban Revolution‘ and ‘Rural
the reality of Indian social structure. Devolution’.
y No varna seemed to have remained ƒ Growth of cash economy created unfavorable
homogeneous and got fragmented on conditions for sustenance of feudal trend.
account of territorial affiliation, purity of y The revival of trade was visible after 10th
gotras and pursuance of specific crafts, century itself. During c.A.D. 900-1300, the
professions and vocations. mercantile community came back into
ƒ There are references in the law books of the prominence, and we notice large number
time which suggest that those who undertake of merchants carrying luxury and essential
sea voyages fall from their caste, a man goods from one place to another.
should not marry his daughter to a person
y The literature and inscriptions of the period
who lives at a great distance.
refer to the large number of merchants who
y Due to expansion of land grant system, were known by the specialised trade they
followed. Money lending also became

www.sleepyclasses.com 164 1800-890-3043

ˆ Indian Feudalism vs. European Feudalism - Indian peasant to use the bull’s drought
ƒ Similarities - power to the maximum, for it allowed
y The increasing subjection of the peasants to the plough to be placed on the bull’s
the intermediaries reduced them to shoulder; the plain back on his European
the level of serfs, their counterparts in counterpart would let the plough slip
medieval Europe. as he pulled it. It took centuries of
y The rise of the class of intermediaries technological improvement to facilitate
through the state action of giving grants to full use of the bull’s drawing power on
them. medieval European fields.
y The Indian counterpart of the Arab y The productivity of land was also much
invasion of Europe, Same as Huns higher in medieval India, pegged at 1 : 16.
Invasion in Indian at the time of decline of y Besides, most Indian lands yielded two
Gupta Empire. crops a year, something unheard of in
ˆ Differences - Europe until the nineteenth century.
ƒ Many scholars like D C Sircar, Harbans ƒ The fundamental differences in conditions
Mukhia, Hermann Kulke etc argued against
in India compared to Europe also made it
the very idea of Indian feudalism.
imperative that the forms of labour use in
ƒ In Europe - agriculture should follow a different pattern.
y The ecological conditions: - The ecology
y Begar, or tied labour, paid or unpaid, was
of Western Europe gave it four months
seldom part of the process of production
of sunshine in a year. all agricultural
operations from tilling the field to sowing, here; it was more used for non-productive
tending the crop, harvesting and storing purposes such as carrying the zamindar
therefore must be completed within this ‘s loads by the peasants on their headsor
period. supplying milk or oil, etc. to the zamindars
y The technology available and - Besides, the and jagirdars on specified occasions.
technology that was used was extremely:
labour intensive and productivity of both Origin and Rise of Rajputas
land and labour was pegged at the dismal
seed: yield ratio of 1 :2.5 at the most.
POLITICAL CONDITION OF NORTH INDIA
y Consequently the demand for labour BEFORE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DELHI
during the four months was intense. Even a SULTANATE
day’s labour lost would cut into production.
The solution was found in tying of labour
to the land, or serfdom.
ƒ In India -
y Indian ecology, on the other hand,
was marked by almost ten months of
sunshine where agricultural processes
could be spread out.
y Because of the intense heat, followed by
rainfall, the upper crust of the soil was the
bed of fertility; it therefore did not require
deep, labour-intensive digging.
y The hump on the Indian bull allowed the

www.sleepyclasses.com 165 1800-890-3043

ˆ After death of Harsha and before Muslim
invasion, India was not politically united.
ˆ The middle of the 10th & 11th century
saw the decay of two of the most powerful
Rajput states which had dominated north
and central India during the two preceding
centuries (Gurjara-Pratihara, capital at
Kannauj, and the Rashtrakuta empire, capital
at Manyakhet).
ˆ In the meantime, a number of kingdoms rose
up, the Chandelas of Kalinjar and Mahoba, the
Chauhans of Ajmer in Rajasthan, the Paramaras
of Malwa, and the Chaulukyas of Gujarat. These
had many feudatories which some times helped
their overlords, but more often conspired to be
independent.
ˆ Kashmir was under the powerful queen, Didda.
She ruled from 958 AD to 1003 AD-???, first as a
Regent for her son and various grandsons, and ˆ The people of Sind were given the status of
thereafter as sole ruler in her own right. zimmis (protected subjects). There was no
interference in the lives and property of the
ARAB CONQUEST OF SIND (712 C.E.)
people.
ˆ The followers of Prophet Muhammad set up an
ˆ Qasim extended his conquest further into
empire called the Caliphate. They expanded
Multan. Soon, Qasim was recalled by the Caliph
their rule by conquests and spread their religion
but Sind continued to be under the Arabs.
Islam.
ˆ But the Muslims could not expand their authority
ˆ In 712 C.E., Muhammad bin Qasim, a commander further into India due to the presence of the
of the Umayyad (a caliphate) kingdom, invaded powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.
Sind.
ˆ Although the conquest of Sind did not lead to
ˆ Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind and killed further conquests immediately, it had resulted
him in a well-contested battle. His capital Aror in the diffusion of Indian culture abroad. Many
was captured. He organized the administration Arab travellers visited Sind.
of Sind. ƒ Indian medicine and astronomy were carried
ˆ 3 Caliphates that came into existence after to far off lands through the Arabs. The Indian
Prophet Mohammad - numerals in the Arabic form went to Europe
through them.
1. Rashidum Caliphate
The term Rajput started coming in use from the
2. Ummayid Caliphate
6th-7th Century AD. The origin of the Rajputs is a
3.Abassid Caliphate subject of debate. There are following main streams
of thought on origin of Rajputs:

www.sleepyclasses.com 166 1800-890-3043

ˆ Tribal Origin Theory - Some tribal aboriginal ˆ Foreign Origin Theory of Rajputs - This theory
groups became Rajputs like Gonds became says that the Rajputs are descendants of the races
Chandelas, Bhar became Rathore, Kharwar like Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas etc.
became Gahadwal.
ˆ Mixed Origin Theory - This theory states that
ˆ By newly Powerful groups - Various local Rajput is a mixed race.
groups of various kinds like tribal, lineage etc.
ˆ On the whole, the diversity of the cults and
rose in power and they claimed kshatriya status
beliefs, manners and customs, prevalent among
by fabricating their genealogies and presenting
the Rajputs seem to indicate diversity of origin.
their kshatriya lineage. In this, the Brahmanas
played the role and newly acquired power was ƒ For example, those Rajputs devoted to the
legitimised. (Kshatriyisation and Rajputisation) worship of Sun may be regarded as foreigners
in origin, while those which worship the
serpent (naga) are probably descended from
the aborigines of this country.

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 167 1800-890-3043

 WEEKLY CURRENT AFFAIRS
HISTORY
MEDIEVAL HISTORY

MYLARA CULT
ˆ The cult is centered around the worship of a god
named Mylara, believed to be a form of Lord
Shiva.
ˆ Mylareshwar cult once thrived in the Deccan
regions.
ˆ However, this is the first evidence that suggests
following of this cult in the coastal regions of
Karnataka.
ˆ These are also the first idols of Mylareshwara
to be discovered in the region as earlier,
Mylareshwara is known to have been
worshipped in form of linga.
ˆ Mylareshwar is known as Khandoba in
Maharashtra and North Karnataka region.

Konark Temple Wheel

ˆ Recently, rare sculptures have been discovered
in Udupi, Karnataka.

ANALYSIS FOR PRELIMS AND MAINS:

Important Points to remember:
ˆ These sculptures are believed to depict the
Hindu deity Mylareshwar.
ˆ These sculptures belong to the 15th and 17th
centuries - one depicts Mylara and Mylaladevi
seated atop an ornate horse with swords in their
hands and the other depicts a royal hero sitting
on a horse with a sword.

www.sleepyclasses.com 168 1800-890-3043

 link is Bhubaneswar (Capital city of Odisha).
ˆ Recently, the historic Konark Wheel of Odisha’s
ˆ This temple was also known as ‘BLACK
Sun Temple became a centre of attraction at
PAGODA’ due to its dark color and used as
the G20 Summit venue as Prime Minister chose
a navigational landmark by ancient sailors to
a wall depicting the 13th century artefact as
Odisha.
the backdrop for his welcome handshake with
world leaders at the Bharat Mandapam in Delhi. ˆ Similarly, the Jagannath Temple in Puri was
called the “White Pagoda”.
Important Points to remember:
Kalinga Architecture broadly comes under the
ˆ Konark Sun Temple was built in the 13th century,
Nagara style.
by King Narasimhadeva I, the great ruler of
Ganga dynasty. ˆ In Kalinga Architecture, basically a temple is
made in two parts, a tower and a hall.
ˆ The temple was included in UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1984. ˆ The tower is called deula and the hall is called
jagmohan.
ˆ The temple is designed in the shape of a colossal
chariot. ˆ The walls of both the deula and the jagmohan are
lavishly sculpted with architectural motifs.
ˆ It is the deula which makes three distinct types
of temples in Kalinga Architecture: Rekha
Deula; Pidha Deula; and Khakhara Deula.
ˆ The former two are associated with Vishnu,
Surya and Shiva temples while the third is
mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.

ˆ There are two rows of 12 wheels on each side

of the Konark sun temple. Some say the wheels
represent the 24 hours in a day and others say
the 12 months.
ˆ It is a great example of Kalinga temple
architecture.
ˆ The Konark is the third link of Odisha’s Golden
Triangle.
ˆ The first link is Jagannath Puri and the second

www.sleepyclasses.com 169 1800-890-3043

 ˆ The lost was technique was also extensively
Nataraja Statue used in the Chola tradition, prevalent in 9th
century south India.
ˆ In this method, sculptors first make a wax model
and encase it in clay.
ˆ After allowing the clay to dry, the whole mass is
heated to drain away the melted wax.
ˆ The space left by the melted wax is filled with
molten bronze.
ˆ After allowing it to cool, they break the mold
and chisel the statue to perfection.

NATARAJA POSE HAS GREAT SYMBOLIC

VALUES:
ˆ The Nataraja dances within the universe of
ˆ Recently, world’s tallest Nataraja statue was illusion.
installed at venue of the G20 Summit in New
ˆ Shiva’s unkempt hair, a symbol of a rejection of
Delhi.
society, shows him to be an ascetic.
Important Points to remember:
ˆ The fiery ring surrounding Shiva,
ˆ The statue is 28 feet tall and is the largest prabhamandala, represents the universe with all
Nataraja statue in the world. its illusion, suffering and pain.
ˆ ‘Nataraja’, aka the Lord of Dance, symbolises ˆ One ear of Shiva has a male earring while the
the omnipresent and the infinite and showcases other has a female representing the fusion of
Shiva’s tandava pose. male and female and is often referred to as
ˆ It is made of eight metals or ‘ashta dhatu’ i.e. Ardhanarishvara.
copper, zinc, lead, tin, silver, gold, mercury and
iron. n n n n
ˆ It is sculpted using the ‘lost-wax casting’ method.
ˆ The lost-was technique dates back atleast to the
Harappan times of Indus Valley Civilisation
where the Dancing Girl of Mohenjo Daro was
also crafted using this technique

www.sleepyclasses.com 170 1800-890-3043

 WEEKLY CURRENT AFFAIRS
HISTORY
MEDIEVAL HISTORY

108-Foot Statue Of Adi

Shankaracharya

ˆ Adi Shankara, also called Adi Shankaracharya

was an 8th-century Indian Vedic scholar, born
at Kaladi near Kochi, Kerala.
ˆ Propounded the Doctrine of Advaita (Monism)
Vedanata.
ˆ The central postulation of Shankara’s writings is
the identity of the Self (Ātman) and Brahman.
ˆ He considers Knowledge or jnana/gyan to be
the main means of attaining salvation.
ˆ Moksha is attained in this life by recognizing
the identity of Atman and Brahman.
ˆ Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister recently ˆ He was responsible for reviving Hinduism
unveiled a 108-foot-tall statue, named as named in India to a great extent when Buddhism was
‘Ekatmata Ki Pratima’ (Statue of Oneness), gaining popularity.
of the 8th-century spiritual leader Adi ˆ He setup four Mathas in the four corners of
Shankaracharya in Omkareshwar town. India at Shingeri, Puri, Dwarka and Badrinath –
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER: for propagation of Sanatana Dharma.
ˆ In Kedarnath, Shankaracharya is believed to
ˆ The statue depicts Shankaracharya as a 12-year-
have attained Samadhi at the age of 32.
old child when he is said to have visited
Omkareshwar.
ˆ The Mandhata island, on the Narmada
River, is home to two of the 12 Jyotirlingas –
Omkareshwara and Amareshwara.

www.sleepyclasses.com 171 1800-890-3043

 ˆ They contain multiple shrines grouped around
a central pillared hall and laid out in the shape
of an intricately-designed star (stellate-plan).
ˆ Since they are made out of soapstone which is
a relatively soft stone, the artists were able to
carve their sculptures intricately.

Hoysala Temples
ˆ The Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas, the
famed Hoysala temples of Belur, Halebid and
Somanathapur in Karnataka have been added to
UNESCO World Heritage list.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

ˆ These are the 42nd entry of India in the UNESCO
World heritage Sites list.
ˆ Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas include
Temples of Belur, Halebid and Somnathapura
in Karnataka.
ˆ These temples were built the 12th-13th centuries.
ˆ Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid
or Vesara as their unique style seems neither
completely Dravida nor Nagara, but somewhere
in between.

www.sleepyclasses.com 172 1800-890-3043

BELUR: CHENNAKESHAVA TEMPLE ˆ It is the most exemplary ensemble of the Hoysala
COMPLEX temple architecture.
ˆ It was built in 12th century during the reign of the
Hoysala King, Vishnuvardhana Hoysaleshwara.
ˆ The temple is dedicated to Shiva.
ˆ The temple is most well-known for the more
than 240 wall sculptures that run all along the
outer wall.
ˆ Halebid has a walled complex containing of three
Jaina basadi (temples) of the Hoysala period as
well as a stepped well.

SOMNATHPUR: KESAVA TEMPLE

ˆ This temple’s construction started in 12th century

AD.
ˆ It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu known as
Chennakesava, which means beautiful (chenna)
Vishnu (Keshava).
ˆ The richly sculptured exterior of the temple
narrates scenes from the life of Vishnu and his
reincarnations and the epics, Ramayana, and
Mahabharata.
ˆ However, some of the representations of Shiva ˆ It is a breathtakingly beautiful Trikuta Temple
are also included. dedicated to Lord Krishna in three forms –
Janardhana, Keshava and Venugopala.
HALEBID: HOYSALESHWARA TEMPLE
ˆ Unfortunately, the main Keshava idol is
missing, and the Janardhana and Venugopala
idols are damaged.

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 173 1800-890-3043

 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
EVOLUTION OF RAJPUT POLICY ˆ The very next year, in 1192 C.E., Ghori returned
to Hindustan with a re-organised army to avenge
it. Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraja who
was taken prisoner and executed.
ˆ His achievements are narrated in two great
poems, viz., Prithviraj Raso written by his
court poet Chand Bardai and Prithvirajavijaya
by Jayanaka.
ˆ The Chahamana dynasty ruled from
Ranthambhor till its capture by Alauddin
Khalji in C.E. 1301- ???.

CHANDBARDAI AND PRITHVIRAJ RASO

ˆ Chand Bardai was the court poet of the Indian
king Prithviraj III Chauhan.
ˆ He had mastery of grammar, literature, astrology
and the Puranas. He accompanied the king
during wars. Also, in the second battle of Tarain.
ˆ With the breakup of the Pratiharas, a number of ˆ Chand Bardai composed the Prithviraj Raso, an
Rajput states came into existence in north India – epic poem in Hindi about the life of Prithviraj.
1. Gahadavalas of Kannauj Over time, the Prithviraj Raso was embellished
with the interpolations and additions of many
2. Paramaras of Malwa
other authors.
3. Chauhans of Ajmer
ˆ The Prithviraj Raso is a semi-historical, semi-
4. Chandelas of Bundelkhand (Jejakabhukti-???) legendary account that depicts the bravery of
5. Chaulukyas of Gujarat Prithviraj Chauhan.
6. Sisodias of Mewar
GAHADAVALAS/RATHORS OF KANNUAJ
7. Tomaras of Delhi
ˆ The Gahadavalas ruled from Kannauj from the
CHAUHANS OF AJMER latter half of the eleventh century C.E.
ˆ Chahamana rulers were feudatories of the ˆ Chandradeva was the first ruler of the dynasty.
Pratiharas.
He seized Kannauj and made it his capital and also
ˆ Ajayraja of this dynasty founded the city of included Ayodhya and Varanasi in his empire.
Ajaymeru or Ajmer.
ˆ Jayachandra was the last ruler of the Gahadavalas.
ˆ Most important king Prithviraja III began his
reign in 1177 C.E. His greatest victory was in ˆ The most important event of Jayachandra’s reign
the battle of Tarain over Muhammad Ghori in was the invasion of Muiz-ud-din Muhammad
1191 C.E. Ghori, who after defeating Prithviraja, the
Chahmana ruler at the battle of Tarain in 1192

www.sleepyclasses.com 174 1800-890-3043

 C.E. marched towards Kanauj in 1194 and met ˆ He set up a college in the capital to impart
Jayachandra on the plain between Chandawar Sanskrit knowledge to students.
and Etawah. ˆ He expanded Dhar and founded the city of
ƒ His son, Harishchandra, was allowed by Bhojpura. He also founded a college known as
Muhammad Ghori to rule on his behalf. Bhojasala at Dhar.

PARAMARAS OF MALWA CHAULUKYAS OR SOLANKIS OF ANHIL-

WARA (940-1244AD)

ˆ The Paramaras began their political domination

as the feudatory chiefs of the Rashtrakutas.
(Sources also mention them as Slaves of
Pratiharas) ˆ Initially, they were feudatories of the Pratiharas,
ˆ They established themselves in the Malwa region later around 10th century, they asserted their
with their capital at Dhar. independence under their chief, Mularaja. The
Solanki capital was Anhilwara (Patan).
ˆ The founder of the dynasty was Upendra
(debatable)- or Siyaka-? ˆ Another significant ruler of this dynasty was
Bhima. He witnessed the Gujarat invasion
ˆ Bhoja (1010-1055AD) was the greatest scholar led by Mahmud of Ghazni, when he overran
king of India. Gujarat and plundered Somnath (1025 C.E.)
ƒ He is called Kaviraja in an inscription and ˆ In C.E. 1178, Muizuddin Muhammad Ghori
is said to have authored about two dozen of invaded Anhilvara or Patan, the capital, who
books on a variety of subjects. was defeated by Mularaja II near Mount Abu.
ˆ Bhoja’s commentary on the Yogasutras of ˆ Qutubuddin Aibak led two expeditions to
Patanjali, Ayurvedasaravasya, a work on Gujarat and plundered Anhilvara in 1197 C.E.
medicine and Samaranganasutradhara, an
excellent work on art and architecture are some ˆ The last ruler of Gujarat was Kama in whose
of his prominent literary creations. reign Gujarat was conquered by Alauddin Khalji
in 1297 C.E.

www.sleepyclasses.com 175 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Kama fled to Devagiri but his queen Kamala ˆ Mewar reached the height of its power under the
Devi fell into the hands of Alauddin Khalji. rule of Rana Kumbha and his grandson, Rana
(Debatable- 1244 {Vaghelas}) Sanga.
ˆ Rana Kumbha had defeated the Sultan of Malwa
CHANDELAS OF BUNDELKHAND and built Vijay Stambh to commemmorate the
victory in Chittor.
ˆ Kumbha was a great warrior, musician, poet and
a builder. His successor Maharana Pratap fought
many battles against Muslim rulers and did not
submit to them. (Saka, Jauhar & Guhilas-???)

MAHMUD OF GHAZNI

ˆ They ruled over the region of Bundelkhand. The

area was called Jejakabhukti. The founder of the
dynasty was Nannuka.
ˆ Chandelas constructed The Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple in Madhya Pradesh in around 1050 A.D,
along with many other beautiful temples.
ˆ Sultan Mahmud twice invaded his kingdom in ˆ By the end of the ninth century C.E., the Abbasid
1019 and 1022. Caliphate declined. The Turkish governors
established independent kingdoms and the
SISODIAS OF MEWAR Caliph became only a ritual authority.
ˆ One among them was Alptigin whose capital was
Ghazni. His successor and son-in-law Sabuktigin
wanted to conquer India from the north-west.
ƒ He succeeded in capturing Peshawar from
Jayapala. But his raids did not produce a
lasting effect. He was succeeded by his son,
Mahmud (999 C.E.)
ƒ Mahmud is said to have made seventeen
raids into India. At that time, North India was
divided into a number of Hindu states. (First
raid in 1001 C.E.)
ˆ On the frontier of India, there existed the
Hindu Shahi kingdom (The Hindu Shahi (879–

www.sleepyclasses.com 176 1800-890-3043

 1026) was one of the last Hindu dynasties in ˆ He drained the resources of India by his repeated
Afghanistan that held sway over the Kabul raids and deprived India of her manpower.
Valley and Gandhara during the early medieval The exhaustion of India’s economic resources
period in India) and man power had its adverse effect on the
ˆ Most of his expeditions were aimed at - political future of India.

ƒ Acquire wealth for his Central Asian ˆ The Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding the
campaigns. gates of India against foreign invaders. Mahmud
destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers became
ƒ To destabilize the states in the area so that no defenceless. The inclusion of Punjab and
coalition of powers against him could emerge. Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made
ˆ The other important kingdoms of north India the subsequent Muslim conquests of India
were Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa comparatively easy.
and Bundelkhand.
MUHAMMAD GHORI
ˆ The initial raids were against the Hindu Shahi
kingdom in which its king Jayapala was defeated
in 1001.
ˆ His successor Anandapala fought against
Mahmud but he was also defeated in the Battle
of Waihind, the Hindu Shahi capital near
Peshawar in 1008.
ƒ In this battle, Anandapala was supported by
the rulers of Kanauj and Rajasthan.
ƒ As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud
extended his rule over most of the Punjab.
ƒ The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India
were aimed at plundering the rich temples
and cities of northern India.
ˆ In 1026 Mahmud plundered across Rajasthan to
Somnath. ˆ The Ghoris/Ghurids started as vassals of Ghazni
ˆ Invasion was almost an annual feature of but became independent after the death of
Mahmud and came to an end only with his death Mahmud.
in A.D. 1030. ˆ Taking advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid
ˆ Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the court of empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly
Mahmud. He was the author of Shahnamah known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni
(The Persian ‘Book of Kings’). (World’s longest under their control.
epic poem created by a single poet) ˆ Having made his position strong and secure at
ˆ Al-beruni stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention
the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an account on India. to India.
ˆ His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely ˆ Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer
changed the political situation in India. He India and extend his empire in this direction.
paved the way for the Turks and Afghans for ˆ In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan
further conquests and make deeper incursions and occupied whole of Sind in his subsequent
into the Gangetic valley at any time. expeditions.

www.sleepyclasses.com 177 1800-890-3043

ˆ In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from Prithviraj’s son as a vassal ruler.
Khusru Malik and annexed it to his dominions. ƒ The Tomara chief of Delhi, had died in the
ˆ The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion battle at Tarain. His son was, however,
eastward to the Sutlej and led his invasion of installed at Delhi as a vassal.
the Chauhan kingdom. ƒ But, This policy was disturbed by the recurrent
ˆ Realising their grave situation, the Hindu princes conflicts between the imperial designs of the
of north India formed a confederacy under the Ghorians and local rulers.
command of Prithiviraj Chauhan. ˆ Ghori returned to central Asia leaving ‘an
ƒ Prithviraj rose to the occasion, and defeated occupational army at Indraprasth (near Delhi)
Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi in under the command of Qutbuddin Aibak’.
1191 C.E. Muhammad Ghori felt greatly
humiliated by this defeat. IN 1193 DELHI WAS OCCUPIED.

ˆ To avenge this defeat he made serious

preparations and gathered an army of 1,20,000
men.
ˆ He came with this large force to Lahore via
Peshawar and Multan. In the ensuing Second
Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori
thoroughly routed the army of Prithiviraj, who
was captured and killed.
ˆ The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet
of the invader.
ƒ The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly
established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
the history of India began.
ˆ He returned to Ghazni and left his favourite
ˆ Its location and historical tradition made it
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make further
most suitable as a capital for Turkish power in
conquests in India and in 1194, Muhammad came
India.
back and routed Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra’s
forces. ˆ If the Turks were to expand into the upper
Ganga valley, Delhi was too strategic to be left
ƒ Kannauj was occupied by the Muslims after
in alien hands. Rebellions both at Ajmer and
the Battle of Chandawar.
Delhi decided the issue. Delhi now became the
BATTLE OF TARAIN main base of Turkish operations in India.

ˆ The battle of Tarain was a watershed in the ƒ It was close to the Ghorid stronghold in
indian history. Rajput power entered the phase Punjab.
of irreversible decay. ƒ It was conveniently placed for sending
ˆ The Ghorians did not immediately take over the expeditions towards the east.
administration of all the conquered territories. BATTLE OF CHANDAWAR - 1194
Wherever it seemed feasible, they allowed the
Rajputs to continue, provided Turkish suzerainty ˆ Having consolidated their position in the Delhi
was acknowledged. e.g. region, the Turks were now poised for attack on
the Gahadvalas of Kannauj, reputed to be the
ƒ Ajmer was allowed to be retained by
most powerful kingdom in the country.

www.sleepyclasses.com 178 1800-890-3043

ˆ In 1194, Muizzuddin returned to India. The (1206) by a band of Karamatias which were
areas of Meerut, Baran (modern Buland-shahr) a fanatical sect which had absorbed many
and Koil (modern Aligarh) in the upper doab features of Hindu/Buddhist beliefs and which
which had been under the control of the Dor Muizzuddin had persecuted in his life time.
Rajputs, had been occupied by the Turks shortly
after the battle of Tarain. FACTORS BEHIND GHURIAN SUCCESS AND
DEFEAT OF RAJPUTS
ˆ Although the Dors had offered stiff resistance,
and the area had great strategic value, Jai Chand, ˆ Society and Social Structure Reason -
the Gahadvala ruler, had not come to their ƒ Complete equality and social solidarity as
help. Earlier, in a false sense of security, he had regards legal and religious status.
rejoiced at the defeat of Prithviraj at the hands of ƒ Absolute faith in God and his will which gave
Muizzuddin. them drive and a sense of mission.
ˆ In 1194, Muizzuddin advanced towards Kannauj ƒ Islam secured the Turkish conquerors
and Banaras. The battle was fought at Chandawar. from drunkenness. Rajputs, Maratha and
Jai Chand suffered a disastrous defeat. other Indian rulers where ruined due to
drunkenness.
AFTERMATH OF BATTLES
ˆ Prevailing Socio-Political System -
ƒ Internal Conflicts -
y Small independent powers (arose after
the fall of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire)
like Gahadvalas in Kannauj, Paramaras in
Malwa, Chalukyas in Gujarat, Chauhans
in Ajmer, Tomaras in Delhi, Chandelas
in Bundelkhand, etc. were far from being
united.
ˆ Mutual Quarrel -
y They always lacked unity and organisation.
Terrible battles were fought among the
powerful Rajput dyansties, such as the
Chauhans, the Rathors, the Chandelas etc.
ˆ The battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the
y This state of affairs caused weakness in
foundations of Turkish rule in the Ganga valley.
them in respect of military strength and
There was no large scale resistance in the area to
monetary resources.
Turkish rule. However, it took the Turks another
fifty years to consolidate their hold over the area. ˆ As a result of these quarrels the Rajputs lost the
spirit of nationalism. e.g: In 1192 Jayachandra
ˆ Muizzuddin suffered a sharp reversal in 1204
did not came to help Prithvi Raj and when
when he was defeated in west Asia and lost
Jayachandra fell prey to the same misfortune
control of Merv and most of Khurasan.
two years later, all other Rajput dynasties left
ƒ Rumours of Muizzuddin’s death led to a him all alone.
rebellion by the Khokhars in the Punjab.
ˆ Political disunion and absence of dominant
Muizzuddin marched to India to suppress it.
power.
ƒ On his way from the Punjab, Muizzuddin
ƒ India was divided into small principlaties
was killed on the banks of the river Indus
(kingdoms) at that time. There was no

www.sleepyclasses.com 179 1800-890-3043

 powerful empire in India that could lay the ˆ Military Preparedness -
foundation of the Central Government after ƒ Superior military technology and art of war
prevailing over the other Rajput rulers. of Turk.
ƒ It is not so easy to face a powerful Central y The Turks used iron stirrup and horse-
Government in the battle field as compared to shoes that reinforced their striking power
the petty states. and the stamina of the cavalry, while
ˆ Lack of Centralised Power - horse-shoes provided greater mobility
ƒ Indian forces consisted of ‘feudal levies’. Each to the horse, stirrup gave the soldiers a
military contingent was under the command distinct advantage.
of its immediate overlord/chief and not that y Ghorian armies were drawn from the
of the king. Thus, the army lacked ‘Unity of warlike tribes inhabiting the difficult
Command’. region lying between the Indus and the
Oxus.
ƒ Feudal lords were difficult to control, and
were always eager to set themselves up as y On the other hand, The Indians were and
independent rulers whenever a suitable divided into small states which hampered
opportunity arose. expansionist ambitions.

ˆ Absence of strong frontier - ƒ Absence of standing army:

ƒ The Rajputs neglected the defence of their y Rajput rulers did not maintain any, regular
frontiers especially the North-west frontier. standing armies. They depended on their
There was neither a fort built nor any soldier feudatories for armies at the time of war.
posted to defend the frontier. The foreign This system had its faults and defects.
invaders penetrated into the country without y The number of soldiers in the army was
any obstruction. never certain, and definite.
ƒ Lack of strategic consciousness among y When rulers were in great difficulty,
Rajputs- these feudatories declared themselves
y Failed to perceive the force of invasion. They independent.
showed lack of political farsightedness. y This system lacked in team spirit. Army
Invasions were intermittent, they failed was not under one command.
to exploit these breaks.
y Sometimes, feudatories even fled away
y They didn’t focus on securing north-west
from the field with their own soldiers.
India. No effort was made by them to join
together to oust the Ghaznavids from the FACTORS BEHIND GHURIAN SUCCESS AND
Punjab even after the death of Mahmud. DEFEAT OF RAJPUTS
y The Rajput sense of insularity which ˆ Military Preparedness -
was rooted in the Indian cultural ethos,
did not enable them to develop a strategic ƒ Turks largely relied on professional and
perspective. slave soldiers on horseback, while the Indians
normally made use of an untrained peasant
y Al-Biruni described noted the deep
infantry.
insularity of the Indians: “The Hindus
believe that there is no country but theirs, y Slavery provided the Turkish sultans with
no nation but theirs, no kings like theirs, a body of commanders who were totally
no science like theirs.” loyal.
ˆ Inferior cavalry of Rajputs were no match for
superior cavalry of their opponent.

www.sleepyclasses.com 180 1800-890-3043

 ƒ They depended too much on elephants which ˆ The expansion of the Gurjara-Pratihara
were slow moving. The Indians were not kingdom involved constant conflicts with other
accustomed to move as an organised body of contemporary powers such as the Palas and the
horsemen for long distances. Rashtrakutas known as the tripartite struggle
Q. Consider the following pairs: King Dynasty over the city of Kannauj.
1. Nannuka – Chandela ˆ Dantidurga was the founder of the dynasty
2. Jayashakti – Paramara called, Rashtrakuta dynasty (8th century AD).
The capital of the Rastrakutas was Manyakheta
3. Nagabhata II - Gurjara-Prathihara
or Malkhed near Sholapur.
4. Bhoja – Rashtrakuta
ˆ Dhruva-I, Krishna-I and Amoghavarsha were
How many pairs given above are correctly the other important rulers of this dynasty.
matched? (2022)
ˆ The Chandela or Chandel was Indian Rajput
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs
clan of Central India. Nannuk, a ruler of small
(c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs kingdom was the founder of Chandela Dynasty.
Answer : B ˆ Khajuraho was a strong hold of Nannuk who
ˆ The Gurjara Pratihara dynasty was founded by was considered as the chief of his clan. Vakapati
Nagabhatta I in the region of Malwa in the 8th succeeded his father in the first quarter of tenth
century AD. Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty ruled century.
much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the ˆ Vakapati had to often assist Pratiharas in the
11th century. battle field, as he was a liegeman of them. Some
ˆ The Pratiharas, derived their name from the inscriptions prove that his territory extended till
Sanskrit meaning doorkeeper, are seen as a tribal Vindhya hills. Jaishakti, the elder son, succeeded
group or a clan of the Gurjaras. the throne and was successful in extending his
ˆ Nagabhata Il and Mahendrapala were the other empire.
important rulers of the dynasty. ˆ Jaishakti, the elder brother who ruled first, was
also called Jai Jak and from this name the region
ruled by the Chandelas acquired the name of
Jaijikbhukti. He was succeeded on the throne by
his younger brother, Vijayshakti.

n n n n

www.sleepyclasses.com 181 1800-890-3043

 PARAMARAS OF MALWA
ˆ The Paramaras began their political domination ˆ Qutubuddin Aibak led two expeditions to
as the feudatory chiefs of the Rashtrakutas. Gujarat and plundered Anhilvara in 1197 C.E.
(Sources also mention them as Slaves of ˆ The last ruler of Gujarat was Kama in whose
Pratiharas) reign Gujarat was conquered by Alauddin Khalji
ˆ They established themselves in the Malwa in 1297 C.E.
region with their capital at Dhar. ƒ Kama fled to Devagiri but his queen Kamala
ˆ The founder of the dynasty was Upendra Devi fell into the hands of Alauddin Khalji.
(debatable). (Debatable- 1244 {Vaghelas})
ˆ Bhoja (1010-1055AD) was the greatest scholar ˆ They ruled over the region of Bundelkhand. The

king of India. area was called Jejakabhukti. The founder of the

dynasty was Nannuka.
ƒ He is called Kaviraja in an inscription and
ˆ Chandellas constructed The Kandariya
is said to have authored about two dozen of
Mahadeva Temple in Madhya Pradesh in around
books on a variety of subjects.
1050 A.D with many beautiful temples.
ˆ Bhoja’s commentary on the Yogasutras of
ˆ Sultan Mahmud twice invaded his kingdom in
Patanjali, Ayurvedasaravasya, a work on
1019 and 1022.
medicine and Samaranganasutradhara, an
SISODIAS OF MEWAR
excellent work on art and architecture are some
of his prominent literary creations. ˆ Mewar reached the height of its power under the
rule of Rana Kumbha and his grandson, Rana
ˆ He set up a college in the capital to impart Sanga.
Sanskrit knowledge to students.
ˆ Rana Kumbha had defeated the Muslim ruler of
ˆ He expanded Dhar and founded the city of Malwa and built Vijay Stambh to commorate the
Bhojpura. He also founded a college known as victory in Chittor.
Bhojasala at Dhar. ˆ Kumbha was a great warrior, musician, poet and

CHAULUKYAS OR SOLANKIS OF a builder. His successor Maharana Pratap fought

ANHILWARA many battles against Muslim rulers and did not
submit to them.
ˆ Initially, they were feudatories of the Pratiharas,
later around 10th century, they asserted their SENAS OF BENGAL
independence under their chief, Mularaja. The
ˆ They ruled Bengal after Palas.
Solanki capital was Anhilwara (Patan).
ˆ Its founder was Samantasena.
ˆ Another significant ruler of this dynasty was
Bhima. He witnessed the Gujarat invasion ˆ His grandson Vijayasena (son of Hemantasena)
led by Mahmud of Ghazni, when he overran brought the family into limelight.
Gujarat and plundered Somnath (1025 C.E.) ƒ The famous poet Sriharsha composed the
ˆ In C.E. 1178, Muizuddin Muhammad Ghori Vijayaprasasti in his memory.
invaded Anhilvara or Patan, the capital, who ƒ Vijaysena was suceeded by his son Ballalasena
was defeated by Mulraja II near Mount Abu. in 1158 C.E. He conquered Mithila and a
portion of east Bihar.

www.sleepyclasses.com 182 1800-890-3043

ˆ Ballalasena was a great scholar and 1026) was one of the last Hindu dynasties in
wrote Danasagara, a work on Smriti and Afghanistan that held sway over the Kabul
Adbhutasagara, a work on Astronomy. Valley and Gandhara during the early medieval
ƒ He is credited with introduction of Kulinism, period in India)
an important social movement by which the
MAHMUD OF GHAZNI
nobility of birth and purity was carefully
protected. ˆ Most of his expeditions were aimed at -
ˆ He was succeeded by Lakshmansena . ƒ Acquiring wealth for his Central Asian
ˆ Lakshmansena defeated Jayachandra of the campaigns.
Gahadavala dynasty. ƒ To destabilize the states in the area so that no
ƒ Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava poet of coalition of powers against him could emerge.
Bengal and author of Gita Govinda, lived at ˆ The other important kingdoms of north India
his court. were Kannauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa
ƒ His reign saw the decline of Sena power. and Bundelkhand.
The invasions of Bakhtiyar Khalji gave it a
ˆ The initial raids were against the Hindu Shahi
crushing blow.
kingdom in which its king Jayapala was defeated
GANGAS/CHANDRAGANGAS OF ORISSA in 1001.
ˆ Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas, ˆ His successor Anandapala fought against
built the Lingaraja temple at Bhuvaneshwar. Mahmud but he was also defeated in the Battle
of Waihind, the Hindu Shahi capital near
ˆ Their king Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun
Peshawar in 1008.
Temple at Konark.
ƒ In this battle, Anandapala was supported by
ˆ Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the famous
the rulers of Kannauj and Rajasthan.
Jagannath temple at Puri.
ƒ As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud
MAHMUD OF GHAZNI extended his rule over most of the Punjab.
ˆ By the end of the ninth century C.E., the ƒ The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India
Abbasid Caliphate declined. The Turkish were aimed at plundering the rich temples
governors established independent kingdoms and cities of northern India.
and the Caliph became only a ritual authority. ˆ In 1026 Mahmud plundered across Rajasthan to
ˆ One among them was Alptigin whose capital Somnath.
was Ghazni. His successor and son-in-law ˆ Invasion was almost an annual feature of
Sabuktigin wanted to conquer India from the Mahmud and came to an end only with his death
north-west. in A.D. 1030.
ƒ He succeeded in capturing Peshawar from ˆ Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the court of
Jayapala. But his raids did not produce a Mahmud. He was the author of Shahnamah (The
lasting effect. He was succeeded by his son, Persian ‘Book of Kings’). (World’s longest epic
Mahmud (999 C.E.) poem created by a single poet)
ƒ Mahmud is said to have made seventeen ˆ Al-Biruni stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote
raids into India. At that time, North India was the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an account on India.
divided into a number of Hindu states. (First
ˆ His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely
raid in 1001 C.E.)
changed the political situation in India. He paved
ˆ On the frontier of India, there existed the the way for the Turks and Afghans for further
Hindu Shahi kingdom (The Hindu Shahi (879–

www.sleepyclasses.com 183 1800-890-3043

 conquests and make deeper incursions into the ˆ He came with this large force to Lahore via
Gangetic valley at any time. Peshawar and Multan. In the ensuing Second
ˆ He drained the resources of India by his repeated Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori
raids and deprived India of her manpower. The thoroughly routed the army of Prithiviraj, who
exhaustion of India’s economic resources and was captured and killed.
man power had its adverse effect on the political ˆ The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet
future of India. of the invader.
ˆ The Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding ƒ The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly
the gates of India against foreign invaders. established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
Mahmud destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers the history of India began.
became defenceless. The inclusion of Punjab
ˆ He returned to Ghazni and left his favourite
and Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make further
the subsequent Muslim conquests of India
conquests in India and in 1194, Muhammad came
comparatively easy.
back and routed Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra’s
MUHAMMAD GHORI forces.
The Ghoris/Ghurids started as vassals of Ghazni ƒ Kannauj was occupied by the Muslims after
but became independent after the death of Mahmud. the Battle of Chandawar.
ˆ Taking advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid BATTLE OF TARAIN
empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly
known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni ˆ Even though the army of Rajputs is said to be
under their control. much more in number then also the Ghurids were
succesfully able to defeat them as -
ˆ Having made his position strong and secure at
Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention ƒ The battle of Tarain was more a war of
to India. movement than of position.
ˆ Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer y The lightly armed mounted archers of
India and extend his empire in this direction. Muizzuddin kept harassing the slow
ˆ In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan moving forces of Prithviraj, and attacked
and occupied whole of Sind in his subsequent from all sides when they had created
expeditions. confusion in his ranks.
ˆ In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from ƒ Prithviraj was pursued and caught near
Khusru Malik and annexed it to his dominions. Sarsuti or modern Sirsa in Hissar district.
ˆ The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion y The historian Minhaj Siraj says that he was
eastward to the Sutlej and led his invasion of the executed immediately.
Chauhan kingdom.
y But according to another contemporary
ˆ Realising their grave situation, the Hindu princes writer, Hasan Nizami, he was taken to
of north India formed a confederacy under the Ajmer and allowed to rule. This is supported
command of Prithiviraj Chauhan. by numismatic evidence, showing coins of
ƒ Prithviraj rose to the occasion, and defeated Prithviraj, with the words ‘Sri Muhammad
Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi in Sam’ on the reverse.
1191 C.E. Muhammad Ghori felt greatly
y Prithviraj rebelled after sometime, and
humiliated by this defeat.
was executed. His son succeeded him, and
ˆ To avenge this defeat he made serious continued to rule (Ajmer) for sometime as
preparations and gathered an army of 1,20,000 a feudatory.
men.

www.sleepyclasses.com 184 1800-890-3043

ˆ The battle of Tarain was a watershed in the ˆ Although the Dors had offered stiff resistance,
indian history. Rajput power entered the phase and the area had great strategic value, Jai
of irreversible decay. Chandra, the Gahadvala ruler, had not come to
ˆ The Ghorians did not immediately take over the their help. Earlier, in a false sense of security,
administration of all the conquered territories. he had rejoiced at the defeat of Prithviraj at the
Wherever it seemed feasible, they allowed the hands of Muizzuddin.
Rajputs to continue, provided Turkish suzerainty ˆ In 1194, Muizzuddin advanced towards
was acknowledged. e.g. Kannauj and Banaras. The battle was fought at
ƒ Ajmer was allowed to be retained by Chandawar. Jai Chandra suffered a disastrous
Prithviraj’s son as a vassal ruler. defeat.

ƒ The Tomar chief of Delhi, had died in the battle AFTERMATH OF BATTLES
at Tarain. His son was, however, installed at
ˆ The battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the
Delhi as a vassal.
foundations of Turkish rule in the Ganga valley.
ƒ But, This policy was disturbed by the recurrent There was no large scale resistance in the area to
conflicts between the imperial designs of the Turkish rule. However, it took the Turks another
Ghorians and local rulers. fifty years to consolidate their hold over the area.
ˆ Ghori returned to central Asia leaving ‘an ˆ Muizzuddin suffered a sharp reversal in 1204
occupation army at Indraprasth (near Delhi) when he was defeated in west Asia and lost
under the command of Qutbuddin Aibak’. control of Merv and most of Khurasan.
ˆ In 1193 Delhi was occupied. ƒ Rumours of Muizzuddin’s death led to a
rebellion by the Khokhars in the Punjab.
ˆ Its location and historical tradition made it most
Muizzuddin marched to India to suppress it.
suitable as a capital for Turkish power in India.
ƒ On his way from the Punjab, Muizzuddin
ˆ If the Turks were to expand into the upper was killed on the banks of the river Indus
Ganga valley, Delhi was too strategic to be left in (1206) by a band of Karamatias which were
alien hands. Rebellions both at Ajmer and Delhi a fanatical sect which had absorbed many
decided the issue. Delhi now became the main features of Hindu/Buddhist beliefs and which
base of Turkish operations in India. Muizzuddin had persecuted in his life time.
ƒ It was close to the Ghorid stronghold in
Punjab. FACTORS BEHIND GHURIAN SUCCESS AND
DEFEAT OF RAJPUTS
ƒ It was conveniently placed for sending
expeditions towards the east. ˆ Society and Social Structure Reason -
ƒ Complete equality and social solidarity as
BATTLE OF CHANDAWAR – 1194 regards legal and religious status.
ˆ Having consolidated their position in the Delhi ƒ Absolute faith in God and his will which
region, the Turks were now poised for attack on gave them drive and a sense of mission.
the Gahadvalas of Kannauj, reputed to be the ƒ Islam secured the Turkish conquerors
most powerful kingdom in the country. from drunkenness. Rajputs, Maratha and
ˆ In 1194, Muizzuddin returned to India. The areas other Indian rulers where ruined due to
of Meerut, Baran (modern Buland-shahr) and drunkenness.
Koil (modern Aligarh) in the upper doab which ˆ Prevailing Socio-Political System -
had been under the control of the Dor Rajputs, ƒ Internal Conflicts -
had been occupied by the Turks shortly after the y Small independent powers (arose after
battle of Tarain. the fall of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire)

www.sleepyclasses.com 185 1800-890-3043

 like Gahadvalas in Kannauj, Parmaras in ƒ Lack of strategic consciousness among
Malwa, Chalukyas in Gujarat, Chauhans Rajputs -
in Ajmer, Tomars in Delhi, Chandellas in ƒ Failed to perceive the force of invasion. They
Bundelkhand, etc. were far from being
showed lack of political farsightedness.
united.
Invasions were intermittent, they failed to
ƒ Mutual Quarrel - exploit these breaks.
y They always lacked unity and organisation. ƒ They didn’t focus on securing north-west
Terrible battles were fought among the India. No effort was made by them to join
powerful Rajput dyansties, such as the together to oust the Ghaznavids from the
Chauhans, the Rathors, the Chandelas etc. Punjab even after the death of Mahmud.
y This state of affairs caused weakness in ƒ The Rajput sense of insularity which
them in respect of military strength and was rooted in the Indian cultural ethos,
monetary resources.
did not enable them to develop a strategic
y As a result of these quarrels the Rajputs perspective.
lost the spirit of nationalism. e.g: In 1192
ƒ Al-Biruni described noted the deep insularity
Jayachandra did not came to help Prithvi
of the Indians: “The Hindus believe that there
Raj and when Jayachandra fell prey to the
is no country but theirs, no nation but theirs,
same misfortune two years later, all other
no kings like theirs, no science like theirs.”
Rajput dynasties left him all alone.
ˆ Military Preparedness -
ƒ Political disunion and absence of dominant
power. ƒ Superior military technology and art of war
of Turk.
y India was divided into small principalities
(kingdoms) at that time. There was no y The Turks used iron stirrup and horse-
powerful empire in India that could lay the shoes that reinforced their striking power
foundation of the Central Government after and the stamina of the cavalry, while horse-
prevailing over the other Rajput rulers. shoes provided greater mobility to the
horse, stirrup gave the soldiers a distinct
ƒ Lack of Centralised Power -
advantage.
y Indian forces consisted of ‘feudal levies’.
y Ghorian armies were drawn from the
Each military contingent was under the
warlike tribes inhabiting the difficult
command of its immediate overlord/chief
region lying between the Indus and the
and not that of the king. Thus, the army
Oxus.
lacked ‘Unity of Command’.
y On the other hand, The Indians were and
y Feudal lords were difficult to control, and
divided into small states which hampered
were always eager to set themselves up
expansionist ambitions.
as independent rulers whenever a suitable
opportunity arose. ƒ Absence of standing army:
ƒ Absence of strong frontier - y Rajput rulers did not maintain any, regular
standing armies. They depended on their
y The Rajputs neglected the defence of feudatories for armies at the time of war.
their frontiers especially the North-west This system had its faults and defects.
frontier. There was neither a fort built nor
any soldier posted to defend the frontier. y The number of soldiers in the army was
The foreign invaders penetrated into the never certain, and definite.
country without any obstruction.

www.sleepyclasses.com 186 1800-890-3043

 y When rulers were in great difficulty,
these feudatories declared themselves Delhi Sultanate Mamluk
independent.
y This system lacked in team spirit. Army
Dynasty (1206-1290 C.E.)
was not under one command.
BEGINNING OF DELHI SULTANATE
y Sometimes, feudatories even fled away
from the field with their own soldiers.
ˆ Turks largely relied on professional and
slave soldiers on horseback, while the Indians
normally made use of an untrained peasant
infantry.
ƒ Slavery provided the Turkish sultans with
a body of commanders who were totally
loyal.
ˆ Inferior cavalry of Rajputs were no match for
superior cavalry of their opponent.
ƒ They depended too much on elephants which
were slow moving. The Indians were not
accustomed to move as an organised body of
horsemen for long distances.
ˆ By the time of Muizzuddin Muhammad’s death
in 1206, the Turks had been able to extend their
sway upto: Lakhnauti in Bengal, Ajmer and
Ranthambor in Rajasthan, upto the boundaries
of Ujjain in the south, and Multan and Uchch in
Sindh.
ˆ Empire remained more or less stationary for
almost a hundred years. The period from 1206
to 1290 constitutes the formative and the most
challenging period in the history of the Delhi
Sultanate. The internal and external difficulties
faced by the Turks were numerous such as -
ˆ Rajput rulers: the efforts of some of the ousted
rulers, particularly the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan
and Bundelkhand, and neighbouring areas, such
as Bayana and Gwaliyar to regain their former
possessions. But, Rajputs never came together to
try and collectively oust the Turks from India.
ˆ Rajput rulers: the efforts of some of the ousted
rulers, particularly the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan
and Bundelkhand, and neighbouring areas, such
as Bayana and Gwaliyar to regain their former
possessions. But, Rajputs never came together to
try and collectively oust the Turks from India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 187 1800-890-3043

ˆ Internal conflict within nobles: ƒ He assumed the title Sultan and made Lahore
ƒ Tussle for supremacy among his three his capital.
important generals. Yalduz (held Ghazni), ƒ His rule lasted for a short period of four years.
Qubacha (held Uchh) and Qutbuddin Aibak
(viceroy and over all commander of the army QUTUBDIN AIBAK (1206 -1210)
in India). ˆ During this short span problems faced by him -
ƒ Some of the Turkish rulers tried to carve out ƒ From Rajputs and other Indian chiefs:
their own independent spheres of authority. y The successor of Jaichandra, Harishchandra
Thus, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and had driven out the Turks from Badayun
his successors tried to keep Lakhnauti and and Farukhabad. Aibak re-conquered both
Bihar free from the control of Delhi. Badayun and Farukhabad.
ˆ Mongols were another threat. ƒ From other Turks:
TIMELINE OF DYNASTIES y Tajuddin Yalduz, the ruler of Ghazni,
ˆ The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately claimed his rule over Delhi.
resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate y Nasiruddin Qubacha, the governor
which existed from C.E. 1206 to 1526. of Multan and Uchch aspired for
ˆ Five Different Dynasties - independence.

1. Mamluks - 1206 - 1290 C.E. y Aibak moved his capital to Lahore. He

defeated Yalduz and occupied Ghazni. But,
2. Khaljis: 1290 – 1320 C.E.
he failed to suppress Qubacha. Illtutmish
3. Tughlaq: 1320 – 1414 C.E. completed this task later.
4. Sayyids: 1414 – 1451 C.E. ˆ Muslim writers call Aibak Lakh Baksh or giver
5. Lodhis: 1451 – 1526 C.E. of lakhs because he gave liberal donations.
THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290 C.E.) ˆ Aibak patronized the great scholar Hasan
Nizami.
ˆ The Slave dynasty was also called Mamluk
dynasty. Mamluk was the Quranic term for ƒ Hasan Nizami’s wrote Tajul Maasir— ‘The
slave. The Slave dynasty ruled Delhi from C.E. Crown of Exploits’, deals primarily with the
1206 to 1290. history of Qutbuddin Aibak.
ˆ Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210) ˆ He also started the construction of Qutub
Minar after the name of a famous Sufi saint
ƒ Qutbuddin Aibak was a Turkish slave of
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki. It was later
Muhammad Ghori, who made him the
completed by Iltutmish.
Governor of his Indian possessions.
ˆ Aibak died suddenly while playing chaugan
ƒ He set up his military headquarters at
(horse polo) in 1210.
Indraprastha, near Delhi.
ˆ He was succeeded by his son Aram Shah, who
ƒ After the death of Ghori in 1206, Aibak
was replaced by Iltutmish after eight months
declared his independence. He severed all
(who himself was a slave of Aibak.)
connections with the kingdom of Ghori and
thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the
Delhi Sultanate.

www.sleepyclasses.com 188 1800-890-3043

 ˆ He received the mansur, the letter of recognition,
from the Abbasid Caliph in 1229 by which he
became the legal sovereign ruler of India.
ˆ He divided his empire into Iqtas, an assignment
of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to
his officers.
ƒ Every iqtadar had to maintain law and order
and collect revenue.
ƒ After deducting his salary and the expenses of
the government, he sent the surplus revenue
to the Central Government.
ƒ Iqtas were transferable.
ˆ He introduced the silver tanka and the copper
jital: 2 basic coins of the Sultanate.
ˆ He patronized many scholars including Minhaj-
us-Siraj, the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
(Iltutmish).
ˆ He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built
Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
ˆ Iltutmish had also created a new class of ruling
elite of forty powerful military leaders, Chalisa
ILTUTMISH (1211 - 1236 C.E.) or Chihalgani (the Forty).

ˆ He belonged to the Ilbari tribe and was Aibak’s

slave as well as his-son-in law. He is regarded
as the real consolidator of the Turkish conquest
in India.
ˆ In 1211, Iltutmish defeated Aram Shah and
became Sultan. He shifted his capital from
Lahore to Delhi.
ˆ During the first ten years of his reign he
concentrated on securing his throne from his
Turkish rivals – Qubacha (based in Multan) and
Yalduz (based in Ghazni)
ˆ In the meantime, the Mongols ruler Chengiz ˆ By his military prowess, pleasing manners and
Khan started invading Central Asia. He liberality, Iltutmish earned the deep respect and
defeated Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the ruler of attachment of the people of Delhi to his family,
Khwarizam, who sought asylum from Iltutmish. in consequence of which the right of his children
ƒ Iltutmish refused to give him shelter in order to succeed him was accepted.
to save his empire from the onslaught of the ˆ Thus, he set up the first hereditary sovereignty
Mongols. Fortunately for Iltutmish, Chengiz at Delhi.
Khan returned home without entering into
India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 189 1800-890-3043

ˆ He laid the foundations of an absolutist monarchy ƒ In 1246 Balban, a member of the Forty,
that was to serve later as the instrument of a succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud,
military imperialism under the Khaljis. Aibak a younger son of Iltutmish, as Sultan
outlined the Delhi Sultanate and its sovereign (Interesting-???).
status; Iltutmish was unquestionably its first
king. BALBAN (1246-1287 C.E.)
ˆ Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as
RAZIYA (1236 - 1240 C.E.) Ulugh Khan, served as Naib or regent to Sultan
ˆ Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his Nasiruddin Mahmud. He strengthened his
successor. And, thus the hereditary succession to position by marrying his daughter to the Sultan.
Delhi Sultanate was initiated. ˆ In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died without heir
ˆ The Qazi of Delhi and Wazir put Ruknuddin and Balban ascended the throne.
Feroz on the throne. But, Raziya with the ˆ Balban’s experience as the regent helped him
support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of understand the problems of Delhi Sultanate.
Delhi Sultanate. He knew that the real threat to the monarchy
ˆ She was the first and the last Muslim woman was from the nobles called the Forty.
ruler of medieval India. She succeeded her ƒ He was convinced that only by enhancing
brother in 1236 and ruled for 3 ½ years. the power and authority of the monarchy he
ˆ She disregarded purdah, began to adorn male could face the problems so he began the Era of
attire and rode out in public on elephant back. strong, centralised Government.
She even went for hunting and led the army. ˆ According to Balban the Sultan was God’s
ˆ She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakut shadow on earth (Zill-i-Illahi) and deputy of
as Master of the Royal Horses. This aroused God (Niyabat-i-Khudai).
resentment among the Turkish nobles. ƒ Balban realized that people at that time
Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda revolted. She believed that it was only the prerogative
personally suppressed the revolt but Altunia of the ancient royal families to rule and
killed Yakut and took Raziya prisoner. exercise power, he therefore claimed to be a
ˆ Towards Mongols - She followed a policy of descendent of the Iranian hero, Afraisyab.
Appeasement as opposed to Policy of Aloofness
by Iltutmish.
ƒ In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put
Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the
throne. However, Raziya won over her captor,
Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to
Delhi. But on the way she was defeated and
killed.
ˆ Balban introduced rigorous court discipline and
ˆ The fall of Raziya paved the way for the
new customs such as prostration (Sijda) and
ascendancy of the Chahalgani, The Forty. There
kissing the Sultan’s feet (Paibos) to prove his
ensued a struggle for supremacy between the
superiority over the nobles.
Sultans and the nobles. [Bahram, Masud Shah-
???] ƒ He also introduced the Persian festival of
Nauroz to impress the nobles and people
with his wealth and power. He stood forth
as the champion of Turkish nobility. Indian

www.sleepyclasses.com 190 1800-890-3043

 Muslims were not given important post in the ƒ As sultan, whenever the army camped
government. anywhere, he used to pay special attention to
ˆ At the same time he did not share power with the poor, the helpless, women, children and
other nobles. He appointed spies to monitor the the old, to ensure that none of them suffered
activities of the nobles. any loss, or physical harm (from the soldiers).

ˆ To consolidate his position, he followed the ˆ Against Mongols - Balban used the policy of
policy of ‘Blood and Iron’. Instead of expanding ‘Force and Diplomacy’, as against policy of
his kingdom, Balban paid more attention to the Appeasement followed by Raziya Sultan.
restoration of law and order. ƒ There were 3 major invasions during the
ˆ In his attitude to the people we see a combination Balban Era.
of harshness and benevolence. ˆ Robbers were mercilessly pursued and put to
ƒ Balban was convinced that both excess of death. As a result, the roads became safe for
wealth or poverty would make people travel.
rebellious. ˆ He established a separate military department -
ƒ Hence, he advised his son, Bughra Khan, to Diwan-i-Arz – and reorganized the army.
be moderate in levying land tax (kharaj) on ˆ The historian Barani, who was himself a great
the peasants. champion of the Turkish nobles, says that Balban
ƒ When Balban was a Khan in the iqta under remarked ‘whenever I see a base born ignoble
his charge, he tried to help those cultivators man, my eyes burn and I reach in anger for my
who had been ruined (on account of vagaries sword (to kill him).”
of nature, oppression by previous iqtadars ˆ Balban died in 1287. When Balban died, one of
or wars). In this way, he became famous for his grandsons Kaiqubad was made the Sultan
helping the poor and the helpless, and for of Delhi. After four years of incompetent rule,
making his iqta prosperous. Jalaluddin Khalji captured the throne of Delhi
in 1290.

Delhi Sultanate Part 2

Khalji Dynasty

THE KHALJI DYNASTY (1290 - 1320 C.E.)

ˆ Balban was succeeded by 17-year-old Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad, who appointed Jalal ud-Din Firuz
Khalji as the commander of the army.

www.sleepyclasses.com 191 1800-890-3043

ˆ Khalji assassinated Qaiqabad and assumed ƒ New administrative machinery comprising
power, thus ending the Mamluk dynasty and the Shahna-i-Mandi and the Barids was set
starting the Khalji dynasty. up to oversee the market regulations.
ˆ During the Mamluk dynasty, many nobles from ƒ land revenue administration was reorganized
Afghanistan and Persia migrated and settled in by introducing measurement system.
India, as West Asia came under Mongol siege. ƒ But the Khalji revolution had negative sides
ˆ The Khalji dynasty was of Turko- as well. It gave too much emphasis over the
Afghan heritage. military aspect (impetus to militarism) of the
ƒ They were originally of Turkic origin. government and there was vigorous expansion
They had long been settled in present- (Khalji imperialism).
day Afghanistan before proceeding
to Delhi in India.
ƒ The name “Khalji” refers to an Afghan
village or town known as Qalat-e Khalji (Fort
of Ghilji).
ƒ They were treated by others as
ethnic Afghans due to their intermarraiges
with local Afghans, adoption of Afghan habits
and customs.
ƒ As a result of this, the dynasty is referred to
as Turko-Afghan.
y The Khaji rebellion was also welcomed ˆ One of the chief architects of Delhi Sultanate who
by non-turkish sections in the nobility, played a crucial role in consolidating territories
as the rise of Khaljis to power ended the of Delhi Sultanate.
Turkish monopoly of high offices.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BALBAN’S RULE:
WHY WAS KHALJI ACCESSION i. Enhanced the prestige and power of Monarchy
A REVOLUTION ?
ƒ Strict in administration of Justice
ˆ Khaljis came to power not on the support of
ii. Tight control over the Iqtadars, with Barids
either nobility or Ulema but by the power of
informing him of most developments
their sword.
ƒ Revenues which were previously appropriated
ˆ Khalji revolution is considered as a revolt of the
by the “Chihalgani” for their own use, now
lower segment of society against the established
began to be made available to the Central
nobility.
government.
ˆ Rejection of the racial policy of early rulers as
iii. Persian New Year Festival ‘Nauroz’
Khaljis opened the gate of the nobility class not
simply to non-Turks but also to Indian Muslims. iv. Great emphasis on maintaining a large efficient
The social basis of the ruling class broadened. army
ƒ Played a crucial role in containing Mongols
ˆ Several new administrative measures that were
of the Multan-Dipalpur-Sunam line along the
introduced.
river Beas. (“Battle of Beas River”-1285)
ƒ For example: market regulations which fixed
the prices of different commodities.

www.sleepyclasses.com 192 1800-890-3043

Limitations & Criticisms (d) He died after a fall from his horse while
playing Chaugan
ˆ ‘Despotic’ (Sijda, Paibos)
Answer : D
ˆ Expansion almost negligent
ˆ “When I look at low born, every artery in my
body
ˆ begins to irritate with fury and my hand goes to
the
ˆ sword.”
Q. How did Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak die? [PYQ]
(a) He was treacherously stabbed to death by
one of his ambitious nobles
(b) He was killed in a battle with Taj-u-din
Yildiz, the ruler of Ghazni who entered into a
contest with him over the capture of Punjab
(c) He sustained injuries while besieging the
fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand and
succumbed to them later

www.sleepyclasses.com 193 1800-890-3043

 DELHI SULTANATE MAMLUK DYNASTY
(1206-1290 C.E.)
Delhi Sultanate Part 2
Khalji Dynasty

JALALUDDIN KHALJI (1290 - 1296) officers of Balban’s time who visited Jalaluddin
ˆ The first ruler of the Khalji dynasty. were given important posts and iqtas.
ˆ Jalal Khalji had already gathered enough ˆ He tried to gain the goodwill of the nobility
support among the Afghans for taking over the by policy of tolerance and avoiding harsh
crown. punishments, concept of a new type of a state, one
which was based fundamentally on the good-will
ˆ He was around 70 years old at the time of his
and support of the people of all communities,
ascension, and was known as a mild-mannered,
one which was basically beneficent and looked
humble and kind monarch to the general public.
after the welfare of its subjects.
ˆ In 1292, he appointed his son-in-law Alauddin
ˆ Although Jalaluddin Khalji was a pious Muslim,
Khalji as the Governor of Kara, after Chajju, the
he negated the demand of some Ulemas. e.g.
Governor of Kara, revolted for a second time.
demand of conversion of Hindus.
ˆ In 1296, during a reception there, Alauddin
ˆ Thus, unlike Balban, he refused to identify
Khalji treacherously murdered his father-in-
sovereignty with self-pride and tyranny. In the
law Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of
language of Barani, he believed in a policy of
Delhi.
“not harming even an ant“.
HIS APPROACH TO THE STATE - ˆ He did neither have will nor resources to
ˆ He followed liberal, humanitarian, benevolent undertake any large-scale expansionist
and beneficent approach. programme.

ˆ Jalaluddin Khalji tried to mitigate some of the

harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He did not follow
a policy of narrow exclusivism. Many Turks and

www.sleepyclasses.com 194 1800-890-3043

ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296 - 1316 C.E.) ˆ As a part of this policy he ordered that all
ˆ Alauddin Khalji made enormous gifts to the charitable lands, i.e. lands assigned in waqf or
hostile nobles and Amirs of Delhi to win over inam, should be confiscated.
them to his side. Those who still opposed his ˆ The idea was to force them to work for livelihood
accession were punished severely. i.e. to engage them, So that they don’t have time
ˆ He framed regulations to control the nobles. to think of revolt.

ˆ He passed four ordinances REFORMS/REGULATIONS - (NUMBER 2)

ƒ He confiscated the properties of some nobles. ˆ Creation of network of spies.
ƒ The intelligence system was reorganized and ˆ He revived Balban’s system of spies who kept
all the secret activities of the nobles were him informed of all developments, even those in
immediately reported to the Sultan. the privacy of the houses of the nobles.
ƒ The public sale of liquor and drugs were ƒ Functions of spies were to:
totally stopped. y provide information about activities of
ƒ Social gatherings and festivities without the nobles.
permission of Sultan were forbidden. y provide information about state events.
y provide information about people’s
HIS APPROACH TO STATE - activities in market places.
ˆ Highly centralized government.
REFORMS/REGULATIONS - (NUMBER 3)
ˆ The Sultan started considering himself a
representative of God or “Shadow of God”. ˆ Wine drinking was also forbidden. However,
Alauddin admitted to the Chief Qazi that
ˆ Did not accept Jalaluddin’s theory of benevolence buying and selling of wine did not stop.
and humanitarianism, considering them to the
unsuitable to the times, and signifying a weak ƒ Cause behind this regulation is that he
government. considered drinking as reason for the revolts.

ˆ He adhered more to Balban’s theory of fear being REFORMS/REGULATIONS - (NUMBER 4)

the basis of good government, a theory which he ˆ The nobles were forbidden to associate with each
applied to the nobles as well as to the ordinary other, or hold convivial parties. In fact, even for
people. forming marriage alliances they had to seek the
ˆ By the time Alauddin Khalji came to throne, the permission of the Sultan.
position of the Delhi Sultnate was fairly well
consolidated. This emboldened the sultan to take MILITARY REFORMS
series of internal reform and experiments, aimed ˆ Alauddin Khilji maintained a strong and huge
at improving the administration, strengthening standing army to safeguard his empire.
the army, strengthening the land revenue system
ˆ He introduced the system of branding of horses
and providing welfare of citizen.
(dagh).
REFORMS/REGULATIONS - (NUMBER 1) ˆ Alauddin abolished the Jagir system and paid
ˆ Instructions to officials to extort money from the salaries in cash.
nobles and people. ƒ He fixed the pay of soldiers at 234 tankas a
ˆ Alauddin Khalji harkened back to Balban’s year, with an additional 78 tankas for a soldier
belief—one which the historian Barani shared, maintaining two horses.
that the people should not be left enough means
to harbour thoughts of rebellion.

www.sleepyclasses.com 195 1800-890-3043

ˆ Ariz-i-Mumalik was in charge of the appointment ˆ The first two was successful, Mongol invasion of
of soldier. 1297-98 and 1299 was successfully repelled i.e.
1st two conquest was successful, These successes
CONQUESTS AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION made Alauddin relaxed.
- PHASES
ˆ The third Mongol invader Khwaja came up to
ˆ In the first phase, the areas not far from Delhi, Delhi but they were prevented from entering
such as Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa were into the capital city. Thousands of Mongols were
brought under the control of Delhi. killed.
ˆ In the second phase, the principalities in modern ˆ After the Mongols withdrew, Ala ud-Din Khalji
Maharashtra and the Deccan were raided, and continued expanding the Delhi Sultanate into
compelled to accept Delhi’s vassalage. southern India .
ƒ No attempt, however, was made during this
phase to bring them under the direct control AGRARIAN AND ECONOMIC REFORMS -
of the Delhi sultans. ˆ These should be seen both in the context of
ˆ The third phase, which began during the last the efforts at the internal restructuring of the
years of Alauddin’s reign, and climaxed during sultanate, as also the need to create a large army
the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s reign to meet the threat of recurrent Mongol invasions.
(1320-24) AGRARIAN REFORMS -
ƒ Saw the extention of central control over the ˆ Bringing Land under Khalisa.
entire Deccan. Bengal was also brought under ˆ The magnitude of the state demand was set at
control. half the produce of the land.
ƒ Agrarian Reforms -
EFFORTS AGAINST THE MONGOLS -
ˆ Curbing privileges of Intermediaries.
ˆ Alauddin Khalji sent his army six times against ƒ Privileges of intermediaries (Muqaddam,
the Mongols. Choudhary etc.) were abolished. And they
ˆ The first two was successful, Mongol invasion of were brought under new system.
1297 and 1298 was successfully repelled i.e. 1st ƒ The intermediaries and the peasants alike
two conquests were successful, These successes were to pay the same standard of the demand
made Alauddin relaxed. (50%) without any distinction, be they
ˆ The third Mongol invader Khwaja came up to intermediaries or ‘ordinary peasant’.
Delhi but they were prevented from entering
IMPACT OF LAND REVENUE REFORM -
into the capital city. Thousands of Mongols were
killed. ˆ 50% demand was the highest in the agrarian
history of India. Though the peasants were
ˆ After the Mongols withdrew, Ala ud-Din Khalji
protected now from the economic oppression
continued expanding the Delhi Sultanate into
of the intermediaries, the former had to pay a
southern India .
higher rate of taxation than they did earlier.
EFFORTS AGAINST THE MONGOLS - ˆ Since the rate was uniform in a sense it was a
ˆ Alauddin Khalji sent his army six times against regressive taxation.
the Mongols.

www.sleepyclasses.com 196 1800-890-3043

MODE OF PAYMENT - MARKET FOR HORSES, CATTLE
AND SLAVES -
ˆ Ordinarily payment in cash was the general
practice during the 13th century. And become ˆ The supply of horses of good quality at fair prices
quite widely prevalent by the 14th century. was important both for the military department
ˆ However, Alauddin himself preferred collection and the soldier.
in grain. He decreed that the whole revenue due ˆ The horse trade was more or less a monopolistic
from the khalisa in the Doab should be realized trade, the overland trade being monopolised by
in kind, and only half the revenue due from Delhi Multanis and Afghans. But they were sold in the
(and its suburbs) in cash. market by middle-men or dallals.
ˆ Reason - ˆ Alauddin took harsh measures against such
ƒ To have a large reserve of grain stored at dallals. They were banished from the town, and
Delhi and other areas for contingencies (such some of them imprisoned. Then, with the help of
as scarcity owing to drought or other factors). other dallals, the quality and the price of horses
was fixed as per quality.
ƒ To utilize the storage as a lever for his price-
fixation measures in the grain market. ˆ Similarly, the price of slave boys and girls, and of
cattle were also fixed.
Market Reforms - ˆ To implement the reform 3 types of officers
ˆ Alauddin Khalji was more or less the first ruler were appointed:
who looked at the problem of price control in ƒ a controller of market (shahna-i-mandi):
a systematic manner, and was able to maintain Each market was under control of this
stable prices for a considerable period. officer. It maintained the register of all
ˆ According to Barani, Alauddin set up three Merchants.
markets at Delhi. ƒ intelligence officers (barids)
ƒ Food Market ƒ secret spies (munhiyan): sent reports to the
ƒ Cloth Market sultan regarding the functioning of these
markets.
ƒ Market for horses, cattle and slaves.
IMPACT OF MARKET REFORMS ON
FOOD MARKET - SOCIETY -
ˆ Alauddin tried to control not only the supply ˆ Since the articles were sold at cheap rates in Delhi
of food-grains from the villages, and its made many to migrate to Delhi. Among them
transportation to the city by the grain-merchants were learned men and excellent craftsmen.
(banjaras), but its proper distribution to the This paved the way for the cultural intercourse
citizens. These undoubtedly were the three most among the people of the Delhi Sultanate. It
important aspects in controlling food prices. helped in the development of composite culture
ˆ Alauddin’s first effort was to see that there in the society.
were sufficient stocks of food-grains with the ˆ Karwans & Banjaras became, though
government so that the traders did not try to hike unconsciously, the carrier of exchange of different
up prices by creating an artificial scarcity. For the ideas which further enriched the evolving socio-
purpose, royal stores were set up at Delhi and cultural life of Delhi.
nearby areas.
ˆ Alauddin Khalji oppressed the higher ups but
provided great relief to the common man., This
can be seen as a form of social justice.

www.sleepyclasses.com 197 1800-890-3043

ˆ Alauddin Khilji’s military strength had increased ˆ Thus, by their very nature, Alauddin Khalji’s
on account of the price control system. It not market reforms were temporary, and largely
only provided strength and stability to the meant to tide over an emergency, or a particular
administration but also provided employment situation.
to the people. ˆ The whole reform of state controlled economy
built on brute force of Alauddin Khalji died with
WERE THESE REFORMS SUCCESSFUL -
his death.
ˆ During Alauddin’s reign prices of goods
ˆ Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronized
were low, the food stuffs and other necessary
stuffs were available easily; hoarding, poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
blackmarketing, cheating by the business ˆ He also built a famous gateway known as
community and exploitation by the middleman Alai Darwaza and constructed a new capital at
were checked. Siri.
ˆ We do not hear of any large scale famine and ˆ Alauddin Khalji’s greatest achievement was the
death or starvation during the reign of Alauddin conquest of Deccan and the far south.
Khalji.
ƒ Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal,
ˆ Alauddin Khalji was able to raise large army and Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas
successfully oppose the mongol invasions. of Madurai.
WHY MARKET CONTROL DID NOT ƒ Among the spoils was the Warangal loot that
SURVIVE - included the famous Koh-i-noor diamond.
ˆ The market control measures did not survive as ˆ Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.
we do not hear about it after Alauddin Khalji’s
time.
ˆ A very efficient and alert administration was
imperative for the success of price control.
Therefore, one possible reason for its not
surviving could be the lack of sufficiently
competent administration.
ˆ Also the regulations of Alauddin resulted in
a lot of vexatious, bureaucratic controls and
corruption. Perhaps Alauddin would have
been more successful if he had controlled the
prices of essential commodities only, or those Delhi Sultanate
meant for direct use by the military. But he
tried to control the price of everything. Such Tughlaq Dynasty
widespread, centralised controls were bound to
be violated, inviting punishments which led to THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320 -1414 C.E.)
resentment. ˆ The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud-Din Khalji’s ,
18-year-old son Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah
Khalji (Shihabuddin-???). In order to gain
popularity, he abolished all the agrarian and
market control regulations of Alauddin.

www.sleepyclasses.com 198 1800-890-3043

ˆ He ruled for four years before he was killed by Q. Consider the following statements: (2021)
Khusro Khan, another of Ala ud-Din’s generals. 1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that
ˆ Khusro Khan’s reign lasted only a few months, Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit
when Ghazi Malik, later to be called Ghiyas-ud- of the fugitive Khawarezm prince.
Din Tughlaq, killed him and assumed power in 2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin
1320, thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and
the Tughlaq dynasty. crossed the Indus.
ˆ So, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was 3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (he was the warden of the Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama
marches against the Mongols under the Khaljis). reached the coast of Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are
PYQ correct?
(a) 1 Only (b) 1 and 2
Q. With reference to Indian history, consider the
(c) 3 Only (d) 2 and 3
following statements: (2022)
Answer : A
1. The first Mongol invasion of India happened
during the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
2. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, one
Mongol assault marched up to Delhi and
besieged the city.
3. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq temporarily lost
portions of north-west of his kingdom to
Mongols.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only
Answer : B

www.sleepyclasses.com 199 1800-890-3043

 DELHI SULTANATE
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY ˆ Tughlaqs were highly ambitious - not prepared
to leave a scrap of territory in India which was
The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 -1414 C.E.)
not subordinate to him and under his control.
ˆ The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud-Din Khalji’s , ƒ Under them - their direct control was extended
18-year-old son Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah to Warangal (Telegana), Madurai (Tamil
Khalji, In order to gain popularity, he abolished Nadu), and Dvar Samudra (Karnataka) upto
all the agrarian and market control regulations the southern tip of India.
of Allaudin
ˆ Such a rapid expansion of the directly
ˆ He ruled for four years before he was killed by ruled territories, and such a high degree of
Khusro Khan, another of Ala ud-Din’s generals. centralisation, had their own pitfalls which
ˆ Khusro Khan’s reign lasted only a few months, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was to realize later.
when Ghazi Malik, later to be called Ghiyas-ud-
Din Tughlaq, killed him and assumed power in WELFARE OF PEOPLE
1320, thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting ˆ Policy of welfare and humanitarianism put
the Tughlaq dynasty. forward by Jalaluddin Khalji was reiterated and
ˆ So, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was sought to be revived by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (he was the warden of the a more positive manner.
marches against the Mongols under the Khaljis) ˆ He extended this policy of mildness and
ˆ Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was of Turko-Indian generosity to the noble families of the time of
origin; his father was a Turkic slave and his Alauddin.
mother was a Hindu. He ruled for five years and ƒ Many of these were leading lives of poverty
built a town near Delhi named Tughlaqabad.   and neglect. They were given posts and iqta.
ˆ Ulugh Khan was said to have treacherously ƒ Those who had received large sums of money
killed his father and ascended the throne with as gifts from the previous regime were called
the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325. to audit, and most of them were forced to
ˆ Ghiyasuddin marched on Bengal to reduce it to return the sums.
submission. On his return from the successful
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATE AND
campaign, a pavilion erected by his son, Ulugh
RELIGION
Khan (Muhammad Tughlaq), to welcome him,
crashed and crushed him to death (1325). ˆ Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, though a strict Muslim
in his observance of religious practices, did not
ˆ Ziauddin Barani - Tarik i Firozshahi and Fatwa-
accept the narrow interpretation of the Sharia
i-Jahandari
regarding the humiliation and impoverishment
HOW TUGHLAQS CREATED A UNIQUE of the Hindus advocated by some theologians.
APPROACH ƒ Same goes for Mohd. Bin Tughlaq.
ˆ Policy of Annexation ˆ Muhammad Tughlaq respected the sufi saints.
ˆ Rejected Khalji’s policy of non annexation ƒ He was the first sultan to visit the tomb of
of distant states and of being content with Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
their formal submission and sending tributes
regularly.

www.sleepyclasses.com 200 1800-890-3043

 ƒ He also built mausoleums over the tombs ˆ The capital move failed because Daulatabad
of many sufi saints, including Nizamuddin was arid and did not have enough drinking
Auliya at Delhi. water to support the new capital. The capital
then returned to Delhi.
MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325 -1351 C.E.)
ˆ This influx of the then-Delhi residents into
NATURE OF KINGSHIP the Deccan region led to a growth of Muslim
ˆ Highly Autocratic and Despotic. population in central and southern India
ˆ Separation of state and religion - Focused
REFORMS OR BLUNDERS? - EXPEDITION TO
on political consideration and state interest. NORTH-WEST AND NORTH
(Negation of Ulemas)
ˆ Reforms or Blunders? - Expedition to North-
ƒ Issued Coins by the name of Abbasid Caliph
West and North
so as to change the attitude of orthodox
elements towards him - since he separated the ˆ Since Alauddin’s reign, no attention was
interests of religion and state. given to Multan and focus was mostly on
ˆ It was basically under him that the Delhi South and Guajrat. After Muhammad Tughluq
Sultanate territory reached its peak. (earlier known as Ulugh Khan) acceded to the
throne that attention was paid to the north-west
ˆ He employed a Catholic Approach to religions
frontier.
- was tolerant towards them and thus attended
their festivals also. ˆ Led Campaigns to Peshawar - Quite successful -
Administrative arrangement settled there.
ƒ He was the first who included Sufi into
nobility. ˆ Qarachil Campaign (1333) - A fiasco - Only
ˆ Created composite nobility and included a handful of soldiers return to tell tale of
person of very low status on the basis of talent catastrophe - This campaign led to tremendous
like – The cook, The gardener etc. waste of resources and an erosion in the authority
of Muhammad Tughluq.
ˆ He had highly innovative approach and taken
such steps like: Second capital to Daulatabad, ˆ Ambitious project of Khurasan - A large army of
Token currency, agricultural experiment and soldiers numbering about 370,000 was recruited
foreign campaign. for this purpose and the soldiers were paid a
year’s salary in advance.
REFORMS OR BLUNDERS? - TRANSFER OF ˆ Large sum was also invested in the purchase of
CAPITAL costly equipments for the army.
ˆ Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to make ˆ Ultimately when the project was abandoned as
Devagiri his second capital so that he might be an unrealistic scheme and the army disbanded, it
able to control South India better. led to a tremendous financial loss.
ˆ In 1327 he made extensive preparations for the ƒ The authority of the Sultan also suffered a
transfer of royal household and the ulemas and serious setback and a series of rebellions
Sufis from Delhi to Devagiri, which was renamed followed that hollowed the most extensive of
as Daulatabad. the empire of Delhi Sultanate.
ˆ Many people died during the rigorous 1500-km
journey in the summer. After two years, the
Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and asked them
to return to Delhi.

www.sleepyclasses.com 201 1800-890-3043

REFORMS OR BLUNDERS ? - introduced and crop pattern was changed:
TOKEN CURRENCY (a) Wheat in the place of Barley
ˆ In 1329-30 Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced (b) Sugarcane in the place of Wheat
a token currency. There was a shortage of silver (c) Grape and Date in place of Sugarcane.
through out the world in the fourteenth century.
He issued copper coins at par with the value of ˆ Takkavi Loan or Sondhar Loans
the silver tanka coins. ƒ Though Md. bin Tughluq spent an exorbitant
ƒ But he was not able to prevent forging the sum of money but entire scheme and the
new coins. The goldsmiths began to forge the scheme was abandoned after three years.
token coins on a large scale. ƒ The corruption of the officer, inferior quality
ƒ Soon the new coins were not accepted in the of land chosen for farming and lack of interest
markets. of cultivators who were assigned land under
government administration, were accountable
ƒ Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq stopped the for the failure of the scheme.
circulation of token currency and promised
to exchange silver coins for the copper coins. ƒ Nevertheless, the scheme cannot be called a
Many people exchanged the new coins but the total failure.
treasury became empty. ƒ The idea of extending and improving
ˆ This coin for the first time carried an inscription cultivation with the help of agricultural loans
in Persian. became a standard practice with later sultans,
and became a part of the agricultural policy of
ˆ Such an experiment had already been carried out the Mughals.
and were successful -
ƒ Thus, Muhammad bin Tughlaq’ agrarian
ƒ In China, Qublai Khan (1260-94) had innovation helped in the evolution of an
introduced a token currency of paper and the agrarian policy which matured fully under the
experiment was successful. Mughals.
ƒ In Persia, Kaikhatu Khan (1293), too, tried to
introduce a token currency but the attempt END OF MBT
failed. ˆ The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s
ƒ Reforms or Blunders ? Agrarian Measures reign witnessed a spate of rebellions by the
and Reforms nobles and provincial governors.
ˆ Takkavi Loan or Sondhar Loans ˆ The Vijayanagara Empire originated in southern
India as a direct response to attacks from the
ƒ With this he became the first Sultan to
Delhi Sultanate and liberated south India from
attempt to formulate an agricultural policy
the Delhi Sultanate's rule.
for promoting agriculture.
ˆ By 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate had become an
ƒ To address problems ailing agriculture, he
independent and competing Muslim kingdom in
launched a scheme by which takkavi loans
Deccan region of South Asia
(loans for cultivation) were given to the
farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation ˆ Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351 while
and for digging wells for irrigation. trying to chase and punish people in Gujarat
who were rebelling against the Delhi Sultanate .
ƒ A separate department for agriculture, Diwan-
i- Kohi was established. FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351 - 1388 C.E.)
ƒ To improve the production of land already ˆ After the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq in
being cultivated. For this, crop rotation was 1351, Firoz Tughlaq had the unique distinction

www.sleepyclasses.com 202 1800-890-3043

 of being chosen as sultan by the nobles. ƒ He followed appeasement approach toward
ˆ After his accession Firoz had to face the problem Nobles, Muqtis and made Iqta hereditary.
of preventing the disintegration of the Delhi ƒ He maintained link with caliph by using
Sultanate. He tried to safeguard his authority caliph name of coins and in khutba.
over north India instead of reasserting his ˆ He also developed royal factories called
authority over the Deccan and south India. karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were
ˆ The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for employed.
his administration. ˆ About 300 new towns were built during his
ƒ He strictly followed the advice of the Ulemas reign. The famous among them was Firozabad
in running the administration. near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah
ƒ Linked State and religion - pleased the Kotla.
nobles and assured hereditary succession to ˆ Firuz Shah Tughlaq also lists his accomplishments
their properties. to include converting Hindus to Sunni Islam
ƒ Thus, the iqta system was not only revived by announcing an exemption from taxes
but also it was made hereditary and jizya for those who convert, and by lavishing
new converts with presents and honours.
ˆ As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes. Jizya
was strictly imposed on non-Muslims. ˆ Simultaneously, he raised taxes and jizya,
stopping the practice of his predecessors who
ˆ He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax.
had historically exempted Hindus from the jizya.
But at the same time he dug irrigation canals
and wells. AGRARIAN MEASURES
ƒ The longest canal was about 200 kilometres
from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was
between Yamuna and Hissar.
ˆ He tried to revive the tradition of a state based
on benevolence and the welfare of people which
had been sought to be established by Jalaludin
Khalji -
ƒ Irrigation, marriage bureau, employment
bureau, promoted public work, Education-
establishment of Madrasa and Hospital etc.
ˆ He created new department called Diwan-i-
Khairat, to take care of orphans and widows.
ˆ New Valuation - Jama -
ˆ He patronized scholars like Barani and Afif.
ƒ He appointed an official to settle the revenues
ˆ He Linked state and religion. He proclaimed to
afresh who toured the country for six years
rule on the basis of Islam.
with a team of officials, and made a new
ˆ He appeased Ulemas, he abolished many taxes valuation (jama).
which were un-islamic.
ˆ Improving Cropping pattern.
ƒ As he was guided by the Ulemas, he was
ˆ Gardens
intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis.
ƒ Firuz was fond of planting orchards, and
ƒ In this respect he was the precursor of
is supposed to have planted 1200 gardens
Sikandar Lodi and Aurangzeb.
around Delhi.

www.sleepyclasses.com 203 1800-890-3043

ˆ Canals - Firuz founded the city of Hissar-Firuza
(modern Hissar), and decided to dig two canals ƒ The Sultan is said to have established 120 rest
to bring water to the city from the Sutlaj and houses, most of them being situated in Delhi
the Jamuna. and Firuzabad.
ˆ Besides the canals, the irrigation scheme of ˆ Hospitals - (Dar-ul-Safa): Opened a large
Firuz included construction of a large number number of hospitals (Dar-ul-Safa) where
of wells, dams and reservoirs which greatly medicines used to be distributed for free.
fostered agriculture. ˆ Pillars - Firuz Tughlaq had two Ashokan pillars
ƒ The scheme of irrigation enabled the Sultan to transported from Meerut and Topra (Haryana).
overcome famine which had been the greatest ˆ Restoration - Repaired the upper storey of the
menace in the reign of Md. Bin Tughluq. Qutub Minar, which had been destroyed by
lightening.
CIVIL ENGINEERING AND PUBLIC WORK
ACTIVITIES ˆ The reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq was marked by
increased intolerance and persecution of targeted
groups.
ˆ In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate had
disintegrated further.
ƒ Bengal had already been lost after two failed
excursions by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
ƒ Many provinces like Malwa and Gujarat
declared their independence.
ˆ When Firoz died in 1388 the struggle for power
between the Sultan and the nobles started once
again.
ƒ His successors had to face the rebellion.
ˆ When Timur entered Delhi there was no
opposition and he sacked Delhi for three days
murdering thousands of people and looting
enormous wealth.
ˆ He withdrew from India in 1399 and his invasion
in fact delivered a death blow to the Tughlaq
dynasty.
Responsibility of FST for decline of Sultanate -

Though no individual Sultan can be held responsible

ˆ Canals - He built a total of 6 canals - for the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate, some of the
ƒ Afif says that the entire areas from the river responsibility for the fall of Sultanate lies with Firoz
Sutlej to Koil (modern Aligarh) became fully Tughluq:
cultivated.
ˆ Firuz was not able to decide decisively about his
ˆ Rest Houses - They were built for travellers who succession.
could stay for three days.
ˆ Religious Intolerance of FST - Alienated Hindu
Majority and weakened his kingdom.

www.sleepyclasses.com 204 1800-890-3043

ˆ Ulemas’ influence on administration. ˆ Khizr Khan captured Delhi and founded the
ˆ System of decentralisation of Firoz - caused Sayyid dynasty in 1414. He tried to consolidate
disintegration. He gave extensive powers to the Delhi Sultanate but in vain.
his nobles and officials which ultimately went ƒ He died in 1421 and was succeeded by his son,
against the larger interests of the state. Mubarak Shah.
ˆ Idea of giving nobility a hereditary character. ˆ But the administration was dominated by Bahlul
ˆ FST Autobiography - Futuhat - e - Firozshahi (32 Khan Lodi.
page) ˆ Alam Shah (1445-1451 ???), the weakest of the
ˆ Shams Siraj Afif – Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi Sayyid princes, handed over the throne to Bahlul
Lodi and retired to Badaun.
TOTAL RULERS- 8 OR 9 (?)
SAMARKAND
ˆ Ghias (88-89), Abu Bakr (89-90),
ƒ MuhammadShah (90-94),
ƒ Sikandar (94)
ˆ Last Ruler: Nasir-ud-din Mahmud
ƒ Shah Tughluq (1394-1413)
ƒ Nusrat Shah : 1394-98

SAYYIDS (1414 - 1451 C.E.)

ˆ Timur had no intention of staying in or ruling
India. He looted the lands he crossed, then
plundered and burnt Delhi.
ˆ Over five days, Timur and his army raged a
massacre in Delhi and almost burnt it.
ˆ Then he collected and carried the wealth,
captured women and slaves (particularly skilled
artisans), and returned to Samarkand.
ˆ Before his departure from India, Timur appointed
Khizr Khan as governor of Multan.

www.sleepyclasses.com 205 1800-890-3043

RISE OF PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES ƒ With the final defeat of Jaunpur by the Lodis,
and the extension of their rule from Punjab up
to the borders of Bengal, the Sultanate of Delhi
had been virtually re-established.
ˆ Meanwhile, Malwa itself had started
disintegrating due to internal factors.
ƒ The Lodis, too, were keen to extend their rule
over the region.

RISE OF PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES – BENGAL

ˆ The Deccani states, and Bengal in the east, and

Sindh and Multan in the west had broken away
towards the end of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s
rule, and Firuz had reconciled himself to loss.
ˆ Following the Timurid invasion, the governors
of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur declared
themselves independent.
ƒ With the expulsion of the Muslim governor
from Ajmer, the various states of Rajputana
also asserted their independence.
ƒ Even within the Delhi region, the rulers were
hard put to assert their control.
ˆ Warfare between the various states rarely
extended beyond the border regions, with a
definite pattern of balance of power emerging
between the states located in the various regions.
ƒ In the west, Gujarat, Malwa and Mewar ˆ Bengal had frequently asserted its independence
balanced and checked the growth of each from Delhi, taking advantage of:
other’s power. ƒ distance,
ƒ In the east, Bengal was checked by the Gajpati ƒ difficulty of communications by land or water,
rulers of Orissa, as also by the Sharqi rulers of and
Jaunpur.
ƒ hot and humid climate which did not suit
ƒ In the north, while Kashmir remained aloof, soldiers and others used to the drier climate of
the rise of the Lodis at Delhi towards the north-western India.
middle of 15th century led to a long drawn out
struggle between them and the rulers of ˆ Due to the preoccupation of Muhammad
Jaunpur for the mastery of the Ganga-Jamuna Tughlaq with rebellions in various quarters,
doab. Bengal again broke away from Delhi in 1338.

ˆ The balance of power began to break down by ˆ In 1342, one of the nobles, Ilyas Khan, captured
the end of the 15th century. Lakhnauti and Sonargaon, and ascended the
throne under the title Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas
Khan.

www.sleepyclasses.com 206 1800-890-3043

SULTAN SHAMSUDDIN ILYAS KHAN ˆ Malwa and Rajasthan:
ˆ He founded the Ilyas Shahi dynasty which ruled ƒ They were important transit centres, linking
Bengal for 73 years (1342–1415) and after a gap the products of the Ganga valley with the sea-
of 20 years (1415–1435) the dynasty again ruled ports of Gujarat.
Bengal for 52 years (1435–1487). ˆ Hence, control over Malwa and Gujarat and the
ƒ Ilyas Shah was succeeded by his son Sikandar road link across Rajasthan had always been the
Shah. concern of any imperial power in the north or
ˆ During the time of FST - river Kosi in Bihar south.
was fixed as the boundary between the two ˆ The Delhi Sultans enjoyed supremacy over
kingdoms. (Delhi Sultanate and Bengal) (FST - Gujarat throughout the 14th century.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq). ˆ However, symptoms of decline became evident
ˆ After this, Bengal was left alone for about 200 from Feroz Shah’s reign onwards who entrusted
years and was not invaded again till 1538 after the governorship of Gujarat to Shamsuddin
the Mughals had established their power at Damghani.
Delhi. ˆ Timur’s invasion (1398) provided the much
ƒ It was overrun by Sher Shah in 1538, but sought for opportunity to the governors to break
Akbar had to reconquer it after the end of the away with the centre and both Gujarat and
Sur dynasty. Malwa became independent in all but name.
ˆ Soon after, in 1407(???) Zafar khan (who later
RISE OF PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES – GUJARAT
assumed the title of Muzaffar Shah), the then
Governor of Gujarat, established an independent
kingdom in Gujarat.
ˆ The Kingdom of Gujarat since its inception had
been constantly clashing with its neighbouring
territories- Malwa, Rajputana and the Bahmani
kingdoms.
ˆ The real founder of the Gujarat Sultanate was,
however, Ahmad Shah I (1411-42), the grandson
of Muzaffar Shah.
ˆ During his long reign, he brought the nobility
under control, settled the administration, and
expanded and consolidated the kingdom.
ˆ He shifted the capital from Patan to the new
founded city of Ahmedabad, the foundation of
which he laid in 1413.
ˆ Gujarat:
ƒ The successors of Ahmad Shah continued his
ˆ It was famous for excellent handicrafts and
policy of expansion and consolidation.
flourishing sea-ports from which much of north
India’s sea-trade was conducted.

www.sleepyclasses.com 207 1800-890-3043

ˆ The most famous sultan of Gujarat was rid of the ignominy of poverty and I shall gain
Mahmud Begarha (great-grandson of Ahmad ascendancy.”
Shah I). ˆ The incursion of the Afghans not only enabled
ˆ He was called Begarha because he captured two Bahlul to defeat the Sharqis, it changed
of the most powerful forts (garhs): the complexion of the Muslim society in
ƒ Girnar in Saurashtra (now called Junagarh). India, making the Afghans a very numerous
and important element in it, both in south and
ƒ Champaner in south Gujarat.
north India.
LODIS (1451 - 1526 C.E.)
THE SHARQIS
ˆ The Jaunpur kingdom had been set up by Malik
Sarwar, a noble of the time of Firuz Tughlaq.
ˆ Malik Sarwar had been the wazir for some time,
and then had been nominated to the eastern areas
with the title Malik-us-Sharq (Lord of the east).
His successors came to be called the Sharqis
after the title.
ˆ The Sharqi sultans were great patrons of learning
BACKGROUND - and culture. In course of time, Jaunpur came to
ˆ It was an Afghan Dynasty that ruled parts be known as the “Shiraz of the East”.
of northern India and Punjab and Khyber ƒ Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the author of Hindi
Pakhtunkhwa province of modern-day Pakistan, work, Padmavat, lived at Jaunpur.
from 1451 to 1526. ˆ With the establishment of the Lodis in Delhi
ˆ It was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi when he towards the middle of the fifteenth century,
replaced the Sayyid dynasty. the Sharqi rulers were gradually put on the
ˆ Threatened by the rulers of Jaunpur, Malwa, the defensive.
Sayyids (who had risen in Delhi after Tughluq) ˆ They lost most of the areas in western Uttar
had sought the help of the Afghan leader, Bahlul Pradesh, and exhausted themselves in a series of
Lodi, who had established himself in Punjab. futile assaults on Delhi.
ˆ Called in to help the ruler of Delhi Bahlul ˆ In 1484(???), Bahlul Lodi, the ruler of Delhi,
stayed on, took control over Delhi and formally occupied Jaunpur and annexed the Sharqi
crowned himself in 1451. kingdom.
ˆ As distinct from the earlier Delhi rulers who
SIKANDER LODI (1489 - 1517 C.E.)
were Turks, the Lodis were Afghans.
ˆ He was the greatest of the three Lodi sovereigns.
BAHLUL KHAN LODI (1451 - 1489 C.E.)
ˆ He brought the whole of Bihar under his control,
ˆ Bahlul spent most of his time in fighting against many Rajput chiefs were defeated.
the Sharqi dynasty and ultimately annexed it. ˆ He attacked Bengal and forced its ruler to conclude
ƒ He placed his eldest surviving son Barbak on a treaty with him, and extended his empire from the
the throne of Jaunpur in 1486. Punjab to Bihar.
ˆ Finding himself in a weak position against ˆ Roads were laid and many irrigational facilities
Sharqi rulers, Bahlul had invited the Afghans were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
of Roh to come to India so that “they will get

www.sleepyclasses.com 208 1800-890-3043

ˆ Despite certain laudable qualities, he was a bigot. ADMINISTRATION UNDER DELHI
ƒ He destroyed many Hindu temples and SULTANATE
imposed many restrictions on the Hindus ˆ The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with
(FST, SL, AZ) its religion Islam. The Sultans considered
themselves as representatives of the Caliph.
ˆ Sikander Lodhi also moved his capital and court
from Delhi to Agra. ˆ They included the name of the Caliph in the
khutba or prayer and inscribed it on their coins
ˆ Sikandar thus erected buildings with Indo-
ˆ Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz
Islamic architecture in Agra during his rule.
Tughlaq obtained mansur or letter of permission
ˆ He took keen interest in agriculture. from the Caliph.
ˆ He abolished the octroi duty on grains, and ˆ Sultan was the ultimate authority for military,
established a new measurement of a yard, called the political and religious matters.
gazz-i-sikandari, which continued to prevail till ˆ There was no clear law of succession during
the Mughal times. this period. All the sons had equal claim to the
ˆ The rent-rolls (jama) prepared in his time formed throne.
the basis of the rent-rolls prepared in the time of ˆ Sometimes ulemas played crucial role in
Sher Shah later on. accepting the succession to the throne.
ˆ Nature of Delhi Sultanate- Patrimonial,
IBRAHIM LODI
Centralised, Prebendal (????)
ˆ Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his eldest son
ˆ Central Government -
Ibrahim Lodi who was arrogant.
ƒ The post of Naib was the most powerful one.
ˆ Ibrahim did not enjoy the support of Afghan
The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of
and Persian nobles or regional chiefs.
the Sultan and exercised general control over
ˆ Ibrahim attacked and killed his elder brother all the departments.
Jalal Khan, who was installed as the governor of
ƒ Next to him was the Wazir who was heading
Jaunpur by his father and had the support of the
the finance department called Diwan-i-
amirs and chiefs (???).
Wizarat.
ˆ He insulted his nobles openly in court and
ƒ The military department was called Diwan-i-
humiliated them. Those nobles who revolted
Arz. It was headed by Ariz-i-mumalik. He
were put to death.
was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and
ˆ Ibrahim Lodi was unable to consolidate his administering the military department.
power, and the governor of Punjab, Daulat
ƒ The military department was first set up
Khan Lodi, reached out to the Mughal Babur
by Balban and it was further improved by
and invited him to attack Delhi
Alauddin Khalji under whom the strength of
Sultanate. (Daulat Khan Lodi was insulted and
the army crossed three lakh soldiers.
disaffection between king and courtier became
very common.) ƒ Diwan-i-Rasalat (or Risalat) was the
department of religious affairs. It was
ˆ Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and
headed by chief Sadr. Grants were made
killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat
by this department for the construction
(1526).
and maintenance of mosques, tombs and
ˆ The Afghan kingdom lasted for only seventy- madrasas.
five years.
ƒ The head of the judicial department was

www.sleepyclasses.com 209 1800-890-3043

 the chief Qazi. Other judges or qazis were ƒ The village remained the basic unit of the
appointed in various parts of the Sultanate. administration.
ƒ Muslim personal law or sharia was followed ƒ The village headman was known as
in civil matters, and Hindu law for matters muqaddam or chaudhri.
involving Hindus with cases being disposed ƒ The village accountant was called patwari.
off by the village panchayat.
ˆ Economy -
ƒ The criminal law was based on the rules and
regulations made by the Sultans. ˆ The lands were classified into three categories:

ƒ The department of correspondence was called ƒ Iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas
Diwan-i-Insha. instead of payment for their services.

ˆ Local Administration - ƒ Khalisa land – land under the direct control

of the Sultan and the revenues collected were
ƒ The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were spent for the maintenance of royal court and
called iqtas. The governors of the provinces royal household.
were called the muqtis or walis.
ƒ Inam land – land assigned or granted to
ƒ The provinces were divided into shiqs and the religious leaders or religious institutions.
next division was pargana.
ˆ The system of coinage had also developed during
ƒ The shiq was under the control of shiqdar. the Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish issued several
ƒ The pargana comprising a number of villages types of silver tankas.
was headed by amil.

www.sleepyclasses.com 210 1800-890-3043

 VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

ˆ The empire was founded in 1336 as a result of ˆ In the first two decades after the founding of
the political and cultural movement against the the empire, Harihara I gained control over
Tughlaq authority in the south. most of the area south of the Tungabhadra
ˆ This Empire is also known by the name of river and earned the title of Purvapaschima
Karnataka Kingdom, as mentioned in the Samudradhishavara (“master of the eastern and
literary sources of that time. western seas”).

ˆ Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and ˆ By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara
Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from 1336 to 1672 I, had defeated various kingdoms and
(or 1646). gained control over Goa in the west and the
Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the north.
ˆ The founders of Sangama Dynasty were brothers
Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama
dynasty.
ˆ They were originally feudatories of Kakatiyas
of Warangal who later, declared their
independence and founded a new city on the
south bank of the Tungabhadra river. It was
called Vijayanagar.
ƒ Another theory is that they were commanders
under the Hoysala kingdom, and they were
Kannadigas.

www.sleepyclasses.com 211 1800-890-3043

ˆ The greatest ruler of Sangama dynasty was Deva
Raya II (1422-1446).
ƒ He quelled rebelling feudal lords.
ƒ He invaded the island of Sri Lanka.
ƒ The inscriptions speak of his title
`Gajabeteegara’ i.e., the elephant hunter.
ˆ He built the major portion of Virupaksha Temple
at Hampi. The temple is dedicated to Virupaksha
(consort of the local goddess Pampadevi), a form
of Shiva.
ˆ After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak.

Be Careful About the Dates!!! ˆ In 1485, Saluva Narasimha led a coup and ended
the dynastic rule.
ˆ The Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva
Narasimha reigned only for a brief period (1485
to 1505-????).
ˆ Another commander Tuluva Narasa Nayaka
took over the Vijayanagara rule from the Saluva
descendant in a coup. Ultimately, a new dynasty
called the Tuluva dynasty (1503 to 1570-???) was
established.
ˆ Then empire came under the rule of Krishna
Deva Raya in 1509, the son of Tuluva Narasa
Nayaka and became the most famous king of
Vijayanagra empire.

www.sleepyclasses.com 212 1800-890-3043

KRISHNA DEVA RAYA ˆ The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region
but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final
remains ended in 1646, from continued wars
with the Bijapur sultanate and others.

ˆ He strengthened and consolidated the reach of

the empire, by hiring both Hindus and Muslims
into his army.
ˆ Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar
ˆ In the following decades, it covered Southern
Empire.
India and successfully defeated invasions from
the Bahmani, and subsequent Deccan Sultanates. ƒ The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta.

ˆ Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all ƒ Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti

religions, He was a great patron of literature and ƒ Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
art and was known as Andhra Bhoja. ƒ Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes
ˆ Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas ƒ Russia Merchant Nikitin
were at his royal court.
ˆ Left valuable accounts on the socio-economic
ƒ Allasani Peddanna was the greatest. His conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.
important works include Manu Charitramu.
ƒ Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna BATTLE OF TALIKOTA
were other important scholars. ˆ Eventually the Sultanates to the north of
ˆ After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata Vijayanagara united and attacked Aliya Rama
succeeded the throne. Raya’s army in January 1565 in the Battle of
Talikota.
ˆ During the reign of Aliya Rama Raya, the
combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, ˆ Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in
Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle battle, Bahmani forces though numerically
of Talikota in 1565. disadvantaged, were better equipped and
trained.
ˆ This battle is also known as Rakshasi- Tangadi.
ˆ Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish
ˆ This battle was generally considered to mark the
gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended
end of the Vijayanagar Empire.

www.sleepyclasses.com 213 1800-890-3043

 on European mercenaries using outdated
artillery.
ˆ The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian
horses.
ˆ In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended
on slow moving war elephants, a cavalry riding
mostly locally bred weaker horses, and their
archers used traditional bamboo bows with a
shorter range.

LET’S BRAINSTORM
ˆ Religion
ˆ Nilkanta Sastri, Burton Stein ƒ ‘Prapannamritam’
ˆ Amaram ƒ Barbosa: “King allows such freedom that every
SOCIAL DYNAMICS IN VIJAYNAGAR EM- man may come and go and live according to his
PIRE. (PYQ) own creed without suffering any annoyance and
without enquiries whether he is a Christian, Jew,
ˆ Royal Court Moor or Hindu.”
ƒ Nicolo Conti-Slavery
ˆ Caste System
ƒ Allasani Peddana; Separate Quarters
ƒ Domingo Paes- Brahmins’ Womenfolk
ˆ Position of Women
ƒ Gangadevi: Maduravijayam
ƒ Dancers, ‘devadasis’, Sati
ˆ Amusements
ƒ Cock fighting; Festivals and Fairs
ƒ Paes: Raya, Gingelly Oil

www.sleepyclasses.com 214 1800-890-3043

 BAHMANI KINGDOM
ƒ The Deccani nobles organised a plot against
Gawan. They induced the Sultan to punish
him with death sentence.
ˆ After the execution of Gawan, the Bahmani
kingdom began to decline. Muhammad Shah III
was succeeded by weak Sultans.
ˆ Vijayanagara Emperor Krishnadevaraya
defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate
power after which the Bahmani Sultanate
collapsed.
ƒ During this period the provincial governors
declared their independence.
ƒ By the year 1527, the Bahmani kingdom
POLITICAL HISTORY had disintegrated into five independent
sultanates, collectively known as the “Deccan
ˆ Bahmani Sultanate was one of the first Sultanates”.
independent Muslim kingdom in South India.
ˆ The Kingdom later split into five successor
ˆ The sultanate was founded in 1347 by Ala-ud-
states that were collectively known as
Din Bahman Shah. He set up an independent
the Deccan sultanates, that would eventually
kingdom over here after revolting against the
sack the Vijayanagar capital after the Battle of
Turkic Delhi Sultanate of MBT. (Hasan Gangu )
Talikota.
ˆ The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan
ˆ Deccan Sultanate - Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar,
with the Vijayanagara Empire to the south.
Bijapur, and Golconda. The sultanates had
ˆ The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its become independent during the break-up of
peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III, the Bahmani Sultanate.
during the vizierate (1463–1482) of Mahmud
Gawan. ADMINISTRATION
ˆ Mahmud Gawan was a Persian merchant who ˆ The Sultans followed a Feudal type of
joined the services of Bahmani kingdom. Slowly administration.
he became the chief minister due to his personal ˆ Tarafs – The kingdom was divided into many
qualities. provinces called Tarafs namely - Daultabad,
ˆ His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna- Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga
Godavari delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani
ƒ Tarafdar or Amir – Governor who controlled the
Empire through his conquests.
Taraf.
ˆ His administrative reforms were also important.
ˆ Some land was converted into Khalisa land
They were aimed to increase the control of Sultan
from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar.
over the nobles and provinces.
(Khalisa land was that piece of land which was
ˆ His period saw the conflict between Deccani used to run expenses of the king and the royal
(local origin) and Afaqi (foreign origin) nobles. household).

www.sleepyclasses.com 215 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Nobles used to get their salary either in cash
or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.

MILITARY
ˆ Bahmani rulers depended for military support
on his amirs
ˆ There were two groups in the ranks of amirs:
(Nobles)
ƒ One was the Deccanis who were immigrant
Muslims and had been staying for a long time
in the Deccan region.
ƒ The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who
had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and
Iraq. WRITE A SHORT ESSAY ON : “THE BAHMANI
KINGDOM.” (PYQ)
ART AND CULTURE ˆ Founder, Capital: Gulbarga, Bidar
ˆ The Bahmani Sultans were patrons of the Persian ˆ Muhammad Shah III (1463-1482)
language, culture and literature, and some
members of the dynasty became well-versed in ˆ Tungabhadra Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta,
that language and composed its literature in that Marathwada Country (Clashes)
language. ˆ Mahmud Gawan
ˆ The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for ƒ Successful wars against Vijaya., Orissa and sea
their inlay work on copper and silver that it came ƒ pirates
to be known as Bidri.
ƒ College at Bidar, built in Persian style
ƒ Position over Nobles
ˆ 1527
ˆ 5 Independent Sultanates
Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
[2000]
List-I List-II
A. Iqta 1. Marathas
B. Jagir 2. Delhi Sultans
C. Amaram 3. Mughals
ARCHITECTURE – GOLGUMBAZ D. Mokasa 4. Vijayanagara
ˆ Golgumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering Codes:
gallery because when one whispers, the lingering (a) A – 3; B – 2; C – 1; D – 4
echo of the whisper is heard in the opposite
(b) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1
corner.
(c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 1; D – 4
ƒ Built by Muhammad Adil Shah.
(d) A – 3; B – 2; C – 4; D – 1

www.sleepyclasses.com 216 1800-890-3043

Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Narasimha Saluva ended the Sangama
dynasty and seized the throne for himself
and started the Saluva dynasty.
2. Vira Narasimha deposed the last Saluva ruler
and seized the throne for himself.
3. Vira Narasimha was succeeded by his
younger brother, Krishnadeva Raya.
4. Krishnadeva Raya was succeeded by his half
brother, Achyuta Raya.
Q. Consider the following events: [2000]
Which of the statements given above are
correct? [2004] 1. Region of Krishna Deva of Vijaynagara
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 2. Construction of Qutab Minar
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 3. Arrival of Portuguese in India
4. Death of Firoz Tughlaq
Correct chronological sequence of these events
is :
(a) 2, 4, 3, 1 (b) 2, 4, 1, 3
(c) 4, 2, 1, 3 (d) 4, 2, 3, 1
Ans. to previous PYQ: A
ˆ Region of Krishna Deva of Vijaynagara – (1509 –
ˆ 30); Construction of Qutab Minar (1206 – 1210);
Arrival of Portugese in India (1498); Death of
Firoz Tughlaq (1388).

www.sleepyclasses.com 217 1800-890-3043

 BHAKTI MOVEMENT
HISTORY
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
ˆ Aim - Sought to bring religious reforms to ˆ Started in South India, travelled upto North India
all strata of society by adopting the method and gained wide acceptance in fifteenth century
of devotion to achieve salvation. Assam, Bengal and Northern India.
ˆ Time Period - From beginning of 7th-8th century ˆ Alvars and Nayanars
in South India, and spread towards North India ˆ Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement’s
while reaching its epitome in around 12-13th rapid spread in India was in part a response to
century CE. the arrival of Islam and subsequent Islamic rule
ˆ Mode - Developed around different Gods in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts.
and Goddesses and some sub sects such as
Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism. REASONS BEHIND THE MOVEMENT-SPREAD
OF ISLAM.
ˆ The movement was inspired by many poet-saints,
who championed a wide range of philosophical ˆ Emergence of Great reformers.
positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to ˆ Influence of Sufi sects.
absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.
ˆ Reaction against the feudal oppression and the
ˆ The Bhagavad Gita, talks about bhakti marga (the Rajput - Brahmin domination.
path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to
spiritual freedom and release. COMMON TEACHINGS
ˆ The other two being karma marga (the path of ˆ Preached Equality – Disciples included weaver,
work) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge). cobbler, barber.
ˆ Preached Universal Brotherhood - Kabir
preached universal brotherhood through his Dohas.
ˆ Denounced evil practices that had sunk in over
time. Example - Guru Nanak condemned caste
difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers.
His idea of religion was highly practical and
strictly moral.
Emphasis on the route of ‘Bhakti’ rather than superficial
rituals as the mode to realise god and salvation.

METHOD OF PROMOTION
ˆ Used common local Languages to promote their
message and thus led to the development of local
vernacular languages.
ˆ Writings of Sankaradev in Assam however,
not only included an emphasis on the regional
language, but also led to the development of
an artificial literary language called Brajavali.
(Combination of medieval Maithili and Assamese).

www.sleepyclasses.com 218 1800-890-3043

ˆ Individual focused alternative path to spirituality ˆ Practices emerged bringing new forms of
regardless of one’s birth or gender. spiritual leadership and social cohesion
among the medieval Hindus, such as
community singing, chanting together of deity
names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals relating
to Saivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism. Many of
these regional practices have survived into the
modern era.
ˆ Transformation of form of Bhakti - led to
devotional transformational of medieval
Hindu society, wherein Vedic rituals or
alternatively ascetic monk-like lifestyle
for moksha gave way to individualistic loving
relationship with a personally defined god.
ˆ Inclusivity - Salvation which was previously
considered attainable only by men
of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes,
became available to everyone.
ˆ Promoted Unity - Brought together various
diverging sections of Brahma theory - ranging
from the theistic dualism of Dvaita to the
absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.
ˆ The Bhakti movement introduced new forms
NIRGUNA & SAGUNA BHAKTI
of voluntary social services giving such
ˆ Nirguna - concept of the Ultimate Reality as as Seva (service, for example to a temple or guru school
formless, without attributes or quality. or community construction), dāna (charity), and
ˆ One of the earliest proponent is Adi Shankara. Langara (community kitchens with free
shared food). Example - Guru ka Langar by
ˆ Roots/ focus is on knowledge.
Guru Nanak.
ˆ Proponents - Kabir, Guru Nanak etc.
ˆ Mathas adopted social functions such as relief
ˆ Saguna - envisioned and developed as with form, to victims after a natural disaster, helping the
attributes and quality. poor and marginal farmers, providing community
ˆ Roots/focus is on love/devotion. labor, feeding houses for the poor, free hostels for
ˆ Proponents - Madhavacharya, Meera Bai, poor children and promoting folk culture.
Tulsidas etc. SOCIAL IMPACT – SUMMARY
SOCIAL IMPACT ˆ Platform for unification of India
ˆ Development of vernacular languages &
ˆ The impact of the Bhakti movement in India
was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of literature
Christianity in Europe. ˆ Checked orthodox supremacy
ˆ Emancipation of vulnerable sections of society.
ˆ It evoked shared religiosity, direct emotional
and intellection of the divine, and the pursuit ˆ Promotion of social service in society.
of spiritual ideas without the overhead of
institutional superstructures.

www.sleepyclasses.com 219 1800-890-3043

ALVARS AND NAYANARS VALLABHACHARYA
ˆ Saints who played an essential role in the
propagation of a Bhakti Movement in the
Southern part of India during Early Medieval
period.
ˆ The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement
of protest against the caste system and the
dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted
to reform the system. (supported by the fact that
disciples hailed from diverse social backgrounds
ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and
cultivators and even from castes considered
“untouchable”)

ALVARS
ˆ Alvars bestowed their belief and devotion to
Lord Vishnu. (12 in number)
ˆ The poetry of the Alvars echoes Bhakti to VALLABHACHARYA (1479-1531AD)
God through love, and in the ecstasy of such
ˆ Born in Benaras to a Telugu Brahman family in
devotions they sang hundreds of songs which
the 15th century who propagated his doctrine
embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of
of Bhakti through God Krishna whom he fondly
expressions
addressed as Shrinath ji.
ˆ The collection of their hymns is known as
ˆ He founded Pushtimarga (path of grace), a path
Nalayira Divya Prabandham. The Bhakti
that teaches a devotee how to offer selfless love
literature that sprang from Alvars has
and devotion to Shrinath ji without seeking
contributed to the establishment and sustenance
anything in return except love.
of a culture that broke away from the ritual-oriented
Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only ˆ He along with his disciple Surdas, who even
path for salvation. though was blind was largely instrumental in
popularising the Krishna cult in North India.
ˆ Compiled by Nathamuni
PROPONENTS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
NAYANARS BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA
ˆ Nayanars bestowed their belief and devotion to
Lord Shiva. (63 in Number)
ˆ Among the Nayanars, the poets Nanachampantar,
Appar, and Chuntaramurtti (often called “the
three”) are worshipped as saints through their
images in South Indian temples.
ˆ In the 10th century Nambiyandar Nambi collected
the hymns of the Nayanars in an anthology called
the Tevaram.

www.sleepyclasses.com 220 1800-890-3043

BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA
ˆ Maharashtra Bhakti Movement centred around Namdeva
the shrine of Vithoba or Vitthal, the residing deity of
Pandharpur, who was regarded as a manifestation
of Krishna.Therefore it is also known by the name
of Pandharpur Movement, which led to greater
cultural and social development in Maharashtra
like-
ˆ Development of Marathi Literature.
ˆ Elevation in the status of Women, Breaking of caste
barriers.

BROADLY DIVIDED IN 2 SECTS -

ˆ Varakaris
ˆ Dharakaris
Realisation of God as the highest end of human life is
common aim of both. BHAGAT NAMDEVA
ˆ Poet Saint from Maharashtra, who according to
JNANESWARA OR JNANADEVA
tradition was a tailor who had taken to banditry
before he became a saint.
ˆ His Marathi poetry and community driven
Bhajan singing sessions attracted individuals
from diverse classes and breathes a spirit of
intense love and dedication to God.

Sant Eknath

JNANESWARA / JNANADEVA
ˆ 13th century mystical poet-saint of Maharashtra,
whose commentary on the Bhagvat Gita called
Jnanesvari served as a foundation of the Bhakti
Ideology in Maharashtra.
ˆ He was a staunch critic of caste distinctions and
believed that the only way to attain God was through
Bhakti.

www.sleepyclasses.com 221 1800-890-3043

SANT EKNATH
ˆ He was a Marathi poet-saint and scholar of the Kabir
Varkari Sampradaya and Vaishnavism.
ˆ He is best known for his translations of various
Sanskrit Texts into Marathi. He also tried to shift
the emphasis of Marathi Literature from spiritual
to narrative compositions.

PROPONENTS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

FAMOUS NON SECTARIAN SAINTS

KABIR (1398-1518)
ˆ One of the most famous disciples of Ramananda,
whose iconic verses are found in the the holy
scripture, Adi Granth.
ˆ According to Local Tradition, it is believed that
he was born near Varanasi to a Brahmin widow,
but was brought up by a Muslim weavers couple.
NON SECTARIAN BHAKTI MOVEMENT He had an innate religious passion and possessed
an inquiring mind, and while in Benaras, learnt
ˆ In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ramananda, Kabir
both about Hinduism and Islamic teachings too.
and Nanak emerged as the great apostles of the
Bhakti cult which carved a complete new path and ˆ He laid great emphasis on the equality of
perspective towards Bhakti. man before God and was agar critic of idolatry,
rituals, the caste system especially the practice of
ˆ Unlike the early reformers, they were not linked
untouchability.
to any particular religion and were totally against
rituals and ceremonies. ˆ One of the main objectives of Kabir was to
reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish
ˆ They believed in one God and condemned
harmony between the two sects. He emphasised
polytheism along with denouncing all forms
on the essential wellness of all religions by
of idolatry. They emphasised greatly on the
describing Hindus and Muslims ‘ as pots of the
fundamental unity of all religions and urged the
same clay’. To him ‘Ram and Allah, temple and
common people to shed age old superstition and
Mosque’ were the same.
attain salvation through Bhakti or pure devotion.
ˆ Kabirs followers are called as Kabirpanthis. Most
of the compositions of Kabir are compiled in
Bijak.

www.sleepyclasses.com 222 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Langar: Collective cooking and sharing of food.
Guru Nanak ˆ Pangat: Partaking food without distinctions of
high and low caste.
ˆ Sangat: Collective decision making.
ˆ These egalitarian practices had directly
challenged the untouchability and the caste
system and continue to do so.
ˆ Guru Nanak Dev’s concept of “Jeeye kaa ik
daata” can address these issues.
ˆ According to him, the whole world is God’s
creation (Jeeye kaa ik daata) and all are born
equal. There is only one universal creator i.e. “Ik
Omkaar Satnaam.”

GURU NANAK (1469-1539) ˆ This spirit of equality began with Guru

Nanak Dev’s clear recognition that there is no
ˆ The first Sikh Guru and the Founder of the distinction between a Hindu and Muslim. For
Sikhism, who was also a Nirguna Bhakti saint him, no country was foreign and no people were
and social reformer. alien.
ˆ Born in the year 1469 in a small village of Talwandi
(Now called Nankana Sahib, in Pakistan).
Ramananda
ˆ His father was an accountant, and even
Nanak was trained in Persian to follow his
father’s footsteps, but he was inclined towards
mysticism.
ˆ He preached about the Unity of God and
opposed all sort of distinctions and condemned
the formalism and ritualism of both Islam and
Hinduism.
ˆ He laid great emphasis on the purity of character
and conduct and considered both of then to be
the first essential condition of approaching God.

GURU NANAK (15TH CEN)

ˆ He also stressed on the need of a Guru for
guidance. Like Kabir, he advocated a middle path
in which spiritual life could be combined with the
duties of the householder. ˆ He is considered as the Link between
ˆ Guru Nanak Dev’s vision of a casteless society Bhakti movement of South India and North
in which there is no caste hierarchy can help India.
to establish an egalitarian society. His idea ˆ He was born in Prayagaraj and later, founded his
of equality can be deduced by the following own sect and preached his principles in Hindi
innovative social institutions, as given by him: at Benaras and Agra. His followers are known
Ramanandis.

www.sleepyclasses.com 223 1800-890-3043

ˆ They are known for their self-imposed ˆ Dadu worked as a cotton cleaner for a living.
highly disciplined, austere, structured and simple He was born in Ahmedabad, India, around 1544
lifestyle to Brahmin merchant parents, but he spent the
ˆ He was originally a follower of Ramanuja (???) major part of his life in Rajasthan, spreading the
and rejected the monopoly of Sanskrit Language message of Bhakti.
over the teaching of religious texts. Thus like ˆ Dadu rejected the Vedas (the earliest Hindu
other monotheist Bhakti saints, he rejected caste scriptures), caste divisions, and other divisive,
hierarchies and preached in the local language to external forms of worship, such as temple visits
popularise his teachings. and pilgrimages. Instead, he focused on japa (the
ˆ He put emphasis on Bhakti and avoided both chanting of God’s name).
Gyana Marg and Karma Marg. He is identified ˆ His followers came to be known as Dadupanthis
as the founder of Ram cult in North India as his who set up ashrams known as Thambas around
object of Bhakti was Ram since he worshiped the region. His adherents abstain from drinking and
Ram and Sita. follow vegetarianism; the Dadu Panth also has a
ˆ ‘Let no one ask a man’s caste or with whom he eats. significant ascetic component.

ˆ If a man is devoted to Hari, he becomes Hari’s own’. BHAKTI MOVEMENT – LIMITATIONS

ˆ Though Bhakti movement brought in the much
Dadu Dayal needed emphasis to change the regressive form
of religion in the society, it could not achieve its
objective in truest terms. This can be attributed
to many reasons such as
ˆ lack of organization on a greater level amongst the
movements.
ˆ stern opposition from orthodox classes in the society
ˆ Ambivalent approach of Royal Classes
ˆ Women, Lower Caste issues.

Sufi Movement

DADU DAYAL (1544-1603)

ˆ ‘Dadu’ means brother and ‘Dayal’ means the
‘The compassionate One’. Dadu Dayal is one of
the major representatives of the Nirguna Sant
tradition in North India.
ˆ He believed that ‘devotion to God should
transcend religious or sectarian affiliation.

www.sleepyclasses.com 224 1800-890-3043

SUFI MOVEMENT ˆ With time, these Kanqahs emerged as important
ˆ The word Sufi is derived from the word ‘Suf’ centres of learning and preachings.
which means wool in Arabic, referring to simple ˆ Many Sufis enjoyed the Sama or Musical
cloaks worn by the early Muslim ascetics. congregation in their Kanqahs. In fact, Qawwali
ˆ It also means purity,and thus Sufi can be was developed during this time period only.
understood who kept their heart pure and through ˆ On the death of Pir, his Dargah, i.e the tomb
their ascetic practices could communicate with God. or shrine, became a centre for his disciples and
ˆ One of the first Sufi saints was Begum Rabia of followers.
Basra (Iraq). ˆ The 4 most popular Silsilas among these were
the Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and the
PHILOSOPHY OF SUFISM Naqsbandhis.
ˆ The Relation of love between God and Man is
CHISTI SILSILAH
fundamental to Sufism.
ˆ The idea of Ruh (soul), Qurbat (Divine Proximity), ˆ Major Proponent- Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti
Ishq (Divine Love) and Fana (self - Annihilation) also known as Gharib Niwaz, who moved to India
are central to the theory of Sufism. during the Invasion of Muhammad Ghori and
settled in Ajmer.
ˆ They transcended all religious and communal
distinctions, and have worked for promoting ˆ His attitude towards Non Muslims was that of
humanity at large. tolerance, therefore he won the respect of both
Hindus and Muslims.
ˆ They stress on self-discipline and considers sense
of perception as an essential conditional to gain ˆ His fame grew after his death in 1236 CE, when
the knowledge of God. his grave was visited by Sultan Muhammad
Tughlaq.
ˆ Unlike orthodox Muslims, who lay emphasis on
external conduct, the Sufis on the other hand lay ˆ Later, after the support of Mughal Emperor
stress on inner purity. Thus they represent the Akbar, the patronage to the Dargah reached
inward or esoteric, mythical side of Islam. unprecedented heights.
ˆ The Chisti presence in Delhi was established by
HISTORY OF SUFI MOVEMENT Qutubdin Bakhtiyar Kaki under the patronage of
ˆ It emerged in about 8th century, however it Sultanate ruler Illtutmish.
evolved into a well known movement by end of ˆ They were active in Delhi, Rajasthan and parts of
11th century only. Western Gangetic Plains.
ˆ By the 12th century, the Sufis were organised ˆ Simplicity of life, Humility and devotion to God
under Silsilahs (orders which basically conversed with people in Hindawi, their local
represented an unbreakable chain between the Pir, dialect.
the teacher and the murads, the disciples) who passed
ˆ Renunciation of worldly possessions is crucial
through Maqamat (various stages) in the process
for both the control of senses as well as for leading a
of experiencing communion with the divine.
spiritual life.
ˆ The activities of these various Sufi orders were
ˆ Tolerance between people of different faiths.
organised around Khanqah (The hospice) which
was laid by the Shaikh, Pir or murshid who lived ˆ Use of simple Language and the refusal to accept
with his murids. any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans.
ˆ The highest form of devotion to God was to

www.sleepyclasses.com 225 1800-890-3043

 redress the misery of those in distress, fulfilling Ans. to previous PYQ: B
the need of the helpless and to feed the Hungary. Explanation
ˆ Apart from Muinuddin Chisti, Other Important ˆ Guru Nanak Dev was born in 1469. Babur
Chistis were - defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526. When Babur
took over and established the Mughal dynasty,
ˆ Fariddudin Masud, also known as Ganj - I -
Nanak was travelling to different parts of India
Shakar and more popularly as Baba Farid.
and preaching Sikhism. Babur once met Guru
ˆ He was strongly against association with the rich Nanak during one of his travel.
and the ruling class.
ˆ Nizamuddin Auliya - He brought humanism TYAGARAJA
at the forefront of Sufi Movement and laid down ˆ Tyagaraja (4 May 1767 – 6 January 1847),
principles for a seeker of God. also known as Tyāgayya, was a renowned
ˆ He was widely respected by the masses yet he composer of Carnatic music, a form of Indian
had a conflicting relationship with different Sultans classical music.
such as Ghiyasudin Tughlaq. ˆ Tyagaraja composed thousands of devotional
compositions, most in Telugu and in praise
THE SUHRAWARDI SILSILAH of Lord Rama, many of which remain
ˆ This order is noted for the severity of its spiritual popular today. Of special mention are five
discipline. It was founded by Shihabuddin of his compositions called the Pancharatna
Shurawardi in Baghdad and was established in Kritis (English: «five gems»), which are often sung in
India by Bahauddin Zakariya. programs in his honour.
ˆ Unlike the Chistis, The Shurawaddis accepted
the maintenance of Grants form the Sultans and
took active part in politics too.
ˆ Active in the Punjab and Sindh Areas.

THE QADRI SILSILAH

ˆ The concept of Wahadat al Wajud meaning
‘Unity of Existence’ or ‘Unity of Being’ that is to
say, God and his creation are one and similar.
ˆ The pirs for this order dismissed Orthodox elements,
and more on the liberal side of the Sufi tradition.

PYQ
Q. Consider the following Bhakti Saints: (2013) Q. Prem Vatika, poems on the life of Krishna, were
1. DaduDayal composed by : [1996]
2. Guru Nanak (a) Bihari (b) Surdas
3. Tyagaraja (c) Raskhan (d) Kabir
Who among the above was/were preaching Ans. to previous PYQ: C
when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took Explanation
over?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only Raskhan (approx. 1558–1628) was a Hindi poet who
was both a Muslim and follower of Lord Krishna.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2

www.sleepyclasses.com 226 1800-890-3043

 “WHY DID BHAKTI MOVEMENT START EAR-
LIER IN SOUTH THAN NORTH?” ELUCIDATE.
(10 MARKS, 150 WORDS)
ˆ Believed to have taken roots in early Medieval
period, although concept as old as ‘Hinduism’
itself. Example- Bhagvat Gita

REASONS:
ˆ After Harsha, process of deurbanization and
ruralization started in North India.
ƒ Evidence of ‘Ahichhatra’ and ‘Kaushambi’
abandoned in 7th century AD
ƒ So, South India became major centre of
economic as well as religious attraction
ˆ Relatively unaffected by earlier Hunas and later
Afghan invasions
ƒ Relative peace gave rise to religious
LET’S BRAINSTORM discourse, leading to development of Bhakti
movement
Compare and contrast ‘Bhakti’ and ‘Sufi’
Movements, citing proper examples. (10 Marks, ˆ According to some historians, ‘Rajputisation’
150 Words) of Northern India, was one of the important
factors.
Hint:
ƒ Rajput rulers always wanted to maintain
ˆ Arabian; Islamic mysticism; social order as they were obliged to Brahmins
ˆ Qawwalis; State Patronage; for getting status of ‘Kshatriya’ from them.
(Example- Agnikula Rajput)
ˆ Contributors
ƒ So, they did not allow such movement in their
ƒ Similarities in Bhakti and Sufi movement:
territories
ƒ Rejection of dominance of few people over
ˆ Reaction against Buddhist and Jaina dominance
religion
in royal kingdoms
ƒ Rejecting rituals
ƒ Example- Instance of Bhakti saint ‘Appar’
ƒ Opposing caste discrimination condemning Buddhist and Jaina practices and
ƒ Promoting social integration and unification canons
of culture ˆ Reaction against ‘biploarised’ society
ƒ Propagated their teachings in Common mans’ ƒ Lower caste much exploited by Brahmins
language like Hindi, Braj, Urdu etc.
ƒ However, historians argue that such society
ƒ The religious depression of medieval society existed in North India as well.
was set aside and the new teachings acted as a
healing balm to the suppressed classes. Thus,
these movements laid the foundation for
modern constitutional values like secularism
and fraternity.

www.sleepyclasses.com 227 1800-890-3043

 ADVENT IN INDIA
a) 12th & 13th centuries, Sufism became popular
b) Different ‘silisilahs’ like Chisti, Suhrawardi
etc.
ˆ (Make Map) Nakshbandi, Muradabadi etc.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT ALSO SEEN AS INDIAN

RESPONSE TO RISE OF ISLAM.

ADVENT IN INDIA
c) Nizamuddin Auliya (Amir Khusrau-???),
Moinuddin Chisti etc. gained significant
following, because of their pious living and
broad teaching tenets.

LITTLE STORY ON SUFISM REASONS FOR POPULARITY & INFLUENCE

ˆ Advent as early as Arab invasion of Sindh. a) Promoted spiritual devotion to God (along
However, the roots of Sufism gained significant with Bhakti).
grounds during the ??? period. b) Attacked dogmatic creed and custom (love
only means of uniting with God)
MEANING
c) Unlike Orthodox Ulemas, Sufi saints broad-
ˆ ‘Suf’, ‘Safa’ and ‘Suffa’ minded and incorporated tenets of various
faith in their teachings.
d) Stress on music and songs (condemned by
Ulemas), and their humble lifestyle also
brought them closer to common people.

www.sleepyclasses.com 228 1800-890-3043

CRITICISMS & LIMITATIONS
a) Barani: Suhrawardi saint, Iltutmish &
Hindus
b) Large-scale conversion
c) Ulemas and Sufi saints did not see eye-to-
eye on many matters
d) Materialism-?

www.sleepyclasses.com 229 1800-890-3043

 THE MUGHALS

www.sleepyclasses.com 230 1800-890-3043

 BABUR (1526 - 1530 C.E.)
ˆ Founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
ˆ Related to Timur from his father’s side and to
Chengiz Khan through his mother.
ˆ Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza
as the ruler of Farghana.
ˆ He was soon defeated by his distant relative
and as a result lost his kingdom. He became a
wanderer for sometime till he captured Kabul
from one of his uncles.

REASONS FOR INVASION OF INDIA -

1. The rich resources of India and the meagre
income of Afghanistan, as Abul Fazl
comments, might have been one major
attraction for Babur.
2. The unstable political situation after Sikandar
Lodi’s death convinced him of political
discontentment and disorder in the Lodi
Empire.
3. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat
Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, might
have whetted Babur’s ambitions.
4. Timur’s legacy also provided some
background for his invasion.
Thus, Babur had both reasons and opportunity to
look towards India.

POLITICAL CONDITION OF INDIA ON THE

EVE OF BABUR’S INVASION -
ˆ Widespread political instability with the
disintegration of the Tughlaq dynasty
ƒ Both the Saiyyad (1414-1451) and the Lodi
(1451-1526) rulers failed to cope with the
disruptive forces.
ˆ Nobles resented and rebelled at the earliest
opportunity.
ˆ In south, there were powerful Vijayanagar and
Bahmani kingdoms.
ˆ There were numerous Afghan chieftains around
Agra.
ˆ There was confederacy of Rajput principalities
which was ready to seize the control of Hindustan.

www.sleepyclasses.com 231 1800-890-3043

1ST BATTLE OF PANIPAT (20TH APRIL, 1526) among the series of battles in the years to come
ˆ On his way towards Delhi, Babur learnt that before he could consolidate his position.
Ibrahim was advancing leisurely, marching two ˆ For example, to secure this triumph, it was
or four miles, and stopping at each camp for two equally important to overcome Rana Sanga of
to three days. Mewar and the chieftains in and around Delhi
ƒ Finally both the forces met at Panipat and and Agra.
all this time gave Babur the enough time
ˆ Another important opponent in the eastern India
to prepare his defences well enough ,even
was the Afghans.
though given the fact that his army was way
too small as compared to Ibrahim Khan Lodi. ˆ To add to this, problems were mounting within
ˆ Finally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s forces met
his own nobility.
at the historic battlefield of Panipat. The battle ˆ Thus, politically the battle of Panipat was not as
lasted for just few hours in favour of Babur. decisive as it was militarily.

THE BATTLE SHOWED BABUR’S SKILL IN However, it marks a new phase in the struggle for
THE ART OF WARFARE. the establishment of a hegemonic political power
in north India.
ˆ His soldiers were less in number but the
organisation was superior. BABUR AND RAJPUT CONFEDERACY
ƒ Babur placed Ibrahim’s army at 100,000 and ˆ Babur, in his Memoir, has blamed Rana Sanga
1000 elephants. According to Afghan sources, for breaking his promise by not siding with him
the effective strength of Ibrahim Lodi at in the battle of Panipat against Ibrahim Lodi.
Panipat was 50,000. On the other hand Babur
had only 12,000 horseman. ƒ There was some understanding on both sides
to join hands against Ibrahim Lodi in which
ƒ The battle proved to be a triumph of the Rana faltered.
generalship over numbers.
ƒ Rana expected Babur to return to Kabul and
AFGHAN ARMY WAS COMPLETELY leave him free to establish his hegemony.
PARALYZED. ˆ Rana Sanga this time succeeded in establishing
ˆ Surrounded from all sides, Ibrahim Lodi fought the confederacy against Babur with the help of
on bravely and died fighting. Babur paid a tribute Afghan nobles.
to his bravery by burying him on the spot with ˆ The defeat of Babur’s commander Abdul Aziz
honour. and Muhibb Ali at Bayana and their praise
of the valour of the Rajput army completely
SIGNIFICANCE OF BATTLE OF PANIPAT
demoralised Babur’s army.
ˆ The battle of Panipat was undoubtedly one of
the decisive battles of Indian history. TITLE OF GHAZI
ˆ It smashed the power of the Lodis, and opened However, Babur prevailed over the situation with
up the entire territory upto Jaunpur to Babur’s his fiery speech touching the religious sentiments of
control. his men.
ˆ The rich treasures stored by the Lodi Sultans at ˆ He declared the war against the Rana to be a
Agra relieved Babur of his financial difficulties. jihad or holy war.
However, the battle of Panipat, though, formally ˆ Babur also renounced wine, breaking flasks of
established the Mughal rule in India, it was first choice Ghazni wine.

www.sleepyclasses.com 232 1800-890-3043

ˆ After the Battle of Khanwa, Babur assumed the SIGNIFICANCE OF BABUR’S ADVENT INTO
title of “Ghazi”. INDIA
ˆ Khanwa in a way, completed the process which
started with Battle of Panipat, and Babur’s
position in the Gangetic doab was largely
secured.

BATTLE OF CHANDERI
ˆ Though the Mewar Rajputs received a great
shock at Khanwa, Medini Rai at Malwa was still
a power to reckon with.
ˆ In 1520 Rana Sanga had bestowed Malwa on
Medini Rai. In spite of great valour with which
the Rajputs fought at Chanderi (1528), Babur
faced little difficulty in overcoming Medini
Rai.
ˆ With his defeat, resistance across Rajputana was
shattered.

END OF BABUR
ˆ Within four years Babur succeeded in crushing
the hostile powers and now could think of INCLUSION OF AFGHANISTAN IN AN EM-
consolidating himself at Delhi. But he could PIRE BASED IN INDIA.
hardly get the opportunity to rule as he died ˆ Although Afghanistan was considered an
soon after (29 December, 1530). integral part of India in antiquity, and was often
ˆ The establishment of the Mughal Empire under called “Little India” even in medieval times,
the aegis of Babur was significant. Though the politically it had not been a part of India after the
Afghans and Rajputs could not be crushed downfall of the Kushan empire.
completely, a task left to his successors, ˆ Since ancient times, Afghanistan had been the
his two major blows at Panipat and Khanwa staging place for an onslaught on India.
were certainly decisive and destroyed the ˆ By keeping control of Afghanistan, and its
balance of power in the region and perhaps was two doors to India, Kabul and Qandahar, Babur
a step towards the establishment of an all-India and his successors safeguarded India from
empire foreign invasion for around 200 years.

INDIA BECAME A PARTICIPANT IN CENTRAL

ASIAN POLITICS -
ˆ Powerful rulers of the area — Turan, Iran,
Ottoman Turkey, and others kept close
diplomatic contact with India, and also sought
its support on occasions.

www.sleepyclasses.com 233 1800-890-3043

ˆ On their part, Babur and the succeeding FACTS ABOUT BABUR
Mughal rulers kept a close watch on political ˆ As a pious Muslim, Babur was regular in his
developments in Central Asia by means of a prayers, and observed the fast of Ramzan
constant exchange of envoys. without fail.
ˆ Thus, with the arrival of Babur, a new phase ˆ Babur’s liberalism in matters of religion is also
begins in India’s foreign policy and strategic attested to by his fondness of painting, music
perception. and dance, and poetry.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE – ˆ Babur’s Tuzuk-i Baburi or Memoirs of Babur is
classified as a classic of world literature.
ˆ Control over Kabul and Qandahar strengthened
India’s foreign trade. ƒ Written in Chaghtai Turkish.
ˆ As Babur says in his Memoirs, “There are ƒ It was translated as Baburnama into Persian
two trade-marts on the land-route between during the rule of Babur’s grandson Akbar.
Hindustan and Khurasan; one is Kabul, the ˆ He was keenly interested in nature and in his
other, Qandahar.” writings in details depicts the fruits, flowers,
ˆ The inclusion of Kabul and Qandahar in the animals and products of India, and comments on
empire created a favourable opportunity for the its social life and customs.
increase of India’s share in the great trans-Asian ƒ He draws skillful, thumbnail sketches
trade. of contemporaries, including their good and
bad points. He does not spare himself in the
INTRODUCTION OF CANNON AND MUS-
process.
KETS IN INDIA -
ˆ The introduction of cannon and muskets in India BABUR (1526 - 1530 C.E.)
has generally been ascribed to Babur. ˆ Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty
ˆ Although gunpowder which is of Chinese origin seven. Buried at Aram Bagh in Agra; later his
was introduced into India from China, and was body was taken to Kabul.
used for mining under the walls of the forts
from the middle of the 13th century, its use for
cannons and muskets was of European origin.
ˆ Babur quickly look it up by employing two
Ottoman mastergunners in 1516, used in the
battles of Panipat and Khanwa, and other battles
fought by Babur.

RE-ESTABLISHING THE PRESTIGE OF

CROWN.
ˆ Emergence and Foundation of new Indian
Empire -
ƒ Babur paved the way for the emergence of
a new Indian empire, sweeping away the
balance of power in his favour.

www.sleepyclasses.com 234 1800-890-3043

 Emergence of Humayun and Sur Interregnum
HUMAYUN (1530 – 1540, 55-56 C.E.)
ˆ Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. Humayun had three major brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal
(Khalil Mirza-????). Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great
blunder on his part.
ˆ When Humayun was busy with fighting the Afghans in the east, he got the news that Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat was advancing towards Delhi.

www.sleepyclasses.com 235 1800-890-3043

ˆ Therefore, he hastily concluded a treaty with the SUR INTERREGNUM (1540 – 1555C.E)
Afghan leader Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) and ˆ The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah,
proceeded towards Gujarat. whose original name was Farid.
ˆ Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah ˆ Farid served under the Afghan ruler
and appointed Askari as its governor. But soon of Bihar, Sultan Muhammad  Nuhani, who gave
Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.
who fled from there.
ˆ After defeating Humayun at the Battles of Chausa
ˆ In the meantime, Sher Khan became powerful & Kannauj, he became the ruler of Delhi in 1540
in the east. Humayun marched against him but with the title Sher Shah Sur.
in the Battle of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan
destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun ˆ His conquests include Punjab, Malwa,
escaped from there. Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand. His empire
consisted of the whole of North India except
ˆ Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat.
brothers. But as they were not cooperative,
Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone ˆ He died in 1545 while campaigning against
in the Battle of Bilgram (also known as Battle Kalinjar Fort.
of Kannauj) in 1540. Humayun was thoroughly ˆ While besieging its fort, Kalinjar, Sher Shah
defeated by Sher Khan. died in May 1545 from burns when a rocket
ˆ After losing his kingdom, Humayun became an rebounded from the wall, and set fire to a bundle
exile for the next fifteen years in Persia at the of rockets where he was standing. But he had the
court of Iranian king Shah Tahmasp (Safavid satisfaction of seeing the surrender of the fort
Empire) and with his help he recaptured before he died.
Qandahar and then Kabul. SHER SHAH AS A BUILDER
HUMAYUN (IMPORTANT POINTS) ˆ Tomb of Sher Shah (Sasaram)
ˆ During his reign, he instituted a ˆ Purana Qila (Humayun-???)
drum of Justice (table - i - adl) to enable grievances ˆ Rohtas Fort
to be brought to the notice of the king - Measure
ˆ Bhera city in Pakistan.
to earn support of public in the new Mughal
State. ˆ Grand Trunk Road- ????
ˆ He constructed a new capital called Din Panah CRITICISM- BADAYUNI
on the banks of Jamuna.
ˆ Impact of Humayun’s Persian Exile - Influx of
cultural and political influences of Persians in
Mughal Empire.
ˆ Persian methods of Governance were adopted
during the remainder of Humayun’s reign.
ˆ Persian arts became very influential and Persian
style miniatures were produced at Mughal and
Rajput Courts.
ˆ Chaghtai Languages, in which Babur had
written his memoirs, disappeared almost from
use by court elite, and Akbar could not speak it.

www.sleepyclasses.com 236 1800-890-3043

ˆ The land revenue administration was well were made responsible for crime prevention in
organized under Sher Shah. their areas.
ˆ Land survey was carefully done. All cultivable ˆ The military administration was also efficiently
lands were classified into three classes - good, reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed many
middle and bad. Land was measured by using ideas like daag & chehra from Alauddin Khalji,
the Sikanderi-gaz (32 points). revived it. Sher Shah personally supervised
ˆ The state’s share was one third of the average recruitment of soldiers and paid them directly.
produce and it was paid in cash or kind. (Only ˆ Abbas Khan Sarwani wrote Tarikh-i-Shershahi.
Multan was exception with 1/4th as state share)
HUMAYUN (1555 - 1556 C.E.)
ˆ Todarmal contributed greatly in the development
of revenue policy of Sher Shah. Restoration of Mughal Empire
ˆ Akbar also adopted the same revenue policy, ˆ Sher Shah Suri had died in 1545; his son and
albeit with some amendments. successor Islam Shah died too, in 1554 (last ruler-
Adil).
ˆ His revenue reforms increased the revenue of the
state. ˆ This left the dynasty reeling and disintegrating.
ˆ Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called ˆ Three rivals for the throne all marched on Delhi,
“Rupaya” and copper coins “Dam”, which while in many cities leaders tried to stake a claim
remained in circulation even during Mughal for independence.
times. ˆ This was a perfect opportunity for the Mughals
to march back to India.
ˆ Humayun, gathered a vast army under the
able leadership of Bairam Khan and attempted
the task of retaking the throne in Delhi. Bairam
proved himself a great tactician.
ˆ But he did not live long after it, falling from his
library.
ˆ Humayun on his way to exile at Iran (Persia),
stayed in Amarkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by
Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in 1542.
ˆ Humayun’s sister Gulbadan begum wrote
Humayunama.
ˆ Heloved painting and wrote poetry in Persian
language.

PYQ
Q. Consider the following: [1998]
1. Tughlaqabad fort 2. Lodi Garden
3. Qutab Minar 4. Fatehpur Sikri
The correct chronological order in which they
ˆ Police was efficiently reorganized and were built is :
crime was less during his regime. Zamindars

www.sleepyclasses.com 237 1800-890-3043

 (a) 3, 1, 4, 2 (b) 3, 1, 2, 4
(c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 1, 3, 4, 2 PYQ
Ans. to previous PYQ: B
Q.
QUTAB MINAR – 1206 –1236 Assertion (A): The sponsor and the most
Tughlaqabad Fort is a ruined fort in Delhi, stretching prominent figure of the Chisti order of Sufis in
across 6.5 km, built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the India is Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti.
founder of Tughlaq dynasty, of the Delhi Sultanate Reason (R): The Chisti order takes its name
of India in 1321, which was later abandoned in 1327. from a village Chisti in Ajmer.
In the context of the above two statements,
LODI GARDEN – 1451– 1526 which one of the following is correct? [1997]
Fatehpur Sikri is a city and a municipal board in Agra (a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct
district in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It was explanation of A
constructed by Mughal Emperor Akbar beginning in (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct
1570, in honour of Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chisti. explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
MISCELLANEOUS PYQ
(d) A is false but R is true
Assertion (A): According to Ashoka’s edicts
social harmony among the people was more Chisti Order
important than religious devotion. Ans. to previous PYQ: C
Reason (R): He spread ideas of equity instead of Explanation
promotion of religion. [1998]
ˆ The Chishti order is a Sufi order within the
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct mystic branches of Islam which was founded
explanationof A in Chisht, a small town near Herat, Afghanistan
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct about 930 CE.
explanationof A ˆ The most famous of the Chishti saints is
(c) A is true but R is false Moinuddin Chishti popularly known as Gharib
(d) A is false but R is true Nawaz meaning “Benefactor of the Poor” who
Ans. to previous PYQ: A settled in Ajmer, India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 238 1800-890-3043

 MEDIEVAL HISTORY
Baba Farid’s Lodge ˆ He hailed from a family that had migrated from
Kabul to Punjab.
In Jerusalem ˆ He followed the Chishti order of Sufism.
ˆ His teacher was Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar
Kaki.
ˆ He was one of the first Sufi saints to write his
verses in Punjabi.
ˆ Baba Farid’s most important contributions to
Punjabi literature was his development of the
language for literary purposes.
ˆ Many of these verses are enshrined in the Sri
Guru Granth Sahib.
CONTEXT
ˆ Due to ongoing war in Israel, the Baba Farid’s Banni Festival
lodge in Jerusalem was in news.

ANALYSIS FOR PRELIMS

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
ˆ Legend has it that Baba Farid, a Sufi saint from
Punjab, spent 40 days in deep meditation at this
place in Jerusalem.
ˆ Although he returned to Punjab, Indian Muslims
going to Mecca started visiting the walled city
of Jerusalem to pray at this spot.
ˆ It is a brown two-story stone building and is
named Zawiya Al-Hindiya, meaning “the Lodge
of Hind.” CONTEXT
ˆ The street leading to it bears the name ‘Zawiyat ˆ Recently, three persons lost their lives and
El-Hunud’, meaning “the Indian corner.” more than hundred persons were injured in the
ˆ This property is under the ownership of the traditional Banni festival celebrations in Andhra
Waqf Board of India and is accessible only to Pradesh.
individuals of Indian citizenship or heritage.
ANALYSIS FOR MAINS AND PRELIMS
ANALYSIS FOR MAINS IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON BABA
ˆ Banni festival is celebrated in Andhra Pradesh on
FARID:
the night of Dussehra festival (Vijayadashami).
ˆ Baba Farid (Farīduddīn Masūd Ganjshakar) was ˆ It involves visiting the Devaragattu temple
born in 1173 CE in the village of Kothewal near in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh well
Multan. equipped with weapons and lathis.

www.sleepyclasses.com 239 1800-890-3043

ˆ Banni actually refers to mock fight for capturing ˆ It entails two people taking a swipe at each
the idols during the Banni festival. other’s head with a weapon - knuckleduster.
ˆ During the ritual, the idols of Parvati (Malamma) ˆ The weapon is sometimes called Indra-musti
and Shiva (Malleshwara Swamy) are brought which means Indra’s fist.
down to the foot of the hill.
ˆ Whosoever draws the blood from the opponent’s
ˆ During this procession, few of the devotees form head first is declared the winner.
a ring of security around the idols but the others
ˆ This form of wrestling was popular during the
try to ‘hijack’ or capture the idols.
period of the Vijayanagar rulers but it has gone
ˆ Devotees carry long sticks or lathis to hit each extinct and takes place only during Dasara.
other on the head with these sticks.
ˆ Medieval travellers from Portuguese noticed
ˆ The festival is believed to have started during the
this form of wrestling during the Navaratri
Vijayanagara Empire.
celebrations in Vijayanagar empire and have left
Q. Building ‘Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable detailed accounts of it.
feature in the temple construction in the
ˆ Its matches are still conducted during the Mysore
kingdom of (2019)
Dasara festival at Mysore Palace.
(a) Chalukya (b) Chandela
Q. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the
(c) Rashtrakuta (d) Vijayanagara
women in Vijayanagara Empire were expert in
Answer: D which of the following areas? (2021)
1. Wrestling 2. Astrology
Vajra Mushti Kalaga 3. Accounting 4. Soothsaying
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 Only (b) 1, 3 and 4 Only
(c) 2 and 4 Only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: D

CONTEXT
ˆ Recently Vajra Mushti Kalaga was in news due
to its recent decline.

ANALYSIS FOR MAINS AND PRELIMS

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
ˆ The ‘’vajra mushti kalaga’’ is a form of wrestling
different from the conventional grappling.

www.sleepyclasses.com 240 1800-890-3043

 MUGHALS
and this led to extensive military conquests.
Akbar Any policy of expansion meant conflict with various
political powers spread in different parts of the
AKBAR (1556 - 1605 C.E.)
country -
THE STORY
ˆ Rajputs had major concentration in Rajputanas
ˆ He succeeded the throne after his father (RMG).
Humayun’s death. But his position was
ˆ Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat,
dangerous because Delhi was seized by the
Bihar and Bengal.
Afghans. Their commander-in-Chief, Hemu,
was in charge of it. ˆ In Deccan and South India, the major states
were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda and
ˆ In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu
other Southern kingdoms.
was almost on the point of victory, but an arrow
pierced his eye and he became unconscious. ˆ In North-West, some tribes had their swat.
His army fled and the fortune favoured Akbar. ˆ Kabul and Qandahar, though led by Mughal
(Bairam Khan led the Mughal army) Factions, were opposed to Akbar.

ANNEXATIONS
ˆ North and Central India -
ˆ After overcoming initial problems and
consolidating his hold on the throne, Akbar ƒ First expedition was sent to capture Gwalior
started a policy of extending Mughal territories and Jaunpur in 1559-1560.

www.sleepyclasses.com 241 1800-890-3043

ˆ Western India -
ƒ Conquest of Rajputana (exception of Rana
Pratap of Chittor) and Gujarat around 1572.
ˆ Eastern India -
ƒ Captured Bengal, Bihar and parts of Orissa
around 1574
ˆ During this consolidation phase - He had to
face a number of rebellions in 1581 in Bengal,
Bihar, Gujarat and in the North-West due to the
following reasons -
ƒ At the root was the discomfort of Afghans
who were overthrown everywhere by the
Mughals.
ƒ Akbar’s policy of strict administration of
Jagirs was also responsible for this.

DECCAN AND SOUTH

ˆ Akbar was the first Mughal Emperor who
wished to extend the Mughal suzerainty over the
Deccan states.
ˆ Akbar started taking interest in Deccan states of
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda after the DECCAN AND SOUTH
conquest of Gujarat and Malwa, with the said ˆ The first expedition was dispatched to
motive- Ahmednagar under the command of Prince
ˆ Deccan rulers should accept his overlordship. Murad and Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and
ˆ Rebels often took the refuge in these Deccan seized it in 1595.
states. ƒ Chand Bibi was the head of Ahmednagar
ˆ Internal conflict among the Deccan states was forces at that time.
more like an invitation for Akbar to intervene. ˆ By 1600, Mughal territories in Deccan included
ˆ To protect the trade route towards the Gujarat Ahmednagar and Berar.
sea-ports and to establish his domination.
ˆ To drive Portuguese away.

www.sleepyclasses.com 242 1800-890-3043

 RAJPUT POLICY
ˆ It was largely designed to serve the political
needs for the empire which resulted in expansion
and consolidation of the Mughal Empire.
ˆ The Mughal alliance with the Rajputs was not
only determined by personal religious beliefs of
the individual rulers. But, policy was governed
by multiple forces and situation, such as -
ƒ The struggle for supremacy or autonomy by
the aristocratic elements.
ƒ The socio-cultural factors
ƒ Geo-strategic context of the country.
ˆ Alauddin Khalji was the first ruler who
postulated an active alliance with an autonomous
AKBAR ADMINISTRATIVE raja, Ramadeva of Devagiri.
REORGANISATION ƒ The raja was invited to Delhi after his
FORMATION OF SUBAS submission, loaded with presents and not only
ˆ He divided the whole territory under the was his kingdom returned to him, Navsari, a
Mughals into 12 Provinces which were called district in Gujarat, was given to him in gift.
Subas. ˆ Humayun, at the approach of his death,
ˆ After the Deccan conquest, 3 new subas were advised Akbar that this qaum (the Rajputs)
added making them to 15. (Berar, Khandesh and should be reared up because they are not given
Ahmednagar) to transgression and disobedience but only
obedience and service.

THIS POLICY CAN BE PERCEIVED IN

3 PHASES
ˆ In the first phase, Akbar more or less continued
with the policy followed by the Delhi Sultans
till 1572.
ˆ In the second phase, Akbar tried to develop and
extend the alliance with Rajputs but certain
components of the earlier policy were retained.
(1572 - 1578)
ˆ The third and last phase is marked by Akbar’s
break with Muslim orthodoxy.(From 1578 till
end)
ƒ In third and the last phase - Rajputs were
treated as partners in the kingdom and were
the Sword Arm of the Empire.
ˆ Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined with a

www.sleepyclasses.com 243 1800-890-3043

 broad religious toleration. DUAL RANK - ZAT AND SAWAR
ƒ He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the ˆ Initially a single number represented the rank,
jizya. personal pay and the size of contingent of
ˆ Proved to be beneficial to the Mughal state as mansabdar.
well as to the Rajputs. ˆ Later (from 1595) the rank of mansabdar came to
ƒ The alliance secured to the Mughals the be denoted by two numbers- Zat and Sawar.
services of the bravest warriors. ƒ The first number (zat) determined the
ƒ On the other hand it ensured peace in mansabdar’s personal pay (talab-khassa) and
Rajasthan . his rank.
MANSABDARI SYSTEM ƒ The second number (sawar) fixed the number
of horses and horsemen to be maintained by
ˆ The Mughal emperors maintained a large and
the mansabdar.
efficient army till the reign of Aurangzeb. The
credit of organising the Mughal nobility and SIGNIFICANCE OF MANSABDARI SYSTEM
army systematically goes to Akbar.
ˆ Uniformity and Integration of services
ƒ The steel-frame of Akbar’s military policy was
ƒ All the mansabdars owed direct subordination
the mansabdari system.
to the emperor that is mansab of higher rank
ƒ Through it he set up a bureaucracy which was was not made up by mansab of lower rank.
half-civil and half-military in character.
ƒ Administrative, civil and military services
ƒ Akbar gave mansabs to both military and civil were integrated.
officers on the basis of their merit or service to
ˆ Instrument of Neutralisation
the state.
ƒ System of mansab was transferable so control
ˆ The word mansab means a place or position.
was maintained under central authority.
ˆ Mansab denoted three things:
ˆ Strategic Importance -
ƒ It determined the status of its holder (the
ƒ It worked as device to increase influence in
mansabdar) in the official hierarchy.
new territory where Mughals tried to increase
ƒ It fixed the pay of the holder. their influence. e.g. Rajputana and Deccan
ƒ It laid upon the holder the obligation of regions.
maintaining a specified number of contingent ˆ Organisation of Nobility and Military
with horses and equipment. Importance -
ˆ Hence the system was formulated to streamline ƒ Officers were given mansabs and they had
rank of the nobles, fix their salary and specify associated military obligations.
the number of cavalry to be maintained by them
ƒ Thus, this system was associated with the
(ZAT & SAWAR-???).
army as well as with the organisation of
ˆ Under the mansab system ranks were expressed nobility.
in numerical terms.
ƒ Dagh/Chehra or Huliya system was
ƒ The lowest unit was of ten horsemen, then introduced to check corruption.
came one hundred, one thousand and so on.
ˆ Instrument for creating wider social base:
ƒ Abul Fazl states that Akbar had established
ƒ Officers from diverse social background were
66 grades of Mansabdars ranging from
incorporated e.g. Rajput, Afghans etc.
commanders of 10 horsemen to 10,000
horsemen.

www.sleepyclasses.com 244 1800-890-3043

 ˆ In the twelveth year (1567), Raja Todar Mal
ˆ Building a great empire effected a major change.
ˆ Served as revenue collection mechanism: ˆ Collection of land revenue data from Qanungos.
ƒ Revenue could be collected effectively with ˆ Qanungos were asked to provide information
help of mansabs. about
JAGIRDARI SYSTEM ƒ The area of land cultivated and uncultivated,
ˆ This is very much similar to Iqta during sultanate ƒ Produce of the land, and
period. ƒ The land revenue-figures or statistics
ˆ The Mughal Emperors gave assignments instead (taqsimat).
of cash salaries. The areas assigned were ˆ On the basis of the new data -
generally called jagir, and its holders jagirdar. ƒ New estimate of the revenue for the empire
ˆ These were non hereditary in nature. was made.
ˆ It was not land that was assigned, but the ƒ Instead of a single price-list for the whole
income/revenue from the land/area was given to empire, the crop-rates began to be converted
the jagirdars. into cash on the basis of the prices prevalent
ˆ This system developed over a period of time in differing regions.
and underwent many changes before stabilising. ˆ This system was better than the previous one but
However, the basic framework was developed proved unsatisfactory for a number of reasons.
during Akbar’s reign. ƒ Qanungos being local zamindars, were not
ˆ Estimated Revenue - Jama interested in revealing in full the actual state
ˆ Revenue collected - Hasil of affairs.
ˆ Paibaqi - ??? ƒ Thus, neither the crop-rates, nor the jama
based on the record of the actual produce
LAND REVENUE SYSTEM were found to be correct.
ˆ The evolution of the revenue system under ƒ Also, the system of kankut or estimation
Akbar, leading to what is called the dahsala or provided loop-holes to local officials for
Ten-Year system in the 24th year of his reign corruption.
(1579), was the logical evolution of the system
of measurement (zabt) adopted by Sher Shah, DAHSALA SYSTEM
which had continued to operate in Hindustan, ˆ Incomplete information, and the rapid expansion
that is, the area from Lahore to Allahabad, till the of the empire aggravated the problem. This, in
early years of Akbar’s reign. essence, was the background of the Dahsala or
ˆ After assuming full charge of the administration the Ten-Year rates proclaimed in the twenty-
in 1562, Akbar tried to reform the system - fourth year (1579), on the basis of which state
demand was expressed as a cash rate based on
ƒ He separated the khalisa lands from jagirs
local productivity and local prices.
lands, after an enquiry had been made
regarding the income of different kinds of ˆ Under this system, both productivity and
lands. continuity of cultivation were taken into
account -
ƒ Apparently, the most productive lands were
included in the crownlands. ˆ Polaj:
ƒ Lands which were continually under
cultivation.

www.sleepyclasses.com 245 1800-890-3043

ˆ Parati: Q. Where is the famous Vijaya Vittala temple
ƒ Lands which were fallow (parauti) for a year, having its 56 carved pillars emitting musical
paid full rates when they were brought under notes located? [PYQ]
cultivation. (a) Belur (b) Bhadrachalam
ˆ Chachar: (c) Hampi (d) Srirangam
ƒ Chachar was land which were fallow for three Answer: C
to four years due to inundation etc.
ƒ It paid a progressive rate, the full rate being
charged in the third year.
ˆ Banjar:
ƒ Banjar was cultivable waste-land.
ƒ To encourage its cultivation, it paid full rates
only in the fifth year.
ˆ The lands were further divided into good, bad
and middling.
ƒ One-third of the average produce was the
state share.
ƒ However, in some areas, such as Multan and
Rajasthan, one-fourth was charged.
ƒ In Kashmir, where saffron was sown, the
state share was half.
ˆ Use of Sikandari Gaj (32 digit)- Later it was
replaced by Ilahi Gaj (41 digit).
ˆ Basic unit of land revenue system was Bigha.
ˆ Although the state preferred cash, the peasant
had the option of paying either in cash or in kind
on the basis of crop-sharing.
ƒ Whenever the state share was paid in kind, it
was inevitably sold and converted into cash,
as revenue-papers from Rajasthan indicate.
ˆ Emergency cess- Dah-Seri.
ˆ Provision of Nabood (Cropless area)- Cropless
area was kept out of assessment- But this area
could not exceed the 12.5% of total sown area.

www.sleepyclasses.com 246 1800-890-3043

Q. Which among the following ports was called
Babul Makka (Gate of Makka) during the
Mughal period? [PYQ]
(a) Calicut (b) Broach
(c) Cambay (d) Surat
Answer: D
Explanation:
ˆ Surat was called Gate of Makka because the
pilgrimage to Makka started from Surat. It
is familiar for its textiles and, now, it is one
of the main centres of “diamond cutting and
polishing”. It is an important seaport in the
history of the world, during the medieval period.
It is known as gate to mecca as many pilgrims set
sail from Surat via sea route. It is also known as
the gateway of West Asia as Surat is one of the
main hubs of goods and clothing traded via sea
routes to other Asian countries.

www.sleepyclasses.com 247 1800-890-3043

 MUGHAL INDIA
FIRST PHASE - (1556-1573)
Akbar ˆ Although Akbar was under the influence of the
orthodox Ulama at the time just after assuming
RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL OUTLOOK charge of the government, Akbar demonstrated
his broadmindedness in public affairs but
ˆ Factors determining Akbar’s state religious
behaved like an Orthodox Muslim in his private
policies and his personal belief system
conduct.
ˆ Turko-Mughal tradition -
ƒ Abolished the pilgrimage tax and jizyah
ƒ Genghis Khan eschewed bigotry and
ƒ Prohibited the conversion of prisoners of war
preference of one faith to another.
to Islam
ƒ Timur also followed this policy and in his
ƒ Matrimonial relations with the Rajputs
dominions, there was no persecution of Shias,
and even Christians found a place in his SECOND PHASE - (1573 - 1580)
government and in his armed forces.
ˆ This was a phase of intense discussions and
ƒ This eclectic policy was fully reflected in the introspection on the part of Akbar which led to
policies of Babur and Humayun. a radical change in his religious views.
ˆ Strengthened belief because of Successive
victories -
ƒ His successive victories against different
forces, and his victories in Malwa, Rajasthan
and Gujarat strengthened Akbar’s belief that
he was the chosen instrument of God for
unifying India under his command.
ˆ Apart from an intensely enquiring mind, Akbar
had developed a taste for the masnavis of the
liberal sufi thinkers.
ˆ As a ruler, he visited tombs of many famous
sufi saints including the tomb of Muinuddin
Chishti.
ˆ This was the background to the building of the
Ibadat Khana, or the Hall of Prayers at Fatehpur
ˆ Bhakti and Sufi Movement Impact -
Sikri in 1575.
ƒ Akbar had deeply inquisitive mind and
abiding interest in sufism. IBADAT KHANA
ˆ Akbar’s childhood tutors - ˆ Ibadat Khana - It was established with the aim to
ƒ Akbar’s childhood tutors were largely above have free discussion on various aspects of Islamic
sectarian prejudices, and made a significant theology and in the beginning only the Sunnis
contribution to Akbar’s later inclination were permitted to take part in the discussions.
towards religious tolerance.

www.sleepyclasses.com 248 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Instead of bringing credit, the Ibadat Khana
brought growing discredit.
ˆ Akbar himself became convinced of the futility
of these debates, and closed the Ibadat Khana in
1582.

THIRD PHASE - (1581 - 1605)

ˆ Akbar’s own religious ideas and beliefs
crystallized slowly during the last phase. The
crux of Akbar’s religious beliefs was his faith
in monotheism or Tauhid-i-Ilahi.
ˆ Influence on Akbar of other religions like
ˆ At first, the Ibadat Khana debates were open Hinduism, Jainism, Zorastrian and Christianity
only to Muslims and after completing all
INCIDENT WITH JAINS
the state business, each Thursday night Akbar
would repair to the Ibadat Khana. ˆ Arguing with Jains, Akbar remained skeptical of
their views on God and creation, and yet became
ˆ For informal discussions, scholars were convinced by their philosophy of non-violence
admitted by the Emperor to his bed-room where and vegetarianism.
he listened to their discussions.
ˆ Akbar ended up deploring the eating of all flesh.
ˆ At first only sufi shaikhs, ulama, learned men ˆ Akbar issued imperial orders that were favorable
and a few of the Emperor’s favourite companions for Jain interests, such as banning animal
and attendants were admitted. slaughter.
ˆ Although Akbar had exhorted the assembly that ˆ Jain authors also wrote about their experience at
his sole object was “to ascertain the Truth and the Mughal court in Sanskrit texts.
discover the reality,” it was soon clear that the
ulema had other objectives.
ƒ They wanted to establish their superiority over the
others, and tried to browbeat their opponents into
submission.
ƒ Emperor got disillusioned the way Muslim
jurists used to quarrel over questions of
jurisprudence
ˆ After a mystical experience at September 1578,
Akbar opened the doors of Ibadat Khana debate DIN - I – ILAHI
to sufi, shi’as, Brahmins, Jains, Christians, Jews,
Parsis, etc. This led to further confusion. ˆ The Din-i Ilahi was a syncretic creed propounded
by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1582 AD,
ƒ Even questions on which the Muslims were
intending to merge the best elements of the
united, such as finality of the Quranic
religions of his empire, and thereby reconcile the
revelation, the Prophethood of Muhammad,
differences that divided his subjects.
resurrection, the conception of the unity of
God began to be raised, to the horror of the ƒ It was derived from different religions
pious or orthodox sections. like Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and
Christianity.

www.sleepyclasses.com 249 1800-890-3043

 ƒ A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in ƒ life,
outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet. ƒ honour
ƒ To commemorate Din-e-Ilahi, he changed the ƒ religion.
name of Prayag to Allahabad (pronounced as
ilahabad) in 1583. ˆ Enrolling disciples -
ƒ Four degrees of Faith:
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIN - I - ILAHI -
ƒ Akbar was very selective in choosing
ˆ Ten Virtues - those who qualified for the four degrees of
ƒ Liberty and beneficence devotion.
ƒ refraining from bad action and repulsion of ƒ There were only 18 nobles who qualified for
anger with mildness these degrees.
ƒ Limiting worldly desires ƒ Among these, Birbal was the only Hindu.
ƒ Taking the path of non-violence in social lie ˆ Other reforms -
ƒ Piety, wisdom and meditation ƒ Wine was allowed “if used for strengthening
ƒ Sublimity the body, as recommended by doctors”.

ƒ Soft voice, gentle words and pleasing speeches. ƒ Prostitution was regulated.

ƒ Brotherly attitude for others ƒ Immoral trafficking of women brought under

control.
ƒ Development of attachment towards the
Supreme Being ƒ Sati of Hindu women was prohibited, except
with the women’s consent.
ƒ Self-purification by enkindling longing for
God ƒ Akbar banned the sale and purchase of slaves.

ˆ No Sacred book or scripture, no priestly ˆ Marriage:

hierarchy, no sacred place of worship and no ƒ Akbar issued an ordinance that no one should
rituals or ceremonies except that of initiation. have more than one wife, but could marry if
ˆ Not a religion (???) - It was not a religion and one had no child from the first wife.
Akbar never intended to establish a church, ƒ Widow remarriage was permitted.
neither force nor money was employed to enlist
ƒ The age of marriage was raised to sixteen for
disciples and it was entirely a personal matter.
boys and fourteen for girls.
ˆ It is accepted that the policy of sulh-e-kul, which
ƒ Marriage between cousins or near relations
formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted
was banned.
by Akbar not merely for religious purposes,
but as a part of general imperial administrative ƒ Marriages were to be entered into only on the
policy. basis of mutual consent of the parents.
ƒ Akbar set up a bureau for the registration of
ENROLLING DISCIPLES
marriages.
ˆ Four degrees of Faith:
ˆ A member had to give a written promise of
having accepted the four degrees of devotion
(first mentioned by Badayuni), viz., readiness to
sacrifice to the Emperor:
ƒ property,

www.sleepyclasses.com 250 1800-890-3043

LITERARY WORKS DURING AKBAR REIGN

ˆ He started a department for translation of

works: Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Atharva
–Veda, the Bhagavad Gita and the Panchatantra
were translated from Sanskrit to the Persian
language.
ˆ Ramayana and Singhasan Batisi were
translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir Badayuni into ˆ Use of saltpeter for refrigeration:
Persian. ƒ Akbar discovered the use of saltpetre to
ˆ Panchatantra was translated in Persian by Faizi. achieve refrigeration.

ˆ Rajataringini was translated by Maulana Shah ƒ It was a practice found only in India and it
Mohammad Shahabadi. has precedence in time over chemical devices
for refrigeration in Europe, which moreover
ˆ Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar required snow for initiating the process.
Nama (???).

COURT PATRONAGE OF ART AND

TECHNOLOGY
ˆ Invention of Cartmill -
ƒ Invention of cartmill, a cart which milled
grain while it moved was invented by Akbar
as claimed by Abul Fazl
ƒ Though one historian of Akbar court,
Nizamuddin Ahmad attribute it to Akbar’s
courtier, Fathullah Shirazi. ˆ Inventions in artillery:
ƒ The invention has precedence in time over the ƒ Two interesting inventions in artillery are
European cartmill which appeared only in the ascribed to him.
17th century.

www.sleepyclasses.com 251 1800-890-3043

 y First, in order to enable cannon pieces to
be transported easily, he had the cannon
Jahangir
so made that individual parts could be ˆ Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with the
detached and then reassembled. title Nur-ud-din Jahangir. (Only son of Akbar as
y The second was to arrange to have as many all other were dead)
as 17 cannon pieces fire in unison. ˆ He was Akbar’s son by a Rajput wife Mariam-
uz-Zamani.
ˆ His ascension was challenged by his eldest
son Prince Khusrau who staged a revolt with
the blessings of Sikh Guru Arjan Dev. Prince
Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded,
while Guru Arjan Dev (5th) was executed.

TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
ˆ In 1608, Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan had
declared independence under Malik Ambar.
ˆ Jahangir was the first Muslim ruler to annex
Kangra (in c. 1620 CE), apart from this there was
no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan.

ˆ Inventions in musket -
ƒ Abul Fazl says that Akbar paid great attention
to the manufacture of the musket. A change in
manufacture of the barrel is ascribed to him.
ˆ Invention of Ship’s Camel-???

ENGLISH CONNECTION
ˆ Jahangir’s reign witnessed the visit of two
Englishmen – William Hawkins (1609) and Sir
Thomas Roe (1615).

www.sleepyclasses.com 252 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Nur-Jahan, who ruled the empire for ten years,
lost her power and influence after Jahangir’s
death.
ˆ Jahangir died near Lahore (on the way from
Kashmir to Lahore). He was buried in Lahore.

JAHANGIR - THE LOVER OF ART AND

PERSONAL LIFE PAINTINGS
ˆ He “was addicted to opium, and in general ˆ Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture.
neglected the affairs of the state”.
ˆ In his autobiography, the Jahangirnama,
ˆ Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by Jahangir recorded events that occurred during
making substantial efforts to gain the support of his reign, descriptions of flora and fauna that
the Islamic religious establishment. he encountered, and other aspects of daily life,
ˆ One way he did this was by bestowing many and commissioned court painters such as Ustad
more madad-i-ma’ash (tax-free personal land Mansur to paint detailed pieces that would
revenue grants given to religiously learned or accompany his vivid prose.
spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. ˆ Mughal painting reached its peak under Jahangir.
The use of “halo” or “Divine lights” behind the
king’s head started under him.
ˆ The tale of his relationship with the Mughal
courtesan, Anarkali, has been widely adapted
into the literature, art and cinema of India.
ˆ In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was
known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
ˆ Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and
set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She
encouraged Persian art and culture in the court,
thus Nur jahan became the real power behind
the throne.
ˆ The political intrigues that prevailed because of
Nur-Jahan, led Prince Khurram(Shah Jahan) to
rebel against his father.

www.sleepyclasses.com 253 1800-890-3043

DEVELOPMENT OF MUGHAL SCHOOL OF ITIMAD-UD-DAULAH TOMB
PAINITNG
ˆ The school had its beginnings during the reign of
the emperor Humāyūn who invited two Persian
artists, Mīr Sayyid ʿAlī and Khwāja ʿAbd al-
Ṣamad, to join him in India.
ˆ The earliest and most important undertaking of
the school was a series of large miniatures of
the Dāstān-e Amīr Ḥamzeh, undertaken during
the reign of Akbar, which, when completed,
numbered some 1,400 illustrations of an
unusually large size.

www.sleepyclasses.com 254 1800-890-3043

 MUGHAL EMPIRE
Shah Jahan
ˆ Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the
SHAH JAHAN (1628 - 1658) activities of Jesuits in that region, notably when
ˆ Shah Jahan was born to Mughal Emperor they were accused of abducting peasants.
Jahangir and his Hindu Wife Jagat Gosain. ˆ On 25th September 1632, the Mughal Army
ˆ After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan raised imperial banners and gained control
reached Agra with the support of the nobles and over the Bandel region, and the garrison was
the army and ascended the throne. punished.
ˆ In order to win the support of his nobles, he ˆ On 23rd December 1635, Shah Jahan issued
withdrew the liberal religious policies of a farman ordering the Agra Church to be
Akbar and began with the Orthodox polices in demolished. The Church was occupied by the
line with the thought process of ulemas. Portuguese Jesuits.
ˆ However the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to
ADMINISTRATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy.
FAMINE OF 1630 He also banned the Jesuits from preaching their
ˆ A famine broke out in 1630–32 in Deccan, Gujarat religion and making converts from both Hindus
and Khandesh as a result of crop failures. and Muslims

ˆ Two million died of starvation, grocers sold TERRITORIAL EXPANSION

dogs’ flesh and mixed powdered bones with
ˆ Shah Jahan was an able military commander.
flour. Parents ate their own children.
While still a prince, he was able to obtain the
ˆ Some villages were completely destroyed, their submission of the Rajput state of Mewar which
streets filled with human corpses. Akbar had not been able to defeat. Mewar then
ˆ In response to the devastation, Shah Jahan set became a vassal of the Mughal Empire.
up langar (free kitchens) for the victims of the ˆ Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in
famine. the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and
other ancestral lands. But was unable to control
WAR WITH THE PORTUGUESE
Kandahar (which has been lost during the reign
ˆ Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan, of Jahangir)
the Mughal viceroy of Bengal, to drive out the
ˆ His Deccan policy was more successful.
Portuguese from their trading post at Port
Hoogly. ƒ He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and
annexed it.
ˆ The post was heavily armed with
cannons, battleships, fortified walls, and other ƒ Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty
instruments of war. with the emperor.

ˆ The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by ˆ Shah Jahan defeated Shivaji’s father Shahji
high Mughal officials and due to commercial Bhonsle.
competition the Mughal-controlled port
of Saptagram began to slump.

www.sleepyclasses.com 255 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction
of the Red Fort on 12 May 1638, when he
decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi.
Originally red and white, its design is credited
to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori, who also
constructed the Taj Mahal.
ˆ The fort was plundered of its artwork and jewels
during Nadir Shah’s invasion of the Mughal
PATRONAGE TO ART AND CULTURE Empire in 1739. Most of the fort’s marble
ˆ In 1631 Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz mahal passed structures were subsequently demolished by
away at Burhanpur. In memory of her Shah the British following the Indian Rebellion of
jahan started constructing Mausoleum at Agra 1857. The fort’s defensive walls were largely
(Taj mahal). undamaged, and the fortress was subsequently
used as a garrison.
ˆ He owned the royal treasury and several precious
stones such as the Kohinoor and has thus often ˆ The Red Fort was designated a UNESCO World
been regarded as the wealthiest person in Heritage Site in 2007 as part of the Red Fort
history-???. Complex.

SHAH JAHAN MOSQUE, THATTA

ˆ This is a 17th-century building that serves as
ˆ In his reign the famous Peacock Throne was the central mosque for the city of Thatta, in
made for the King. the Pakistani province of Sindh.

www.sleepyclasses.com 256 1800-890-3043

ˆ It is heavily influenced by Central
Asian architecture - a reflection of Shah Jahan’s
campaigns near Samarkand shortly before the
mosque was designed.

ˆ Old Delhi, also known as Purani Dilli, is a part of

the larger city of Delhi, India. It was founded in
1639 as a walled city known as Shahjahanabad,
when Shah Jahan decided to relocate the Mughal
capital from Agra.
ˆ The city’s construction was completed in 1648,
and it served as the Mughal Empire’s capital
until its fall in 1857.
ˆ During Shah Jahan’s reign, Mughal paintings
were mostly limited to court paintings.

FIGHT FOR THRONE AFTER SUCCESSION

ˆ During the last days of Shah Jahan, there was a
contest for the throne amongst his four sons.
ˆ Dara Shukoh, the eldest, was the favourite of his
father.
ˆ A war of succession broke out between the four
sons of Shah Jahan in which Aurangzeb emerged
victorious. (Battle of Samugarh)
ˆ Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah Jahan and crowned
himself as the Mughal emperor. Aurangzeb
ˆ Shah Jahan died broken hearted as a royal
prisoner in January 1666 and was buried in the WAR OF SUCCESSION BY SHAH JAHAN’S
Taj Mahal. SONS
ˆ Shah Jahan had four sons born of Mumtaz Mahal.
They were given administrative responsibilities
and high mansabs as they grew up - Shuja,
Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara Shukoh.
ˆ There was no clear tradition of succession
among the Muslims.

www.sleepyclasses.com 257 1800-890-3043

 predecessors.
ƒ In the ultimate resort, connections among
ƒ Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu
the powerful military leaders, and military
officials in the Mughal administration rose by
strength and capacity and the religious
half, to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility,
affiliation among the Ulemas had become the
the highest in the Mughal era.
real arbiters.
ˆ However on the contrary, Singing continued to
BATTLE OF SAMUGARH be patronised by the ladies in the harem, and
ˆ The battle of Samugarh was fought between also by individual nobles.
Dara Shikoh and his two younger brothers ƒ It is interesting to note that largest number
Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh. of Persian works on classical Indian music
ˆ The battle of Samugarh (29 May 1658) was were written during Aurangzeb’s reign.
basically a battle of good generalship, the sides ƒ Aurangzeb himself was proficient in playing
being almost equally matched in numbers (about the Veena.
50,000 to 60,000 on each side). ˆ Banned the ceremony of weighing the emperor
ˆ Ultimately Aurangzeb emerged victorious. against the gold and silver and other articles.

BATTLE OF DEORAI
ˆ The battle of Deorai near Ajmer (1659) was the
last major battle Dara fought against Aurangzeb.
ˆ And then, Aurangzeb was proclaimed as the 6th
emperor of the Mughal Empire.
ˆ He was the sixth Mughal Emperor and effectively
the last one.

WAS HE A REAL BIGOT?

ˆ He also discontinued the celebration of
Dussehra and Nauroz.
ˆ Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of
new Hindu temples and repair of old temples.
Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu
temples-???.
ˆ In 1679, he re-imposed Jizya and pilgrim tax.
ˆ He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects.
ˆ His invasions against the Deccan sultanates
were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith.
ˆ He executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur
(9th). This resulted in the transformation of Sikhs
into a warring community.
ˆ His religious policy was responsible for turning
the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into the
enemies of Mughal empire.
ˆ Aurangzeb’s imperial bureaucracy employed
significantly more Hindus than that of his

www.sleepyclasses.com 258 1800-890-3043

TERRITORIAL EXPANSION punishment, that served as the law and principal
ˆ His empire stretched form Kashmir in the North regulating body of the Mughal Empire
to Jinji in the South and From Hindkush in the ˆ Under his reign, India surpassed Qing China
west to Chittagong in the east. to become the world’s largest economy and
ˆ Under his reign, the Mughal Empire expanded. biggest manufacturing power, worth nearly a
He had a massive army and the empire reached quarter of global GDP and more than the entirety
its zenith under him in terms of area. He of Western Europe, and its largest and wealthiest
conquered large parts of the Deccan and pushed subdivision was the Bengal Subah.
the north-western limits of the empire. ˆ The first ten years of his rule are chronicled in
Alamgir Nama written by Muhammad Qazim.
DECCAN POLICY
ˆ His personal life was marked by simplicity,
ˆ Te Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was motivated He had the reputation of being orthodox, god
by - fearing Muslim and he was regarded as Zinda
ƒ Policy of containing the growing influence of Pir and a living saint.
the Marathas
REBELLIONS DURING HIS REIGN
ƒ The rebellious attitude of the Shia kingdoms
of Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur RAJPUTS

ƒ To curtail the rebellious activities of his son ˆ In the initial years of his regime, Aurangzeb
Akbar who had taken refuge in the Deccan. attached great value to the alliance with the
Rajputs, then a Conflict happened with Marwar
ˆ Aurangzeb came to the Deccan in 1682 and and Mewar:
remained in the Deccan till his death in 1707.
ˆ After death of Jaswant Singh the question of
ˆ Aurangazeb annexed Golconda and Bijapur. succession to the gaddi of Marwar arose.
ˆ In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms ˆ There was a longstanding Mughal tradition that
was a political blunder on the part of in case of a disputed succession, the state was
Aurangazeb. brought under Mughal administration (khalisa)
ƒ The barrier between the Mughals and the to ensure law and order, and then handed over to
Marathas was removed and there ensued a the choosen successor.
direct confrontation between them. ˆ Another reason for bringing Marwar under the
ƒ Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Khalisha was that like most Mughal nobles, the
Mughal treasury. Maharaj had large sum of money due to the state
ƒ According to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer which he had not been able to pay back.
ruined Aurangzeb. ˆ Rani Hadi, queen of Jaswant Singh was objecting
to handing over the charge of Jodhpur to
IMPORTANT POINTS Mughals, since it was the watan of Rathors.
ˆ Textile Industry flourished under him, the main However, she had no option but to submit
item of export were silk items.
AHOM REVOLT
ˆ In 1667, he gave permission to the French for
setting up a factory at Surat. ˆ In 1661, Mir Jumla had led a major campaign
against the Ahoms and compelled Ahom to
ˆ He was influenced by Nakshabandi sufi order.
accept the Mughal suzerainty, to surrender some
ˆ He compiled the Fatwa-e-Alamgiri (a sharia territory and to pay heavy indemnity.
based compilation on statecraft, general ethics,
ˆ However in 1667, Ahom captured Guwahati.
military strategy, economic policy, justice and
Aurangzeb sent Raja Ramsingh of Amber to lead

www.sleepyclasses.com 259 1800-890-3043

 an invasion against the Ahom. ˆ Bibi Ka Maqbara, is the mausoleum of
ˆ The battle that followed is known as battle of Aurangzeb’s wife Dilras Banu Begum.
Saraighat. It was a decisive victory of Ahoms ˆ Aurangzeb’s tomb is in Khuldabad, Maharashtra.
under leadership of Lachit Borphukan.
Naskh - is a smaller, round script of Islamic calligraphy.
ˆ Mughals were again defeated in the battle of Naskh is one of the first scripts of Islamic calligraphy
Itakhuli in 1682. An Mughal hold over Kamrup to develop, commonly used in writing administrative
was lost forever. documents and for transcribing books, including
ˆ Weak navy and difficult terrain was the major the Qur’an, because of its easy legibility
reasons behind the failure of Mughal to control
north-east.

CONSEQUENCES OF THESE ONGOING

REVOLTS
ˆ Constant pressure on the exchequer and Decline of Mughal Empire
treasury of the Mughal Empire.
ˆ The Mughal Empire held sway over a large part
ˆ Role in decline of Mughals of India for nearly three centuries, but a drastic
ƒ The Mughal empire declined rapidly after decline in its power and prestige came about by
the death of Aurangzeb. The Mughal court the first half of the eighteenth century.
became the scene for faction fighting among ˆ Not only did the political boundaries of the
the nobles. Empire shrink, the decline also saw the collapse
ˆ On the other hand, Mughal failure against these of the administrative structure so assiduously
states damaged Mughal military prestige. built by rulers like Akbar and Shah Jahan.
ˆ The continuous anarchy, wars brought trade, ˆ In the wake of the collapse of the Mughal power
industry and agriculture to a virtual standstill a number of Independent principalities emerged
in areas affected with revolt. in all parts of the Empire.

ART AND CULTURE FACTORS OF DECLINE

ˆ The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is known to 1. Weak Successors
have patronised works of Islamic calligraphy; the 2. Degeneration of Mughal Nobility
demand for Quran manuscripts in the Naskh style 3. Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy
peaked during his reign. 4. Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy

www.sleepyclasses.com 260 1800-890-3043

 5. Economic Bankruptcy the war and the jagirdars were given jagir in zor-
6. Jagirdari Crisis talab (difficult to realise).
7. Agrarian Crisis ˆ The jagirdari crisis was aggravated by the
8. Invasions problem of be-jagiri (lack of sufficient jagirs for
9. Size of the Empire and Challenge from assignment).
Regional Powers.
AGRARIAN CRISIS
WEAK SUCCESSORS
ˆ The Mughals did not follow any law of succession
like the law of primogeniture. Consequently,
each time a ruler died, a war of succession
between the brothers for the throne started. This
weakened the Mughal Empire, especially after
Aurangzeb.
ˆ The nobles, by siding with one contender or the
other, increased their own power.
ˆ The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and
became victims of the intrigues and conspiracies
of the faction-ridden nobles.
ˆ The absence of a strong ruler, an efficient
bureaucracy and a capable army had made the
Mughal Empire weak. ˆ Peasant protests weakened the political and
social fabric of the Empire.
DEGENERATION OF NOBILITY
ˆ The imperial policy was to set the revenue at
ˆ With the decline in the character of the later
the highest rate possible to secure the greatest
Mughal Emperors, decline also set in the
military strength for the Empire.
character of the nobility.
ˆ Wealth and leisure which the foreign Muslims ˆ Nobles, on the other band, tended to squeeze
acquired in India fostered luxury and sloth and the maximum from their jagirs, even if it ruined
the presence of many women in their harems the peasantry and destroyed the revenue paying
encouraged debauchery, which, in their turn, capacity of the area.
undermined their characte. Consequently, ˆ Since, the nobles’ jagirs were liable to be
physical, moral and intellectual degeneration transferred frequently, they did not find it
overtook the governing classes. necessary to follow a far-sighted policy of
agricultural development.
JAGIRDARI CRISIS
ˆ The Mughal administration was approximating
ˆ Due to growing number of mansabdars, there the surplus produce leaving bare minimum with
arose imbalance between the available resources the peasants as also said by Pelsaert.
and demand of jagir in form of salary and this
was overcome by reducing the sawar obligation AURANGZEB’S RELIGIOUS POLICY
and salary. ˆ Aurangzeb failed to realize that the vast Mughal
ˆ The jagirdari system faced crisis due to Deccan Empire depended on the willing support of the
policy. people.
ˆ Owing to wars in Deccan the most paying jagirs ˆ He lost the support of the Rajputs who had
were kept in khalisa to meet the expenditure of contributed greatly to the strength of the

www.sleepyclasses.com 261 1800-890-3043

 Empire. They had acted as pillars of support, but INVASIONS
Aurangzeb’s policy turned them to bitter foes. ˆ Foreign invasions sapped the remaining strength
ˆ The wars with the Sikhs, the Marathas, the Jats of the Mughals and hastened the process of
and the Rajputs had drained the resources of the disintegration. The invasions of Nadir Shah and
Mughal Empire. Ahmad Shah Abdali resulted in further drainage
ˆ Aurangzeb reimposed the hated Jizya on the of wealth. These invasions shook the very
Hindus, distrusted the Rajputs and made an stability of the empire.
unworthy attempt to convert the heir to the
SIZE AND CHALLENGE FROM REGIONAL
gaddi of Marwar to Islam. POWERS
ˆ Hence the Rajputs were alienated and were
ˆ The Mughal Empire had become too large to be
determined to fight the Mughal oppressor.
controlled by any ruler from one centre i.e. Delhi.
ECONOMIC BANKRUPTCY ˆ The Great Mughals were efficient and exercised
ˆ Aurangzeb’s long war in the south had drained control over ministers and army, but the later
the exchequer. Mughals were poor administrators.

ˆ They Increased the state demand to one half ˆ As a result, the distant provinces became
of the produce of the soil and as the revenue independent and the rise of independent states
demand rose, the production fell in the same led to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
proportion. The cultivators began deserting their
fields but they were compelled by force to carry
on the cultivation.
ˆ Bankruptcy began to stare the Mughal
government in the face in the times of Aurangzeb
and his successors, who had to fight many wars
to gain the throne and retain it.

www.sleepyclasses.com 262 1800-890-3043

 LATER MUGHALS AND THE AGE
OF CHAOS

ˆ India till the 19th century was still one of the

most prosperous nations of the world and one
of the major markets which attracted all the European
powers.
ˆ Rise of British Supremacy
ƒ This calling of the Dark Age is just to highlight
the achievements of the British re-unification
of India and the inauguration of a new Age
LATER MUGHALS (1707-1857) of Enlightenment in India with the spread of
western knowledge and culture.
ˆ This Period is called ‘Age of Chaos’ or a Dark
Age - We have reasons to support both sides (Yes ƒ Ahmad Shah Abdali attacked India 8 times
and No) during 1748 - 1767.
ˆ Decline of the Mughal Empire - Mughal Empire ˆ 1707 – Death of Aurangzeb – War of succession
was weak but not dead yet. began amongst his three surviving sons –
Muazzam, Azam (???) and Kam Baksh .
ˆ Regional Powers were rapidly gaining strength
and autonomy. ƒ Muazzam emerged victorious and ascended
the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur
EMERGENCE OF NEW STATES Shah I (8th Ruler not 7th).
ˆ Through the 18th century, the Mughal Empire ƒ He was also known as Shah Alam I.
gradually fragmented into a number of
independent, regional states , which can be BAHADUR SHAH (1707-1712) [8TH]
divided into three overlapping groups: ˆ He was the first and the last of the later Mughal
ˆ States that were old Mughal provinces like rulers to exercise real authority.
Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad. Although ˆ He tried to reverse some of the narrow-minded
extremely powerful and quite independent, the policies and measures adopted by Aurangzeb.
rulers of these states did not break their formal ˆ He was called as ‘Shah - I - Bekhabar’.
ties with the Mughal emperor. ˆ Shia Controversy-???
ˆ States that had enjoyed considerable ˆ Battle of Jajau
independence under the Mughals. These
ˆ A New Turn - Previously, the contest for power
included several Rajput principalities.
was between the royal princes; the nobles had
ˆ States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and merely backed and sided with them.
others like the Jats. They all had seized their ƒ Now they became direct aspirants to the throne
independence from the Mughals after a long- and began using the princes as pawns to capture
drawn armed struggle. authoritarian positions.

www.sleepyclasses.com 263 1800-890-3043

JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-1713) [9TH]
ˆ (Son) He was a weak ruler and came to the
throne chiefly with the help of Zulfikar Khan, a
powerful noble.
ˆ He was a clever man and advocated a friendly
policy towards the Rajputs, Marathas and the
Hindu chieftains.
ˆ He quickly abandoned the policies
of Aurangzeb and adopted a liberal
attitude towards the Hindus and abolished the
jizyah.
ˆ Zulfikar Khan tried to improve the finances
of the empire by checking the reckless ˆ Finally Farrukh was deposed and killed in 1719.
growth of jagirs and offices and forcing the (First time a Mughal King was murdered by the
mansabdars to maintain their official quota of Nobles)
troops. ˆ Granted a firman to the East India Company in
ˆ (Important) He also gave up Todar Mal’s land 1717 granting them duty-free trading rights
revenue system and introduced the evil practice for Bengal, strengthening their posts on the
of revenue-farming or Ijarah whereby the east coast. The firman or decree helped British
government established contact with the revenue East India Company to import goods into
farmers and middlemen who paid the government a Bengal without paying customs duty to the
government, and the provisions of this Farman
fixed amount while they were free to collect whatever
proved to be a cause of contention between the
they could from the peasant.
Nawabs of Bengal and the EIC.
FARRUKH SIYAR (1713-1719) [10TH]
FARMAN (1717)
ˆ The inglorious reign of Jahandar Shah soon came
ˆ EIC permitted to carry on trade in Bengal,
to an end in 1713 when he was defeated by his
Bombay, and Madras free of customs duty. (3k,
nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra.
Disease-???)
ˆ Zulfikar Khan was soon executed by the orders
ˆ Permitted to mint its own coins and further
of the new emperor (Treachery-???).
fortify Calcutta.
ˆ Farrukh Siyar came to power with the help of
ˆ EIC granted the right to issue passes or Dastaks
Sayyid brothers – Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali
for the movement of such goods.
Khan Barha – the kingmakers.
ˆ Company servants permitted to carry out
ˆ It was during the reign of Farrukh that Banda
private trade but were not covered under this
Singh Bahadur, the Sikh chief, was captured
Farman and thus were required to pay custom duties
and killed.
as Indian Merchants. (Farman was later misused
ˆ However the struggle for power between the for private trade by EIC officials).
emperor and the Sayyid brothers increased and
the efforts of the emperor to overthrow the brothers THE SAYYID BROTHERS
failed repeatedly. ˆ The Sayyid brothers followed a policy of
religious tolerance (???).

www.sleepyclasses.com 264 1800-890-3043

 ƒ In order to maintain harmony, they advocated
a policy of associating Hindu chiefs and nobles
with Muslim nobles.
ƒ The efforts made by the Sayyid brothers did
not yield great results because they were
constantly faced with rival factions and
conspiracies in the court.
ƒ The financial position of the empire was also
dwindling as the rebellious elements refused
to pay the land tax. This led to increased
indiscipline amongst the soldiers.
ƒ The hostile nobles united themselves under
the leadership of Nizam-ul-Mulk of the
Deccan (Asaf Jah).
ƒ Further the murder of Farrukh Siyar created
a wave of terror and repulsion against the
Sayyid brothers who were looked down
upon as traitors.

MUHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748) [13TH]

INVASION OF NADIR SHAH
ˆ The anti-Sayyid nobles were strongly backed by
Muhammad Shah who wanted to free himself ˆ The already declining Mughal Empire received
from the hold of the brothers. another fatal blow when the Persian monarch,
Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39. Nadir
ˆ After the fall of the Sayyid brothers, Muhammad
Shah was attracted to India by her fabulous
Shah had a long reign (1719-48) [13th Ruler] to
wealth for which she was famous.
save the empire. The Mughal rule was still held
in high esteem by the people. ˆ The bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy
prey in the weak Mughal rule with loose
ˆ The Mughal army especially the artillery was
defences on the north-west frontier and used the
still the most important force; administration in
golden opportunity.
northern India had deteriorated but not collapsed
entirely. ˆ The two armies met at Karnal in 1739 and the
Mughals suffered a crushing defeat at the
ˆ The Maratha sardars were still confined to
hands of Nadir Shah. Emperor Muhammad Shah
the south and the Rajputs were loyal to the
was taken prisoner and Nadir Shah marched on to
Mughals.
Delhi.
ˆ He was not a man of the moment and was
weak minded and frivolous and The attempts
to reform the administration proved futile
and disgusted with the inability and fickle
mindedness of the emperor, the Nizam (???)
chose to pursue his own ambitions.
ˆ He gave his office in 1724 and proceeded to the
south.

www.sleepyclasses.com 265 1800-890-3043

ˆ He plundered the royal treasury at his own pleasure and carried back the immense wealth from India.
He carried away with him the famous Koh-I-Noor diamond and the jewel studded Peacock throne of
Shahjahan.
ˆ The invasion affected the imperial finances and the economic life of the people adversely.
ˆ Ahmad Shah Abdali, the successor of Nadir Shah invaded the kingdom for the first time during
Muhammad Shah’s reign in 1748.

ALAMGIR II (1754 – 1759) [15TH]

ˆ After the dethronement of Ahmad Shah, Imad-
ul-Mulk raised Azizuddin, Jahandar Shah’s
[9th] son on the throne who styled himself after
Aurangzeb as Alamgir II. (During his reign the
Battle of Plassey was fought)
ˆ Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi in 1757 and
the imperial city was plundered.
ˆ The relations between Alamgir II and Wazir
Imad-ul-Mulk were not satisfactory and the
AHMAD SHAH (1748 – 1754) [14TH] latter got him murdered in 1759.
ˆ The death of emperor Muhammad Shah in 1748 SHAH JAHAN III (1759 – 1760) [16TH]
saw the beginning of bitter struggles among
power hungry nobles of Turani and Irani factions. Not Same Shah Jahan !!!!!
ˆ The weak defenses of the northwest encouraged
SHAH ALAM II (1760 –88, 1788-1806)
Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded India twice [17TH & 19TH]
in 1749 and 1752, when he marched up to Delhi.
ˆ Ali Gauhar, the son of Alamgir II became the
ˆ The emperor, with a view to buy peace and
Mughal emperor in 1759 and took up the title of
save Delhi from devastation, ceded Punjab and
Shah Alam II (Shah Alam I was the son of Aurangzeb).
Multan to Abdali.
ˆ Ahmad Shah was blinded and deposed by his ˆ Although he was declared the Mughal Emperor,
new wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk. he did not proceed to Delhi for 12 years.
ˆ Ultimately in January 1772, Shah Alam II was
reinstated at Delhi by the Marathas.
ˆ Ghulam Qadir (Rohilla) occupied Delhi in 1788,
blinded Shah Alam II and deposed him.
ˆ Ghulam Qadir was defeated and executed by
Mahadji Scindia at Meerut in 1789 and Shah
Alam II was reinstated as Scindia’s pensioner.

SHAH JAHAN IV (1788) [18TH]

Ek Aur Shah Jahan !!!!!
ˆ In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English
after Lord Lake defeated the Marathas (Battle of

www.sleepyclasses.com 266 1800-890-3043

 Delhi, part of the 2nd Anglo-Maratha War) and ƒ New States - These states arose a result of
Shah Alam II became the British pensioner. rebellion by local chiefs against Mughal
ˆ Shah Alam II was also defeated in the Battle of authority. Example - Marathas, Jats, Sikhs and
Buxar. Afghans.
ƒ Independent States - They had only been a
AKBAR II (1806 – 1837) [20TH] nominal part of the Mughal Empire and now
ˆ After the death of Shah Alam II, his son succeeded in the 18th century became fully independent.
as Akbar Shah II. Example - Mysore, Kerala and Rajputs.
ˆ Akbar sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to England to ˆ These states were strong enough to destroy
seek a raise in pension. Mughal power but none was able to replace
ˆ In 1835, EIC stopped calling itself a subject of it, No Power had the sufficient resources and
the Mughal Emperor and discontinued issuing power to maintain All India Polity and one of
coins in his name by deleting Persian lines on their most important backwardness was that of
Company’s coins. Science and Technology, which became one of
the major reasons of total subjugation of India by
BAHADUR SHAH II (1837 – 1857) [21ST & LAST] the most modern century of the time (???).
ˆ After the death of Akbar II, Bahadur Shah II SUCCESSOR STATES
became the Emperor. He was allowed to retain
ˆ These states exercised full autonomy, without
the imperial title. He was fond of poetry and
formally renouncing their allegiance to the
had the title of “Zafar.”
Mughal Empire, giving rise to a new political
ˆ He was captured and tried by the British. Bahadur order within the Mughal Institutional
Shah II was deported to Rangoon where he died framework. The fiction of Mughal sovereignty
in 1862. was kept alive through the following means -
kitnā hai bad-nasīb ‘zafar’ dafn ke liye do gaz zamīn ƒ Annual Revenue were sent to the Imperial
bhī na milī kū-e-yār meñ Treasury.
ƒ Emperor’s formal confirmation was taken for
RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES appointment to high office.
ˆ From the debris of Mughal Empire arose a large ƒ Orders, titles etc. were given in the name of
number of autonomous and semi autonomous Mughal Empire.
states which the British had to overcome before
emerging supreme in India.
ˆ These autonomous states presented a
transformation of the polity of the 18th century
Indian subcontinent in the form of being
decentralised from a phase of centralisation
under the Mughal Empire.
ˆ Three kind of States that emerged after/alongside
the Mughal Empire
ƒ Successor States - These states broke away
from the Mughal Empire and arose as a
result of assertion of autonomy by Governors
of Mughal Province. Example - Hyderabad,
Carnatic, Bengal and Awadh.

www.sleepyclasses.com 267 1800-890-3043

 Q. In the year 1613, where was the English East
India Company given permission to set up a
factory (trading post)? [2006]
(a) Bangalore (b) Madras
(c) Masulipattam (d) Surat
Answer: D
Q. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly
matched? [1999]
(a) Jahangir : William Hawkins
(b) Akbar : Sir Thomas Roe
(c) Shahjahan : Tavernier
(d) Aurangzeb : Manucci
Answer: B

ENGLISH CONNECTION
ˆ Jahangir’s reign witnessed the visit of two
Englishmen – William Hawkins (1609) and Sir
Thomas Roe (1615).

PYQ
Q. With whose permission did the English set up
their first factory in Surat? [2008, 2009]
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb
Ans. to previous PYQ: B
William Hawkins visited the court of Jahangir
and received a farman which allowed East India
Company to set up their first factory at Surat in 1613.

www.sleepyclasses.com 268 1800-890-3043

 Which of the statements given above is/are
correct? [2004]
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
Answer: B

Q. Consider the following statements about Sikh

Gurus:
1. Banda Bahadur was appointed as the military
leader of the Sikhs by Guru Tegh Bahadur.
2. Guru Arjun Dev became the Sikh Guru after
Guru Ram Das.
3. Guru Arjun Dev gave to Sikhs their own
script Guru Mukhi.

www.sleepyclasses.com 269 1800-890-3043

 EUROPEAN PENETRATION IN
TO INDIA - PORTUGUESE

MAJOR EUROPEAN POWERS THAT

CAME TO INDIA
ˆ Portuguese
ˆ Dutch
ˆ English
ˆ Danes
ˆ French

THE PORTUGUESE
ˆ Portuguese kings encouraged maritime
navigation by opening training and research
institutes for the purpose. Thus Portuguese became
the first one to have navigated the entire African
coastline.
ˆ Bartholomeu Dias in 1488 became the first ˆ Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on May 17,1498
known European to reach the Indian Ocean from which was ruled by a king named Zamorin
the Atlantic - The Portuguese later renamed (Local Hindu ruler).
it as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ as it represented
ˆ He basically came over as a trader and the cargo
the Opportunity of opening up of new route to
which he bought from India was sold for 60 times
India.
the cost of his voyage. (He returned to India two
more times)
ˆ He successfully established a sea route from
Europe to India that would permit trade with

www.sleepyclasses.com 270 1800-890-3043

 Cochin to Goa, thus making Goa the official Capital
the far East, without the use of costly and unsafe of Portuguese in India.
silk road caravan routes, of the Middle East and
central Asia. ˆ The Viceroys after him were not that efficient
and thus result was that Portuguese began to
ˆ Eastern Spices were very important for European
decline in India.
traders as without refrigeration, food spoiled
easily, and spices were important for masking
the flavour of rancid or spoiled meat. MCQ
ƒ In 1503, the 1st Portuguese factory was set up
Q. Which of the Following Territories were part of
at Cochin (Kochi)
Portuguese Colony?
ƒ In 1505, the 2nd Portuguese factory was set (a) Goa (b) Daman & Diu
up at Cannanore (Kannur)
(c) Both of the Above (d) Neither of the Above
y Their factories were called as Feitorias and
Answer : B
it also served as bases for naval fleet called
Armadas.
ˆ In order to regulate the maritime trade -
Portuguese Trading Company was formed
which was to function under the Viceroy.
ˆ Francisco De Almeida became the 1st Portuguese
Viceroy in India (1505). He initiated the Blue
Water Policy which aimed at Portuguese
Mastery over the Sea.
ƒ He is credited with construction of Fort
Anjediva on Anjediva Island lying at
the border of Muslim Bijapur and Hindu
Viajayanagara states.
Alfonso de Albuquerque(1509) was the greatest
Viceroy of Portuguese in India.
ˆ He expanded the trading centres which till his
reign were confined to Calicut and Cochin.
ˆ He conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur
in 1510. Similarly other areas such as Malaysia,
Daman & Diu were also brought under the
Portuguese.
ˆ He was an efficient administrator and brought
ˆ In 1661, The Portuguese were at war with the
natives into the administration of these areas and
Spain and needed support from England, which
also encouraged the Propagation of Christianity
led to marriage of Princess Catherine of Portugal
and inter marriages.
to Charles II of England, who imposed a dowry
ˆ He abolished Sati in the regions under his that included the insular and less inhabited
control. areas of Southern Bombay while the Portuguese
Nino de Cunha(1529-38) - Next Portuguese Viceroy, managed to retain all the mainland territory
he transferred the Government head office form

www.sleepyclasses.com 271 1800-890-3043

 north of Bandra up to Thana and Bassein - ˆ Brought Some crops with them for production
Beginning of strong English presence in India as such as Tobacco, Some fruits and vegetables.
well. - Potato, Lady Finger, Pineapple, Groundnuts,
ˆ Portuguese finally left Indian in the mid 17th Cashew, Almond etc.
century AD, but three of their settlements - Goa,,
Daman and Diu remained in their hand till 1961. Cartaz System
Sea Pass introduced by the Portuguese East India
Company in the Indian Ocean Region, starting
from early 16th century (1502-1750).
ˆ In the 15th century, both the Arab and Persians
were dominant in the Indian Ocean region.
However by the 16th century due to their
strong naval Power, Portuguese superseded
the Muslim dominance and thus introduced the
cartaz system as a mark of their sovereignty and
dominance
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF PORTUGUESE ˆ The cartaz pass issued by the Portuguese entitled
IN INDIA the holder freedom of movement in Indian Ocean.
ˆ Lack of Good Leadership ˆ First time it was issued in 1502. As a result,
ˆ Corrupt Administration Indian and Perso-Arab merchants suffered and
eventually, the maritime trade declined.
ˆ Neglect by the home Government: The salaries
of the officials were low and thus they indulged
in corruption and malpractice.
ˆ In 1580, Portugal was merged with Spain which
neglected the Portuguese interests in India and
moreover they(???) discovered Brazil which
diverted their attention from India.
ˆ Religious Policy and their forceful conversion
of natives into Christianity
ˆ Rise of Dutch and English Maritime Power.
ˆ Spread of Christianity to Malabar and the
Konkan Coast. COMING OF EUROPEANS THE DUTCH
ƒ Missionaries like Saint Francis Xaviers, ˆ After the Portuguese came the Dutch, they were
Father Rudolf etc. played a deciding role on innovative people in business as well as in
propagation the Christianity faith in India. shipping techniques.
ˆ Western Education was imparted in the native ˆ In 1596, Cornelius de Houtman was the first
Language as they opened up schools and Dutch traveller to reach India.
colleges. ˆ In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was
ˆ They brought the Printing Press to India - Bible formed and the Dutch Parliament gave it a
came to be printed in Kannada and Malayali
Language.

www.sleepyclasses.com 272 1800-890-3043

 charter empowering it to make war and peace ANGLO-DUTCH RIVALRY - BATTLE OF
with other states, acquire territories and build BEDARA (BIDERRA)
territories.

COMING OF EUROPEANS
The Dutch
ˆ Their main Interest was in the Indonesian
Archipelago and the Spice Islands and not
India.
ˆ However they discovered that Indian Trade was
necessary to carry out trade with South-Eest
Asia, as there was a good demand of Indian cloth
in Indonesia region.
ˆ In return, Indians demanded pepper and spices.
Hence, the FIRST credit of making ‘Indian Cloth’
as an item of export goes to the Dutch.

ˆ In 1623, Amboyna massacre took place in

Indonesia where the Dutch killed 10 Englishmen
and 9 Japanese. After this event, Dutch restricted
themselves to Malay Archipelago and the
English to India.
ˆ In 1759, The Dutch were defeated by the English
in the decisive Battle of Bedara (Bengal), thus
ending the Dutch power in India.

DUTCH FACTORIES
ˆ the first factory was established at Masulipatnam
(AP)-???.
ˆ In 1610, they signed a treaty with the king of
Chandragiri and establish their headquarters at COMING OF EUROPEANS
Pulicat. Here they minted their gold coins called
The English
pagoda.
ˆ In 1599, a company to trade with the East was
formed under the auspices of the group of
merchants known as Merchant Adventurers. the
Company popularly came to be known as East
India Company (formed in 1600).

www.sleepyclasses.com 273 1800-890-3043

ˆ In 1600, EIC was granted a royal charter by ENGLISH - FACTORIES IN MADRAS
Queen Elizabeth giving it the exclusive privilege ˆ In 1632, Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden
of trading east of the Cape of Good Hope for a Farman in favour of the English, permitting
period of 15 years. them to trade freely from the ports of Golconda
ˆ Initially, their main area of interest was on annual payment of 500 pagodas..
Spice Islands in Indonesia. However, due to ˆ In 1639, Francis Day was able to obtain Madras
overwhelming presence of Dutch, they shifted on lease from the Raja of Chandragiri and
their preference towards India and thus in shifted the centre of their activity to Madras,
1608, Surat in Gujarat was established as the Raja allowed the Company to fortify Madras.
trade transit point and the company ships were Thus the English set up a small factory and built
docked there. a small fort around it called Fort St. George.
The Company now planned to open up a factory in ˆ In 1690, The British bought the Fort
Surat and sent Captain Hawkins for the same. Devanpatnam, near Madras and renamed it to
ˆ He was one of the first Englishmen to set his foot Fort. David.
on Indian soil, he could speak Turkish language
ENGLISH - FACTORIES IN BENGAL
and came in a ship called ‘Hector’.
ˆ In 1651, at Hugli, the first English factory was
ˆ On arrival, he went to the court of Jahangir at
set up in Bengal upon receiving permission from
Agra in 1609, the English were given the royal
Sultan Shuja.
Farman to set up factories on the west Coast. But
the English were not satisfied as they wanted ˆ In 1658, all establishments of the Company
the permission for whole of India. However, in Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa and Coromandel
Hawkins had to leave India at that time due to Coast were brought under the control of Fort St.
Portuguese intrigues. George.
ˆ In 1690, Job Charnock established a factory at
ENGLISH - EARLY FACTORIES
Sutanati which was fortified in 1697 and called
ˆ In 1611, English opened their first factory in the Fort St. Williams.
south at Masulipatnam (????). ˆ In 1698, the Bengal factories were placed under
ˆ In 1613, they opened their permanent factory at Fort St. Williams.
Surat.
ENGLISH - FACTORIES IN BOMBAY
ˆ In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe arrives in India, sent
by King James I as an ambassador to the court ˆ In 1661-62, King Charles II of England received
of Jahangir. He was successful in obtaining Bombay as dowry on marrying a Portuguese
royal Farman according to which English were Princess.
allowed to set up their factories in the whole of ˆ In 1668, the Crown transferred it to the Company
India. on an annual rent of ten pounds.
ˆ However due to interference by the Mughal ˆ Bombay quickly replaced Surat as the principal
Administration into their trade, they shifted depot of the Company on the West Coast.
their focus towards the South .
Internal Developments in the Company
ENGLISH CONNECTION ˆ In 1625, the Directors and Governors of the
ˆ Jahangir’s reign witnessed the visit of two Company were given Judicial powers.
Englishmen – William Hawkins (1609) and Sir ˆ In 1661, the Company was empowered to send
Thomas Roe (1615). ships of war with men and ammunition for the
safety of its possessions overseas.

www.sleepyclasses.com 274 1800-890-3043

ˆ In 1683, it got full power to declare war and IVC (USAGE OF COTTON)
make peace, to raise and maintain an army.

PYQ

Answer to Previous PYQ: A

www.sleepyclasses.com 275 1800-890-3043

 EUROPEAN PENETRATION IN INDIA
ˆ In 1777, the Danish Company went bankrupt
and Serampore was transferred to the Danish
crown. Serampore became a safe haven for
missionaries in India and earned immense fame
for the cultural and educational activities of the
missionaries.
ˆ In 1845, Serampore was ceded to English, thus
ending the Danish presence in India.

COMING OF EUROPEANS – FRENCH

ˆ The French were the last colonial power to set up
their foot in India.
ˆ In 1664, Colbert formed the Company des Indes
Orientales. The French Company was granted
licence by King Louis IV to trade with India and
the East Indies.

COMING OF EUROPEANS – DANES

Coming of Europeans- The Danes
ˆ The Danish East India Company was established
in 1616 and they set up trading outposts in 1620 at
Tranquebar near Tanjore (Tamil Nadu).
ˆ In 1755, they founded a colony called
Fredricknagore near Serampore in Bengal. FRENCH FACTORIES
ˆ In 1667, they set up their first factory at Surat
with Francis Caron as the Director General.
ˆ In 1669, they set up factory at Masulipatnam.
ˆ In 1672, Caron was replaced by Francois Martin
who received a village as a grant from the
King of Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded
Pondicherry, which later became their capital.

www.sleepyclasses.com 276 1800-890-3043

 RISE OF BRITISH SUPREMACY
BATTLE OF PLASSEY AND BUXAR
Bengal
ˆ Province of Bengal emerged as an independent
ˆ In 1693, The Dutch snatched Pondicherry but it
autonomous state in the first half of the 18th
was restored to the French under the Treaty of
century, and though the sovereignty of the
Reswick. In this way, French established its firm
Mughal Empire was not challenged, practically
base in India.
Independent and hereditary authority was
ˆ After that, they further consolidated their established by two men of exceptional ability -
position by adding several bases including Mahe, Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan.
Karaikal, Balasore and Kasimbazar.
ˆ Mughal Provincial Administration has two main
The real trouble started when the French won branches - Nizamati and Diwani.
control of Tanjore which the British considered ˆ Nizamati meant civil Administration - Provincial
vital for their trade security and thus began the Subahdar was in charge of Nizamat (Called as
Anglo-French rivalry. Nazim)

www.sleepyclasses.com 277 1800-890-3043

ˆ Diwani meant revenue Administration - Under ƒ In 1756, Alivardi Khan died and nominated
the official named Diwan. his grandson Siraj ud Daulah as his successor.
ˆ Independent state of Bengal in the 18th century
was founded by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717.
ƒ He was sent as Diwan of Bengal By Aurangzeb.
During the reign of Farukh Siyar, he was
given the unprecedented charge of both the
post of Nizamati and Diwani - which helped
him to consolidate his power and declare his
Independence.
ˆ He shifted the capital of Bengal from Dhaka to
Murshidabad.

ˆ Farman of 1717 had become a source of

conflict between the Company and the Bengal
Nawabs.
ƒ And this conflict reached its heights when the
English anticipated threat from the French
power and started fortifying Fort William
and mounted guns on its walls, which was
objected by the Siraj ud Daulah.
ƒ The disaffected nobles of Siraj’s court,
particularly the Jagat Seths, Amir Chand
joined hands with the English to oust Siraj
and install their puppet leading to Plassey
ˆ He took up several revenue reforms which was
Conspiracy of 1757.
to change the whole Political and Economic
structure of Bengal in the times to come. RISE OF BRITISH SUPREMACY – CONQUEST
ˆ Then came the Alivardi Khan - and his reign OF BENGAL
witnessed the virtual break up with the Mughals ˆ The Beginning of British conquest in India may
which had continued till then - like sending be traced back to the Battle of Plassey in 1757,
annual tribute and appointment of higher in which the English forces defeated the Nawab of
officials by the Mughal Emperor. Bengal Siraj-ud-Daulah.
ƒ He had to face two strong forces during ˆ In fact, the history of British conquest in Bengal
his time - that of Marathas and the Afghan is the history of gradual transfer of power from
General, Mustafa Khan, and these prolonged Nawabs to British during the short period of
wars put severe strain on the Bengal eight years, from 1757 to 1764, the main cause of
Government. conflict being the commercial rivalry between the
British and the Bengal Nawabs.

www.sleepyclasses.com 278 1800-890-3043

BACKGROUND BATTLE OF PLASSEY (23 JUNE 1757)
ˆ Since the 17th century, Bengal had emerged as a ˆ Through this battle, the company acquired a
happy hunting ground of the Dutch, the English foothold in Bengal politics through Plassey
and the French company who were attracted to conspiracy of 1757 which ended the rule of Siraj-
Bengal mainly owing to its rich resources. ud-Daulah and inaugurated a new phase of
ˆ In 1651, at Hugli, the first English factory was British relations with India.
set up upon receiving permissions from Sultan ˆ Several developments converged to culminate
Shuja, the subadar of Bengal. into the Battle of Plassey which marked the
ˆ Then he also granted the English East Indian beginning of British conquest in India.
Company the privilege of free trade in Bengal,
SIRAJ-UD DAULAH (APRIL 1756 –JUNE 1757)
Bihar and Orissa in return for lump sum payment
of 350 pounds at a time when Company’s ˆ Siraj’s succession was challenged by two other
exports from Bengal were worth more than contenders for the throne, Shaukat Jang (Faujdar)
50,000 pounds a year. (This was because Sultan and Ghaseti Begum (Alivardi’s Daughter).
Shuja was pleased by the service of British Doctor ˆ This resulted in intense court factionalism and
who successfully cured a royal lady of a disease). support was offered to different warring groups
ˆ Thereafter, English factories were set up at by a dominant group in the Nawab’s court
Kasimbazar, Patna etc. comprising Jagat Seth, Amir Chand, Mir Jafar,
zamindars and others who were also opposed to
ˆ In 1698, they obtained the zamindari of the
Siraj.
villages of Sutanati, Kalikata and Gobindpura
from Subadar on payment of Rs 1200. In 1700, the ˆ This seriously destabilised the administration of
Bengal factories were placed under Fort William. Bengal and the advantage was taken by English
Soon the villages grew into a city known as East India Company.
Calcutta.
MAIN REASONS FOR CONFLICT BETWEEN
ˆ In 1717, Emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed THE NAWAB OF BENGAL AND THE ENGLISH
Murshid Quli Khan, the Diwan of Bengal and COMPANY
also at the same time Subadar of Bengal. Taking ˆ Farman of 1717 - This Farman became a perpetual
advantage of his position, Murshid Quli Khan source of conflict between the Bengal Nawabs and
now declared himself as the Nawab of Bengal the English Company. It meant loss of revenue
and became the first independent Nawab of to the Bengal Government and second, Dastaks
Bengal. were misused by the Company’s servants to
evade taxes on their private trade.

ˆ In 1740, Alivardi Khan, the Deputy Governor of ˆ Shelter to Krishna Das - The English Company
Bihar, deposed and killed Nawab Sarfaraz khan had given shelter to Krishna Das, a traitor , who
(Grandson of Murshid Quli). fled with immense treasures against the Nawab’s
will.
ˆ Alivardi Khan rightly did not allow fortification
of French and English factories at Chandernagore ˆ Support to Ghaseti Begum - The Company had
and Calcutta. also offended the Nawab by giving support to
the claims of Ghaseti Begum.
ˆ In 1755, Alivardi Khan died nominating his
grandson Siraj-ud-Daulah as his successor. ˆ Immediate Cause - The breaking point came
when the English Company, anticipating
another round of Anglo-French struggle, began
to strengthen the fortification of Fort William

www.sleepyclasses.com 279 1800-890-3043

 and mounted guns on its walls. Siraj pleaded Fort William, was bribed and he surrendered
repeatedly with the English to desist from after a brief pretence of resistance.
further fortification, but to no avail. Seeing his
own authority flouted in his own dominion, TREATY OF ALINAGAR (FEBRUARY 1757)
Siraj-ud-Daulah decided to launch an offensive. ˆ Consequently, In February 1757, The Nawab
had to make peace with the English and sign the
BLACK HOLE TRAGEDY humiliating Treaty of Alinagar.
ˆ On 15 June 1756, Siraj-ud-Daulah surrounded ˆ As per the Treaty, the Nawab had to restore
Fort William and the siege lasted for five days. to the English their former privilege of trade,
During this, some of the 146 persons escaped grant permission to fortify Calcutta and even pay
through the back door down the Hoogly River, compensation amount for the losses suffered by the
took refuge and waited for help from Madras. English.
ˆ When the fort fell on 20 June, The Nawab ˆ In this way, Clive had regained Calcutta and
renamed Calcutta as Alinagar, placed it under even forced the Nawab to concede to all English
the charge of Manik Chand, and himself returned demands.
to Murshidabad.
ˆ Still, the English were not satisfied. They had
ˆ Subsequently, these 146 persons were captured decided to replace the Nawab with Mir Jafar.
and put in a small room of the fort popularly
ˆ With this in mind, they placed an impossible set
known as Black Hole, in conditions of excessive
of demands before the Nawab, thus making a
heat and crowding. It is believed out of 146
war inevitable.
persons, only 23 survived (???) the next morning,
this is known as Black Hole tragedy. ˆ Clive organised a web of intrigue with the leaders
in the Nawab’s court.
ˆ This incident was held up as an example of
British heroism and Nawab’s callousness. ƒ Mir Jafar - Mir Bakshi (Commander in chief of
Nawab’s Army)
ˆ Siraj-ud-Daulah was portrayed a cruel monster
and held directly responsible for the deaths. ƒ Manik Chand - Officer in charge of Calcutta
ƒ Jagat Seth - Biggest Banker of Bengal
ƒ Khadim Khan - Commanded a large number
of Nawab’s troops
ˆ These disaffected nobles of Siraj’s court joined
hands with the English to oust Siraj and install
their protege, leading to Plassey conspiracy of
1757.

BATTLE OF PLASSEY
ˆ Plassey, ‘Palashi’ and ‘Palash’ Tree
ˆ “Mere Skirmish”  Mir Jafar (Siraj’s Commander)
ˆ On 23 June 1757, both armies met at Plassey, 30
km south of Murshidabad.
ˆ Meanwhile, help came from Madras in the form ˆ The English force comprised of 950 European
of strong naval force under the command of infantry and 2100 Indian sepoys, while that of the
Robert Clive. Nawab comprised of 50,000 men commanded
ˆ Manik Chand, the Nawab’s officer in charge of by the treacherous Mir Jafar.

www.sleepyclasses.com 280 1800-890-3043

ˆ Only a small group of Nawab’s soldiers fought ˆ It was a mere skirmish, resulting in 65 casualties
bravely, they were led by Mir Madan and Mohan on the English side and 500 on the Nawab’s side.
Lal. ˆ More than the might of the English, it was
ˆ After Mir Madan was killed, Mir Zafar played treachery of the Nawab’s confidants that decided
upon the fears of Nawab and advised him to the fate of the battle of Plassey.
retire from the battlefield, leaving the command
in the hands of his generals. THE BRITISH EMERGED AS KINGMAKERS IN
BENGAL
ˆ The trick was well played, once the Nawab
retired with 2000 men, a large part of Nawab’s ˆ British now appointed their man, Mir Zafar, as
army led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh merely the new Nawab. Zafar was completely dependent
looked upon, as Clive routed the rest of Nawab’s on the English for maintenance of his position in
forces. Bengal.

ˆ As a result, the Nawab had to flee but was ˆ Hence, an English force of 6000 troops was
captured and put to death by an assassin, stationed in Bengal for Nawab’s protection
Muhammad Ali Beg. with the natural consequence that all real power
passed into Company’s hand and Mr. Watts, the
‘Plassey was a transaction in which the rich bankers British Resident at Murshidabad, began to wield
of Bengal and Mir Jafar sold out the Nawab to the considerable influence.
English’.
TRANSFORMATION IN THE POSITION OF
CONSEQUENCES OF BATTLE OF PLASSEY THE ENGLISH COMPANY
ˆ Mir Jafar was proclaimed as the Nawab of ˆ The victory in Plassey brought about a great
Bengal (he was promised the Nawabship by transformation in the position of the English
Clive even before the Battle of Plassey) Company in Bengal. Until now the English
ˆ Robert Clive was confirmed as the Governor of Company was just one of the European
Bengal (Clive’s first Governorship : 1757 - 1760) companies trading in Bengal.
ˆ After Plassey, the Company emerged supreme
ˆ The Company was granted undisputed right to
and established its monopoly over Bengal
free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
trade by marginalising the French and the
ˆ It was also understood that British officials Dutch companies. The English also emerged as
would no longer need to pay any taxes on their powerful contenders in Bengal politics.
private trade.
Vast Resources of Bengal placed at British disposal-
ˆ The Company received the zamindari of 24
ˆ The first instalments of wealth paid to the
Parganas near Calcutta.
company immediately after Plassey was paid
ˆ Mir Jafar paid out a sum of Rs 50 Lakh as gift in silver coins, carried in more than 100 boats.
to bribe to the Company’s officials, besides a Bengal was then the most prosperous province
large amount as personal present to Clive and in India - its manufactures were in huge demand
compensation for Company’s losses. not only in India but also in world outside.
ˆ All French settlements in Bengal were ˆ Victory in Bengal played a decisive role in
surrendered to the English. Anglo-French struggle.
ˆ In fact, with the revenues of Bengal, the English
SIGNIFICANCE OF BATTLE OF PLASSEY
were able to meet the cost of conquest of rest of
ˆ The battle was hardly significant from the the country.
military point of view as the English army ˆ Dupleix looking for key in ….-???
showed no military superiority. ˆ Thus, the ‘Plassey Revolution’ as it is called,

www.sleepyclasses.com 281 1800-890-3043

 proved to be a battle with far-reaching Q. Consider the following statements:
consequences. The victory in Plassey marked the 1. In the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmed Shah
beginning of British conquest of Bengal and later Abdali defeated Ibrahim Lodi.
of India. It helped the company and its servants
2. Tipu Sultan was killed in the Third Anglo-
to amass unimaginable wealth at the cost of the
Mysore War.
people of Bengal.
3. Mir Jafar entered in a conspiracy with the
ˆ ‘There never was a battle in which the
English for the defeat of Nawab Siraj-ud-
consequences were so vast, so immediate and so
Daulah in the Battle of Plassey
permanent’
Which of the statements given above is/are
ˆ ‘The Battle of Plassey was followed by “A night
correct? [PYQ]
of eternal gloom for India“.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 only
BENGAL IN 1750S & 1760S (c) 2 and 3 (d) None
ˆ Mir Jafar  Then, Mir Qasim  Then, BoB(1764) Answer: B
 Then again, Jafar Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Robert Clive was the first Governor-General
PYQ of Bengal.
2. William Bentinck was the first Governor-
Q. With reference to Indian history, which of the
General of India.
following is/are the essential element/elements
of the feudal system? [PYQ] Which of the statements given above is/are
correct? [PYQ]
1. A very strong centralized political authority
and a very weak provincial or local political (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
authority (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Emergence of administrative structure based Answer: B
on control and possession of land
3. Creation of lord-vassal relationship between
the feudal lord and his overlord
Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B

www.sleepyclasses.com 282 1800-890-3043

 RISE OF BRITISH SUPREMACY
BATTLE OF BUXAR
ˆ Meanwhile, Mir Jafar’s son, Miran died and once
MIR ZAFAR again conflict over succession followed. The
(JUNE 1757 - OCTOBER 1760) conflict was between Miran’s son and Mir Qasim,
ˆ Immediately after his succession, Mir Zafar the son-in-law of Mir Zafar. Mir Qasim secretly
began to face some serious problems promised the necessary funds if the English Company
agreed to support his claim to the Nawabship.
ˆ Some Zamindars refused to accept Mir Zafar as
their ruler. ˆ Mir Zafar was ultimately forced to abdicate in
favour of his son-in-law, Mir Qasim. In this way,
ˆ Mir Zafar also suspected the loyalty of some of Mir Jafar reaped what he had sowed, got betrayal
his soldiers, who had not been receiving their in return for betrayal.
regular salary, as well as that of his officials like
Rai Durlabh. MIR QASIM (1760-1763)
ˆ Mir Zafar’s growing dependence on the ˆ Mir Qasim rewarded his benefactors by granting
Company for military support was used by the the Company the Zamindari of Burdwan,
Company to demand more finances and other Midnapore and Chittagong. He also promised to
privileges from the Nawab. But the Nawab give the Company half of the share in trade of
failed to meet the growing demands of the Sylhet.
Company which brought about his ruin.
ˆ The first few months of Mir Qasim’s reign went
ˆ Mir Zafar, who had played the role of ‘Clive’s very well, but soon the relationship with the
jackal’, soon began to repent the deal he had struck British embittered due to several reasons. Also,
and in order to shed off the British yoke, Jafar began Mir Qasim belied English hopes. He was an able
intriguing with the Dutch against the British. and efficient ruler and wanted to free himself
ˆ Clive however thwarted this design by defeating from foreign control.
the Dutch in the decisive Battle of Bedara.
But by now the English Company had grown
considerably suspicious of the Nawab and had
begun to look for a suitable replacement.
ˆ From the Company’s perspective, its role had
considerably changed since Plassey, and it
now had to play the role of a commercial-cum
military-cum political power.
ˆ So in order to fund its new responsibilities and
upon finding that the Nawab was unable to pay
the stipulated payments (by 1760, he was in debt
of the Company to the tune of Rs 25 Lakhs), the
company lost its confidence in Mir Zafar.

www.sleepyclasses.com 283 1800-890-3043

ˆ He shifted the capital from Murshidabad to members themselves participated in Inland trade
Monghyr in Bihar, away from the influence of and they rather favoured the deposition of Mir
the Company at Calcutta and court intrigues at Qasim, which would provide them with yet another
Murshidabad. opportunity for receiving bribes.
ˆ Completely overhauled the bureaucracy by men ˆ Out of desperation, Mir Qasim abolished all
of his choice and sought to improve the finances inland duties to bring the Indian merchants
of the state. on the same footing as the English, provoking
ˆ Sought to modernise his army along European hostilities by an attack on Patna town.
line and preparations were made for the ˆ In this way, war between the Nawab and the
manufacture of guns at Monghyr. English broke out in 1763 and the Nawab was
ˆ The misuse of Company’s dastaks for private defeated in a series of battles that year.
trade was perpetual cause of tension between ˆ Subsequently, he fled to Awadh and formed
the English Company and the Nawabs. The an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of
Company’s servants were not paying any duty on Awadh) and Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor-???)
their goods, whereas the local merchants had to pay in a final bid to overthrow the English.
duty with the following consequences – RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES
ˆ The Nawab lost tax revenue. ˆ Three kind of States that emerged after/alongside
ˆ The local merchants faced unequal competition. the Mughal Empire
ˆ Further, the Company’s servants even sold the ˆ Successor States - These states broke away from
dastaks to Indian merchants for a commission. the Mughal Empire and arose as a result of
ˆ The Company’s servants even used coercive assertion of autonomy by Governors of Mughal
methods to get things at cheaper rate. Province. Example - Hyderabad, Carnatic,
ˆ They ignored the officials of the Nawab and Bengal and Awadh.
forcibly took away the good and commodities of ˆ New States - These states arose a result of
the peasants and merchants for a fourth part of rebellion by local chiefs against Mughal
their value. authority. Example - Marathas, Jats, Sikhs and
ˆ They also used violence and oppression to force Afghans.
the peasants into buying goods at prices many ˆ Independent States - They had only been a
times higher their value. nominal part of the Mughal Empire and now
ˆ In such conditions, though Mir Qasim did not in the 18th century became fully independent.
seek independence from the British, he did seek Example - Mysore, Kerala and Rajputs.
to limit the fast expanding encroachments of AWADH
the English on his jurisdiction, which were
driving him to desperation.
ˆ After he appealed to British, a compromise was
made that the Nawab would give the English
traders a share in the inland trade provided they
paid 9% duty.
ˆ It was also agreed that the Nawab alone would
be competent to grant dastaks and his authority
would be ultimate in the resolution of disputes
regarding trade.
ˆ Unfortunately, the agreement was disproved
by the Calcutta Council, as most of the Council

www.sleepyclasses.com 284 1800-890-3043

ˆ The subah of Awadh was strategically placed ˆ The Maratha sardars were still confined to the
between North Bank of Ganga and the Himalayas, south and the Rajputs were loyal to the Mughals.
comprising of parts of Benaras and Allahabad. ˆ He was not a man of the moment and was weak
ˆ Proximity to Delhi minded and frivolous and The attempts to reform
ˆ Economic Prosperity the administration proved futile and disgusted
with the inability and fickle mindedness of the
ˆ Flourishing Agriculture emperor, the Nizam (???) chose to pursue his own
ˆ The rise of Awadh was the result of the political ambitions.
pursuit by the family of Burhan ul mulk Saadat ˆ He gave his office in 1724 and proceeded to the
Khan who was appointed as Governor of Awadh south.
by the Mughal Emperor in the year 1722.
ˆ Burhan ul Mulk was the title given by the Mughal BACK TO THE PRESENT
Emperor Muhammad Shah. AWADH
ˆ In order to consolidate his base in Awadh, he ˆ In this way, he made the province a hereditary
got his nephew and son-in-law Safdar Jung possession and gradually secured the
appointed as the Deputy Governor by the independence of Awadh.
Emperor. ˆ In 1723, he introduced a new land Revenue
MUHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748) [13TH] system and made his administration as one of
the most efficient of his time.
ˆ The anti-Sayyid nobles were strongly backed by
ˆ After Saadat Khan, Safdar Jung was made the
Muhammad Shah who wanted to free himself
Governor.
from the hold of the brothers.
ˆ After Safdar Jung death, his son Shuja-ud-Daulah
ˆ After the fall of the Sayyid brothers, Muhammad
was appointed as the governor of Awadh, and
Shah had a long reign (1719-48) [13th Ruler] to
during his reign was the Battle of Buxar fought.
save the empire. The Mughal rule was still held
in high esteem by the people. ˆ After Shuja-ud-Daulah came Asaf-Ud-Daula
in 1775 and he transferred the capital from
ˆ The Mughal army especially the artillery was
Faizabad to Lucknow and concentrated his
still the most important force; administration in
energies in cultural pursuits (of which Bara
northern India had deteriorated but not collapsed
Imambara is the most famous).
entirely.
ˆ He was very generous in nature - therefore the
MUHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748) famous saying - “Jisko na de Maula, usko de
Asaf-ud-Daula”
ˆ Awadh was finally annexed by British in the
year 1856(???).

www.sleepyclasses.com 285 1800-890-3043

BATTLE OF BUXAR -
and showed considerable practical wisdom in
‘A war of circumstances rather than intentions’ his settlements -
(22nd October 1764)
ˆ Settlement with Nawab of Awadh - Clive went
ˆ Immediate Cause - The abuse of dastaks by the to Awadh, met Shuja-ud-Daulah at Allahabad
Company’s servants for their private trade. and concluded with him the first Treaty of
ˆ The three allies faced the Company’s army at the Allahabad. As per the treaty,
battlefield of Buxar. ˆ Nawab of Awadh was to pay a war indemnity of
ˆ Allies forces stood at nearly 40,000 to 60,000 Rs 50 Lakh to company.
whereas the English forces stood at nearly 7,000 ˆ Nawab was made to surrender Allahabad and
commanded by Major Hector Munro. Kora to emperor Shah Alam.
Immediate Cause - The abuse of dastaks by the ˆ The Nawab was made to enter an offensive
Company’s servants for their private trade. and defensive treaty (similar to subsidiary
ˆ It was a closely contested battle with heavy alliance-???) with the Company. In this way,
casualties on both sides and ended in the victory Nawab of Awadh became dependent on the Company.
of the superior military power, the British. ˆ Settlement with Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam
ˆ This was one of the most decisive battles in II - Clive concluded the Second Treaty of
Indian History. It firmly established the British Allahabad with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam
as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Awadh II. As per the treaty –
was placed at their mercy. ˆ The Emperor was taken into Company’s
protection and given the districts of Kora and
CONSEQUENCES OF BATTLE OF BUXAR Allahabad ceded by Awadh (The Emperor resided
ˆ Buxar sealed the fate of Bengal Nawabs and in the fort of Allahabad for 6 years as a virtual prisoner
transferred it into the hands of the English of the English).
Company. ˆ In return, the Emperor issued a Farman dated
ˆ Mir Jafar was brought back to the throne of 12 August 1765 granted to the Company the
Bengal, this time on much harsher terms. Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in return for
the Company making an annual payment of Rs
ˆ Asked to hand over the districts of Midnapore,
26 Lakhs to him and providing for the expenses
Burdawan and Chittagong to the English
of the Nizamat of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa which
ˆ Permitted EIC duty free trade in Bengal (with was fixed at Rs 53 Lakhs. (In this way, the Farman
exception of 2% duty on salt). legalised the Company’s gain in Bengal, it established
ˆ He and his successors had to pay Rs 5 Lakh a Dual system in Bengal in theory and converted the
per month to the English Company. Allowed Emperor into useful ‘rubber stamp of the company’).
Company’s intervention in matters of
appointments. LET’S RECAP
Bengal
ˆ Mir Jafar died shortly thereafter and his minor
son, Nijam-ud-Daulah was appointed as ˆ Province of Bengal emerged as an independent
Nawab. autonomous state in the first half of the 18th
century, and though the sovereignty of the
ˆ Clive was appointed as Governor and
Mughal Empire was not challenged, practically
Commander-in-Chief of Bengal (Clive second
Independent and hereditary authority was
Governorship) [1757-1760, 1764-1767].
established by two men of exceptional ability -
ˆ First and foremost he took up the tasks of Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan.
defining relations with the defeated powers

www.sleepyclasses.com 286 1800-890-3043

ˆ Mughal Provincial Administration has two main administration into the hands of a Naib-Subadar
branches - Nizamati and Diwani. nominated by the Company.
ˆ Nizamati meant civil Administration - Provincial ˆ Going by this strategy, Company gained Diwani
Subahdar was in charge of Nizamat (Called as from the Emperor and Nizamat functions form
Nazim) the Nawab of Bengal.
ˆ Diwani meant revenue Administration - Under ˆ In this way, the infamous dual system was ‘dual’
the official named Diwan. only in theory, while in practice the Company
acquired all real power in Bengal. The Nawab
SHAH ALAM II (1760 –88, 1788-1806) lost all independent military or financial power and
[17TH & 19TH] become a mere figurehead.
ˆ Ali Gauhar, the son of Alamgir II became the
Mughal emperor in 1759 and took up the title of DUAL SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION IN
Shah Alam II (Shah Alam I was the son of Aurangzeb). BENGAL
(DYARCHY OR DOUBLE GOVERNANCE
ˆ Although he was declared the Mughal Emperor,
SYSTEM)
he did not proceed to Delhi for 12 years.
ˆ Dual System meant the system of Governance
ˆ Ultimately in January 1772, Shah Alam II was
where the Company exercised Diwani functions
reinstated at Delhi by the Marathas.
while the Nawab of Bengal exercised the
ˆ Ghulam Qadir (Rohilla) occupied Delhi in 1788, Nizamat functions (defence, Law and order and
blinded Shah Alam II and deposed him. administration of justice).
ˆ Ghulam Qadir was defeated and executed by ˆ However, Nizam-ud-Daulah was allowed
Mahadji Scindia at Meerut in 1789 and Shah to succeed as Nawab of Bengal only on the
Alam II was reinstated as Scindia’s pensioner. condition that he surrendered the Nizamat
ˆ Shah Jahan IV (1788) [18th] functions. Hence in reality, Dual System was
just a sham as it was company that exercised
ˆ Ek Aur Shah Jahan !!!!!
all political power and merely used the Nawab
SHAH ALAM II (1760 –88, 1788-1806) and his administration as an instrument for its
purposes.
ˆ In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English after
Lord Lake defeated the Marathas (Battle of Delhi, ˆ Thus, in practice, dual system referred to the
part of the 2nd Anglo-Maratha War) and Shah system of Government whereby the Company
Alam II became the British pensioner. acquired all real power while the ‘responsibility’
for administration rested on the shoulders
ˆ Shah Alam II was also defeated in the Battle of
of the Nawab. A fatal divorce of power from
Buxar.
responsibility was inherent in this dual system.
BACK TO THE PRESENT ˆ The advantage of this system was that British
Consequences of Battle of Buxar had power without responsibility. This had
ˆ Settlement with Nawab of Bengal - adverse consequences for the people of Bengal,
as neither the company nor the Nawab cared for
ˆ After the death of Mir Zafar, Nizam-ud-Daulah their welfare.
was allowed to succeed his father on the
following conditions - ˆ In the words of Clive himself - ‘Such a state of
confusion, bribery, corruption and extortion was
ˆ The Nawab would surrender Defense and never seen or heard of in any place but Bengal’.
Foreign Affairs (both were Nizamat functions)
into the hands of the Company and civil ˆ Thus began the Drain of Wealth from Bengal.
ˆ The Company stopped sending money from

www.sleepyclasses.com 287 1800-890-3043

 England to buy Indian goods, these goods were ˆ Disruption of trade and Commerce - Company
now purchased from the revenue of Bengal and merchants exercised strict monopoly and would
sold abroad. undersell the Indian merchants in Bengal,
ˆ This Drain of Wealth greatly impoverished pushing many of them in destitution and
Bengal and was a major factor responsible for beggary.
the terrible Bengal famine of 1770. Though ˆ It ruined Indigenous Industry and skill -
the famine was caused by failure of rains, the Company used its political power to compel the
devastating effects were accentuated by policies cotton weavers of Bengal to buy raw material
of British. from and sell woven cloths to the Company
ˆ As a result of the Dual System of Government, exclusively at arbitrary prices. The Company
The English Company acquired a real power also encouraged the industries selectively.
without any responsibility while the position of
SIGNIFICANCE OF BATTLE OF BUXAR
Nawab was virtually reduced to a cipher.
ˆ After this battle, the English emerged as the
ˆ Other Adverse impacts include -
supreme power. Now the Nawab of Bengal was
their puppet, the Nawab of Awadh a pliant ally
and the Mughal Emperor their pensioner.
ˆ Lands from Bengal upto Allahabad lay at their
feet and the roads to Delhi were open.
ˆ While the Plassey made them a powerful factor
in Bengal politics, Buxar made them a powerful
factor in the politics of north India.
ˆ In fact, the British now emerged as strong
contender for the Indian Empire.

www.sleepyclasses.com 288 1800-890-3043

 MODERN HISTORY -
RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES
ˆ They built a number of forts on the
mountains.
ˆ The spread of the Bhakti movement in
Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious
unity among them.
ˆ The spiritual leaders like Tukkaram,
Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered
social unity.
ˆ The political unity was conferred by Shivaji.
ˆ The Marathas held important positions in the
administrative and military systems of Deccan
Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar.

LET’S RECAP

RISE OF REGIONAL POWERS & AUTONO-

MOUS STATES – MARATHAS
Marathas
ˆ The Maratha Kingdom was constituted in the
17th century in Western Deccan and by 18th
century, they had become one of the strongest Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra
regional power in India.
ˆ Broadly divided in 2 sects -
ˆ After the Mughals retreated from the Deccan,
the Marathas grew as a confederacy of military ƒ Varkaris (Namdeva, Eknath-???)
leaders called Maratha sardars. ƒ Dharkaris (Ramdas, Pilgrimages-???)

WHAT LED TO THEIR RISE AS A PROMINENT ƒ Realisation of God as the highest end of
POWER? human life is common aim of both.

ˆ The mountainous region and dense forests

made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla
tactics.

www.sleepyclasses.com 289 1800-890-3043

BACK TO THE PRESENT ƒ Eventually, Sambhaji was ambushed and
captured by Mughal troops and executed.
ˆ Upon Sambhaji’s death, his half-brother Rajaram
assumed the throne. The Mughal siege of Raigad
continued, and he had to flee for safety.

SHAHU (1708 – 1749)

ˆ Rajaram died in 1700 at Sinhagad. His
widow, Tarabai, assumed control in the name
of her son, Ramaraja (Shivaji II). She led the
Maratha against the Mughal.
ˆ After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, Shahu, son
of Sambhaji (and grandson of Shivaji), was
CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI (1630 – 1680) released by Bahadur Shah I, the new Mughal
emperor. Upon release, Shahu immediately
ˆ Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was a Maratha
claimed the Maratha throne and challenged his
aristocrat of the Bhosale clan who is considered
aunt Tarabai and her son.
to be the founder of the Maratha empire.
ˆ Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as
ˆ Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj led a resistance to
Peshwa. The Peshwa was instrumental in
free the people from the Sultanate of Bijapur in
securing Mughal recognition of Shahu as the
1645
rightful heir of Shivaji and the Chatrapati of
ˆ He created an independent Maratha kingdom the Maratha.
with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought
against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He MUGHALS & CHANGING NATURE OF
was crowned as Chhatrapati (sovereign) of the MARATHAS
new Maratha kingdom in 1674. ˆ Long History of suppression by the Mughals,
ˆ Shivaji had two sons: Sambhaji and Rajaram, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb.
who had different mothers and were half- ƒ In 1689, Aurangzeb defeated and killed
brothers. Sambhaji, the elder son, was very Shivaji’s son and successor Sambhaji and
popular among the courtiers. In 1681, Sambhaji captured his son Shahu, and thus the whole
succeeded to the crown after his father’s death Maratha nation rose in arms against the
and resumed his expansionist policies Mughals.
ˆ To nullify the alliance between his rebel son, ƒ The younger son of Shivaji, Raja Ram carried
Akbar II and the Maratha, Mughal Emperor on the struggle till his death in 1700 and
Aurangzeb headed south in 1681. With his entire thereafter the struggle was carried on by his
imperial court, administration and an army of wife Tarabai.
about 500,000 troops, he proceeded to expand the
ƒ In 1707, after Aurangzeb’s death, his
Mughal empire, gaining territories such as the
successors released Shivaji’s grandson Shahu
sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda
in hope of throwing an apple of discord in
SAMBHAJI & RAJARAM Maratha region.

ˆ During the eight years that followed, Sambhaji ƒ Thereafter, a division was witnessed in
led the Maratha, never losing any of battles and the Maratha camp - One led by Tarabai at
even forts to Aurangzeb. Kolhapur and other led by Shahu at Satara
- A long civil war followed after this in

www.sleepyclasses.com 290 1800-890-3043

 which Shahu would ultimately come out as ˆ In 1719, Balaji helped the Sayid Brothers remove
victorious with the help of a group of new Farukh Siyar from the Mughal throne and place
Independent Sardars and an able Chitpavan a puppet emperor in Delhi and therefore he
Brahmin from Konkan, Balaji Vishwanath. secured for the Maratha King a Mughal Sanad
ƒ All this gave rise to a new system of (Imperial Order)
Administration under the leadership of
Balaji Vishwanath, the Peshwa (Prime
Minister) of king Shahu - This phase marks
the Period of Peshwa domination. And it
was during this period that Maratha state
transformed into an empire.

PESHWA BALAJI VISHWANATH (1713-1720) –

[1ST BUT 6TH ]
ˆ Shahu appointed Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath in
1713. From his time, the office of Peshwa became
supreme while Shahuji became a figurehead. He
is called as the second founder of the Maratha
Empire.

www.sleepyclasses.com 291 1800-890-3043

 MARATHAS
PESHWA BALAJI VISHWANATH (1713-1720) –
[1ST BUT 6TH ]
ˆ After the Death of Balaji Vishwanath in April
ˆ Shahu appointed Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath in 1720, he was succeeded by his 20 Year old son
1713. From his time, the office of Peshwa became Baji Rao I.
supreme while Shahuji became a figurehead. He
is called as the second founder of the Maratha RAO I (1720-1740)- [2ND BUT 7TH ]
Empire. ˆ After Balaji Vishwanath’s death in April 1720,
ˆ In 1719, Balaji helped the Sayyid Brothers his son, Baji Rao I, was appointed Peshwa by
remove Farrukh Siyar from the Mughal throne Shahu. Bajirao is credited with expanding the
and place a puppet emperor in Delhi and Maratha Empire tenfold and has been called
therefore he secured for the Maratha King a ‘the greatest Exponent of Guerrilla tactics after
Mughal Sanad (Imperial Order). Shivaji’.
ˆ He preached the ideal of ‘Hindu Pad Padshahi’
PESHWA BALAJI VISHWANATH (1713-1720)
to secure the support of Hindu Chiefs against the
ˆ Mughal Sanad of 1719 - As per the Sanad, The Mughals. He proposed the conquest of North
Marathas were allowed to collect Chauth and against the Mughals in the following words -
Sardeshmukhi from the entire Deccan. In ‘Lets us strike the trunk of the withering Tree,
return of the above privilege, The Marathas were and the branches will fall off themselves’.
to place a contingent of 15,000 soldiers at the
disposal of the Mughal Emperor, maintaining BAJI RAO I (1720-1740)
peace and security in the Deccan and paying an ˆ Under Baji Rao, Marathas won control over
annual tribute of Rs. 10 Lakhs to the emperor. Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand,
ƒ In this way, Marathas become the king of the therefore he is known in Maharashtra as the
entire Deccan and this Sanad is regarded as ‘Fighting Peshwa’. It was his forward policy
the “Manga Carta of the Maratha Dominion” which brought the province from Bengal to
Bengal under Maratha influence by 1760.
ˆ However, strong foundation of the Empire
could not be laid and little attention was paid
to the administration of the new areas and
moreover no attempts, were made to check the
dangerous Feudal Tendency which in the end
ˆ For the efficient collection of Chauth and proved ruinous to the Maratha Kingdom.
Sardeshmukhi, Balaji assigned different ˆ In 1740, Baji Rao met a premature death at the
areas to different Sardars, thus laying down age of 42.
the confederacy of Maratha Confederacy and
started granting Saranjams (grant of land) BALAJI BAJIRAO (1740-1761)- [3RD BUT 8TH ]
which Balaji found as best suited to bring peace ˆ 18 years old son of Baji Rao I - Balaji Bajirao also
from anarchy at that time which later turned into known as Nana Sahib, became Peshwa in 1740.
greatest weakness as it made the king largely
ˆ Shahu’s successor Raja Ram executed a
dependent on the Sardars for financial affairs.
Document known as the ‘Sangola Agreement’
(Constitutional Revolution of 1750) which

www.sleepyclasses.com 292 1800-890-3043

 transferred the supreme power from the ˆ Narayan Rao succumbed to the intrigues of his
Chattarpati to the Peshwa and thus Peshwa uncle Raghunath Rao in 1773.
became the De facto ruler of the Maratha Empire
RAGHUNATH RAO (1773- 1774)- [6TH BUT 11TH ]
and as a symbol of this fact, he transferred the
Government to Poona, his headquarters. ˆ He was deposed by Nana Phadnis and 11 other
ˆ His rule also witnessed the appearance of Administrators (Baarbhai) in what is known as
new powers in the political scene, namely the the ‘Baarbhai Conspiracy’
Afghans, The Sikhs, The French and the English. MADHAV RAO II (1774-1795)- [7TH BUT 12TH ]
ˆ Maratha Empire reached its zenith under the ˆ Baarbhai installed Narayan Rao’s posthumous
rule of Balaji Bajirao, extending from Cuttack to son, Madhav Rao II as the Peshwa, with
Attack. themselves led by Nana Phadnis as the regent.
ˆ After annexing whole of Mainland India, ˆ Frustrated by this Raghunath Rao turned to
Marathas now had their eyes upon Punjab which British and tried to capture power with their
at that time was ruled by an agent of Abdali and help, resulting in the first Anglo-Maratha war.
this led to Third Battle of Panipat.
ˆ After this Peshwa’s power gradually waned,
BALAJI BAJIRAO (1740-1761) Poona became a seat of constant intrigues
THIRD BATTLE OF PANIPAT between the supporters of Sawai Madhav Rao,
(14 JANUARY 1761) headed by Nana Phadnis and the supporters of
Raghunath Rao

MADHAV RAO II (1774-1795)

ˆ Therefore Third Battle of Panipat did not decide
who would rule India, but rather who would ˆ Taking advantage of the weakening of the central
not. Therefore the famous saying - “If Plassey authority, Sardars started to carve out their
had sown the seeds of British supremacy in own Semi-Independent states in the North by
India, Panipat afforded time for their maturing possessing their own army. These were
and striking roots” ƒ Holkars of Indore

MADHAV RAO (1761-1772)- [4TH BUT 9TH ] ƒ Scindia of Gwalior

ˆ He was 17 years old when he became the Peshwa ƒ Gaekwad of Baroda

in 1761. ƒ Bhonsle of Nagpur
ˆ He was a talented statesman and within a short ˆ Among them Mahadji Shinde of Gwalior was
Period of 11 years, he restored the lost fortunes the most important as he organised a powerful
of Maratha Empire, a phenomenon known as European Style Army with the help of French
Maratha Resurrection, with the help of his able and Portuguese officers, consisting equally of
minister Nana Phadnavis. Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
ˆ When all the thing were going their way, Madhav ˆ Madhav Rao II committed suicide in 1795
Rao died of Tuberculosis in 1772. and thus a power struggle ensued among
the Maratha nobles for control of the
NARAYAN RAO (1772- 1773)- [5TH BUT 10TH ] Confederacy.
ˆ Maratha Empire was in a state of confusion - At
Poona there was a struggle for power between
Raghunath Rao (younger brother of Balaji
Bajirao) and Narayan Rao (younger brother of
Madhav Rao).

www.sleepyclasses.com 293 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Maratha Empire represented the same decadent
social order as the Mughal Empire did, and
therefore suffered the same weakness. Like the
Mughals, there were dependent on Force and
force alone.
ˆ They did not try to develop a new Economy,
BAJI RAO - II nor did they encourage S&T or trade and
ˆ He was the last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. Industry.
ˆ By this time, the British had grown their full ˆ Taxation was quite heavy on the peasantry,
control over the Indian Mainland and thus and nearly half of the Agricultural produce was
they divided the warring Sardars though clever collected as Tax.
diplomacy and then defeated them in separate
battles in the Second Anglo Maratha War (1803- PYQ
1805) and the Third Anglo Maratha War (1817-
1819). Q. Assertion (A) : Marathas emerged as the
ƒ First Reign (1796 - 1802) - His reign witnessed strongest native power in India after the decline
the second Anglo Maratha War. After the of Mughal empire.
death of Nana Phadnis, Poona court once Reason (R) : Marathas were the first to have
again fell to various court conspiracies and a clear concept of a united Indian nation.
various factions emerged up. [PYQ]
y Peshwa due to the ongoing conspiracies, (a) Both A and R are individually true but R is
took refuge in Bassein and approached the correct explanation of A
Wellesly for help, and this provided (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is
an ideal opportunity to British to not the correct explanation of A
intervene in the Internal affairs of (c) A is true but R is false
Maratha Kingdom.
(d) A is false but R is true
y Baji Rao II accepted subsidiary Alliance Answer : C
and signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802,
this affected the patriotic feelings of other
Maratha chiefs and provoked the second
Anglo Maratha War that began the
breakup of Maratha confederacy.

PESHWA BAJI RAO - II

ˆ Second Reign (1803 - 1818) - During this time
period, Third Anglo Maratha war happened.
On 3 June 1818, Peshwa surrendered before the
British.
ƒ He was dethroned and pensioned off and Q. Which one of the following pairs is correctly
ordered to spend the last days in Bithoor near matched? [PYQ]
Kanpur. (a) Battle of Buxar—Mir Jafar vs. Clive
In this way, Maratha dream of establishing their (b) Battle of Wandiwash—French vs. East India
own empire could not be realised. Various reasons Company
for it

www.sleepyclasses.com 294 1800-890-3043

 (c) Battle of Chilianwala—Dalhousie vs.
Marathas
(d) Battle of Kharda—Nizam vs. East India
Company
Answer : B

www.sleepyclasses.com 295 1800-890-3043

 ANGLO MARATHA WARS
LET’S BRAINSTORM FORTUNES OF BRITISH AT LOWEST EBB
ˆ The British “fought the First Maratha War in a ˆ Political ebb
period when their fortunes were at the lowest ƒ America 
ebb.” Comment. (15 Marks, 250 Words) [PYQ]
ƒ Simultaneous battles with 2 formidable rivals
ˆ 1st Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) between the in India
Marathas and British, was the result of ambitions
of Raghunath Rao, the uncle of 4th & 5th Peshwa, ƒ Counter French
Madhav Rao & Narayan Rao respectively. ƒ Regulating Act & issues
ˆ Economic ebb
CIRCUMSTANCES LEADING TO 1ST
MARATHA WAR ƒ EIC ‘on verge of bankruptcy’
ˆ Madhav Rao died of a wasting (???) disease & ˆ It is to the credit of Warren Hastings that he
Narayan Rao was killed because of jealousies overcame all dangers and safeguarded British
and palace intrigues. interests in the most critical situation.
ˆ Raghunath Rao claimed the gaddi, but the birth
of a posthumous son to Narayan Rao deprived Coming Of Europeans –
him of the coveted prize.
The English
ƒ So, Raghu. signed away the Maratha
independence by the ‘Treaty of Surat’ in 1775,
in order to become puppet Peshwa.

COMING OF EUROPEANS THE ENGLISH

ˆ In 1599, a company to trade with the East was
formed under the auspices of the group of
merchants known as Merchant Adventurers. the
ˆ British were only too eager to avail of such an
Company popularly came to be known as East
opportunity of acquiring power.
India Company (formed in 1600).
ƒ However, the attempt proved premature and
ˆ In 1600, EIC was granted a royal charter by
war ended with “Treaty of Salbai”, with the
Queen Elizabeth giving it the exclusive privilege
sole major British gain being the island of
of trading east of the Cape of Good Hope for a
Salsette.
period of 15 years.

www.sleepyclasses.com 296 1800-890-3043

ˆ Initially, their main area of interest was ƒ On arrival, he went to the court of Jahangir at
Spice Islands in Indonesia. However, due to Agra in 1609, the English were given the royal
overwhelming presence of Dutch, they shifted Farman to set up factories on the west Coast.
their preference towards India and thus in But the English were not satisfied as they
1608, Surat in Gujarat was established as the wanted the permission for whole of India.
trade transit point and the company ships were However, Hawkins had to leave India at that
docked there. time due to Portuguese intrigues.
ˆ The Company now planned to open up a factory
in Surat and sent Captain Hawkins for the same.

ENGLISH - EARLY FACTORIES shifted the centre of their activity to Madras,

Raja allowed the Company to fortify Madras.
ˆ In 1611, English opened their first factory in the
Thus the English set up a small factory and built
south at Masulipatnam (????).
a small fort around it called Fort St. George.
ˆ In 1613, they opened their permanent factory at
ˆ In 1651, at Hugli, the first English factory was
Surat.
set up in Bengal upon receiving permission from
ˆ In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe arrives in India, sent Sultan Shuja. In 1690, Job Charnock established
by King James I as an ambassador to the court a factory at Sutanati which was fortified in 1697
of Jahangir. He was successful in obtaining and called Fort St. Williams. In 1698, the Bengal
royal Farman according to which English were factories were placed under Fort St. Williams.
allowed to set up their factories in the whole of
ˆ In 1661-62, King Charles II of England received
India.
Bombay as dowry on marrying a Portuguese
ˆ However due to interference by the Mughal Princess.
Administration into their trade, they shifted
ˆ In 1668, the Crown transferred it to the Company
their focus towards the South .
on an annual rent of ten pounds.
ˆ In 1639, Francis Day was able to obtain Madras
on lease from the Raja of Chandragiri and

www.sleepyclasses.com 297 1800-890-3043

ˆ Bombay quickly replaced Surat as the principal ˆ In 1693, The Dutch snatched Pondicherry but it
depot of the Company on the West Coast. was restored to the French under the Treaty of
Reswick. In this way, French established its firm
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE base in India.
COMPANY
ˆ After that, they further consolidated their
ˆ In 1625, the Directors and Governors of the position by adding several bases including Mahe,
Company were given Judicial powers. Karaikal, Balasore and Kasimbazar.
ˆ In 1661, the Company was empowered to send ˆ The real trouble started when the French won
ships of war with men and ammunition for the control of Tanjore which the British considered
safety of its possessions overseas. vital for their trade security and thus began the
ˆ In 1683, it got full power to declare war and Anglo-French rivalry.
make peace, to raise and maintain an army.

Coming Of
Europeans – French
ˆ The French were the last colonial power to set
up their foot in India.
ˆ In 1664, Colbert formed the Company des Indes
Orientales. The French Company was granted
licence by King Louis IV to trade with India and
the East Indies.

FRENCH FACTORIES
ˆ In 1667, they set up their first factory at Surat
with Francis Caron as the Director General.
ˆ In 1669, they set up factory at Masulipatnam.
Rise of British Supremacy
In 1672, Caron was replaced by Francois Martin
Anglo French Rivalry
ˆ
who received a village as a grant from the
King of Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded
Pondicherry, which later became their capital. RISE OF BRITISH SUPREMACY WARS OF
CARNATIC
ˆ The mid-18th century saw the gradual
transformation of the English East India Company
from a trading company into a political power.
During the period 1600 to mid-18th century, it
slowly expanded its trade network in India,
simultaneously easing out the rivals through a
strategy combining diplomacy and war.
ˆ Though the rise of British supremacy in India is
usually traced to 1757 with the British victory in
the Battle of Plassey, the ground for the victory
was laid in South India where the British might
was successfully tasted out against the French

www.sleepyclasses.com 298 1800-890-3043

 Company.

ANGLO-FRENCH STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMA-

CY - THE CARNATIC WARS
Why these foreign powers started gaining the
Political Power ?
ˆ When the declining Mughal Authority and
the weak regional powers proved incapable
of safeguarding the interests of European
companies in India, they saw the necessity to
empower themselves militarily.
ˆ Further, they were commercial entities, seeking
to maximise their profit margins, which
necessitate the elimination of competition and
establishment of monopoly.
ˆ Not that they only wanted to monopolise their
trade, they also wanted to acquire power,
necessitating acquisition of some political
control over the country they traded with.
Why this rivalry emerged in the South India?
FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1740-48)
ˆ In this context, emergence of hostilities between Background of Hostility - Austrian War of
the English and the French was but natural. Succession
South India emerged as the arena for Anglo-
French rivalry as it had become the main centre ˆ The immediate context for conflict between two
for French activities with Pondicherry as capital. European rivals in India was provided by the
War of Austrian Succession in Europe which
ˆ The French had also begun to wield influence
broke out in Europe in 1740.
in the neighbouring states of Hyderabad
and Mysore. Besides, there was not much ˆ In this war, Britain and France joined opposite
scope in western India because of powerful camps. Perhaps conscious of their relatively
Marathas, while Eastern India was under the weaker position, the French tried hard to prevent
direct control of Alivardi Khan, therefore it was the extension of war to India and Dupleix (The
only in Southern India that conditions became French General) [1742-1754] advised his English
favourable, especially after the death of Nizam- counterpart to maintain neutrality.
ul-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1748. ˆ But the English did not agree, instead deliberately
adopted aggressive stand and seized some
French ships off the south-eastern coast of India.
ˆ The French had no fleet in India, hence Dupleix
messaged La Bourdonnais (The French Governor
of Mauritius) for reinforcements.
ˆ He immediately siphoned 3000 men towards the
Coromandel Coast. As soon as the help arrived,

www.sleepyclasses.com 299 1800-890-3043

 French attacked the English and captured the SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-1754)
British possessions in Fort St. George, Madras ˆ Dynastic feuds in South India provided the
and nearby areas, and Robert Clive was taken content for the second round of Anglo-French
as prisoner of War, and thus the First Carnatic conflict in the South.
War had begun.
ˆ The succession disputes at both Carnatic and
BATTLE OF ADYAR Hyderabad provided the French Governor
General Dupleix an opportunity to intervene in
ˆ Anwaruddin, the Nawab of Carnatic,
Indian Politics.
disapproved the hostilities in his kingdom.
Thus, when the English appealed to him for SUCCESSION DISPUTES IN CARNATIC AND
protection, Nawab asked the French to quit HYDERABAD
Madras, but the French were in no mood to
ˆ In 1740, The Marathas had invaded the Carnatic
retreat and neglected the advice.
and killed Nawab Dost Ali and took his son-in-
ˆ The Nawab now sent a large army to fight against
law Chanda Sahib as prisoner to Satara.
the French. A large Indian Army of 10,000 men
met a small French army of 230 European and ˆ In 1743, The Nizam of Hyderabad felt prompted
700 Indians soldiers on the bank of River Adyar to come to the Carnatic and appoint Anwaruddin
in 1746. Khan as the Nawab of Carnatic. But in 1748, the
Chanda Sahib was freed by the Marathas and
ˆ But to everyone’s surprise, a handful of properly
the same year, Nizam-ul-Mulk passed away.
trained soldiers of the French army routed
He was succeeded by his son Nasir Jung but
Anwaruddin’s vast army. This highlighted the
his grandson, Muzaffar Jung laid claim to the
superiority of the European army and exposed
throne.
the weakness of the military weakness of the
Indian rulers. ˆ Muzaffar Jung now allied with Chanda sahib
to gain their respective seats in Hyderabad and
ˆ Thereafter in 18th century emerged political
the Carnatic respectively.
chaos. There was no dearth of Indian princes
who would invite Dupleix’s assistance to turn INTERVENTION BY DUPLEIX
the scales in their favour.
ˆ He was able to intervene in the wars of
ˆ In this way, it was Duplex who first showed the
succession that started after the death of Nizam
way of intervening in disputes of the Indian
ul Mulk, he pledged support to Muzaffar Jung
rulers and thereby acquiring political control
and Chanda Sahib. Thus a tripartite bond was
- a technique which was later perfected by the
developed between the French, Chanda Sahib
English company.
and Muzzaffar Jung.
TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE ˆ In August 1749, the three allies ambushed and
ˆ Even as the French continued the siege, the killed Anwaruddin at the Battle of Ambur,
War of Austrian Succession came to an end by near Vellore. His son Muhammad Ali fled to
Treaty of Aix la Chapelle on the basis of mutual Trichonopoly and Chanda Sahib became the
restitution of conquests. Nawab of Carnatic and thus began the second
phase of Anglo-French War (2nd Carnatic War)
ˆ This brought an end to the first round of Anglo
French rivalry in India as well. ˆ After this the allies marched to Deccan. The
French army surprised and killed Nasir Jung
ˆ Madras was restored to the English and the
and installed Muzaffar Jung as the Nizam of
French got Louisbourg in North America, and
Hyderabad.
thus the first war ended in a draw.
ˆ He rewarded Dupleix by ceding some territories

www.sleepyclasses.com 300 1800-890-3043

 south of the River Krishna to the French (among defeated Chanda Sahib.
other rewards). ˆ Meanwhile, encouraged by the capture of Arcot,
ˆ In return, Dupleix placed at the disposal of Chanda Sahib was treacherously captured and
Muzaffar Jung the service of one of his best beheaded. Muhammad Ali then became the
officer named Bussy. undisputed Nawab of Carnatic.
ˆ Soon afterwards, Muzzaffar Jung was killed ˆ The fate of French Governor Dupleix was sealed
in an accidental skirmish. However, Bussy after the defeat of Arcot. The Directors of the
maintained French influence in the Deccan by French Company did not appreciate his political
quickly placing his nominee Salabat Jung on the ambitions and disproved of the expenses they
throne. involved and recalled him.
ˆ In this way, Bussy went on to control the political ˆ On 1 August 1754, Godeheu succeeded Dupleix
fortune of the Deccan for 7 years. as French Governor General in India.
ˆ Thus the French power in the South was now at
TREATY OF PONDICHERRY (1754)
its heights from where it was going to fall badly.
ˆ Godeheu signed a peace treaty, The Treaty of
EMERGENCE OF ROBERT CLIVE Pondicherry with the English in 1754. As per this
ˆ Meanwhile, Muhammad Ali had taken refuge treaty, both the companies agreed not to interfere
in the fortress of Trichinopoly and the repeated in the quarrels of the Indian princes.
attempted of Chanda Sahib and the French to ˆ After this treaty, French continued to maintain
capture the fortress had failed. their hold over Hyderabad for some time, but
ˆ The British, realising that the situation implied a they had lost much of their prestige and their
serious threat to their position in Southern India, predominant position in the Deccan had been
now decided to put their entire strength behind definitely undermined.
Muhammad Ali. ˆ On the other hand, English influence had been
ˆ Here Robert Clive saves the day for British. He established in Carnatic, with their candidate
suggested that French pressure on Muhammad Mohammad Ali installed as the Nawab of
Ali could be released by attacking Arcot, the Carnatic.
capital of Carnatic.
THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1756- 1763 AD)
ˆ Thus, attack upon Arcot was to be used as a
ˆ Like the first Carnatic War, this Third war was
diversionary tactic and thus Chanda Sahib
also the echo of the Hostilities happening in
would have to divert an effective part of his
Europe between the British and the French.
army for the protection of Arcot.
ˆ The Seven Years War broke out in Europe and
SIEGE OF ARCOT (1751) both the forces joined the opposite camps and
ˆ Clive stormed Arcot with a small force of only this ended the short peace between the European
210 men and captured it. Chanda Sahib alarmed companies in India as well.
by the attack on his capital, sent the best troops
ARRIVAL OF DE LALLY (APRIL 1758)
from Trichinopoly which comprised of 4000 men
to recapture Arcot. ˆ This time the French Government made a
determined effort to oust the English from India.
ˆ Clive successfully sustained the famous siege
For this purpose, The French sent an impressive
for 53 days.In the meantime, Clive received help
French army headed by De Lally, who reached
in the form of reinforcements from Madras and
India after a long voyage of 12 Months in April
some Indian allies (like Marathas). Clive then
1758.
came out of the besieged town, attacked and

www.sleepyclasses.com 301 1800-890-3043

ˆ Lally started his work vigorously and attacked returned to Mysore without fighting even a
Fort St. David and captured it and other small single battle.
English possessions in this region. ˆ The French capital of Pondicherry finally
ˆ But the French victory was only short-lived as surrendered on 16th January 1761.
problems of varying nature began to surface on
the horizon. PEACE OF PARIS, 1763

ˆ Lally’s attack on Madras ended in failure as he ˆ The Third Carnatic War ended officially in 1763
could not get naval support in time. with the conclusion of the Treaty of Paris, at the
end of Seven Years War.
DE LALLY ˆ As per the treaty, Pondicherry and some other
ˆ The French Company also faced shortage of French settlements were no doubt returned to
ammunition as well as lack of funds to pay the France, but these were never to be fortified again and
troops. could only function as mere trading centres.
ˆ Lally was rude and overbearing in his conduct ˆ The worst fate awaited Lally. He was detained as
with the subordinates i.e. the Company’s a prisoner of war for two years, after which he
servants of Pondicherry. He held a very low was allowed to return to his home country, where
opinion of them and looked down upon them as far from receiving any favourable treatment, he
dishonest rogues to be set right with threats and was first imprisoned and then executed.
punishments. In such circumstances, both Lally ˆ Thus the Third Carnatic War brought down the
and his soldiers distrusted each other and the curtain to the Anglo-French rivalry in India and
French troops felt badly demoralised. cleared the way for the establishment of the
ˆ At this critical juncture, rash and headstrong British Empire.
Lally committed another great blunder of
fighting personal battles with the British. REASONS FOR DEFEAT OF THE FRENCH
AGAINST THE ENGLISH
ˆ Having assessed the situation, The English sent
Continental Ambitions of France
an army from Bengal to the Northern Circars.
They occupied Rajamundry and Masulipatnam ˆ France in 18th century remained preoccupied with
and also concluded a favourable treaty with its continental ambitions, which considerably
Nizam Salabat Jung. strained its resources. The French Monarchs of
ˆ French Influence in Deccan was thus irrevocably the time were fighting for the ‘natural frontiers’
lost. of their country, which meant acquisition of
territory towards Rhine and towards Italy.
BATTLE OF WANDIWASH (1760) ˆ Such an expansionist policy of France kept
ˆ The battle still continued and Lally was it perpetually trapped in the wars of Europe
eventually defeated decisively at the Battle of and diverted its energies away from colonial
Wandiwash (Tamil Nadu – 22nd January 1760) acquisition.
ˆ The English army led by General Eyre Coot ˆ In the end, the French gained almost nothing
totally routed the French army under Lally, who on the continent and even lost its colonial
was taken as a prisoner. possessions.
ˆ Defeated, the French retreated to Pondicherry ˆ On the other hand, England followed its single
but the English soon laid siege to Pondicherry as minded objective of colonial expansion, an
well, forcing Lally to ask for help from Nawab objective in which it achieved considerable
Hyder Ali of Mysore. However, due to lack success.
of coordination, the contingent sent by Hyder

www.sleepyclasses.com 302 1800-890-3043

 who were greatly interested in the welfare of
the Company, and the board maintained good
financial heath and was at one time seem as the
milch cow of the British Government.

RISE OF BRITISH SUPREMACY

ANGLO MYSORE

Different Systems of Government

ˆ The French Government was autocratic and
suffered from corruption and inefficiency.
ˆ The English Government was run by an
enlightened oligarchy, under which it
was making immense progress towards a
constitutional set up.

DIFFERENCE IN THE ORGANISATION OF

TWO COMPANIES
ˆ The French Company had been formed with
a majority of capital contributed by the
Monarchs with a guarantee of dividend to the
shareholders, thus the directors of the company
nominated by the king himself, took very little
interest in the progress of the company.
ˆ Many a times, when the company faced financial
constraints, it was revived by the Government
subsidy only.
ˆ Such a body was ill equipped to support the
ambitions of the Dupleix and his expensive wars.
ˆ The English Company, was an independent
commercial corporation with a court of Directors

www.sleepyclasses.com 303 1800-890-3043

BRITISH EXPANSION IN SOUTH INDIA
ˆ What brought the Country powers in conflict
with each other - The ever lasting quest for new
resources and territorial expansion.
ˆ What brought the British in conflict with Southern
Regional powers - Commercial Interests and to
expand their area of control and their profits.
ˆ Moreover, The French Alliance with Mysore
BRITISH INTERVENTION IN MYSORE
was seen as a threat to English dominance.
ˆ Hyder and Tipu’s dominance over the rich
ˆ The British home government was in need of
trade of Malabar Coast was seen as the threat
finances for growing expenditure(???), and so it
to the English Company’s Trade in pepper and
encouraged an aggressive expansionist policy of
cardamom.
the Company’s merchants
ƒ In 1785, Tipu declared an embargo on export
of pepper and cardamom through the ports ANGLO MYSORE WARS (1767 –1799)
within his kingdom. ˆ The rise of Mysore under Hyder Ali was viewed
ƒ In 1788, he clearly forbade dealings with as a threat by the neighbouring states - the
English traders. Marathas, The Nawabs of Carnatic and The
Nizam of Hyderabad.
ˆ Thus Mysore was also seen as a threat to English
control over Madras. ˆ The Marathas and the Nizam formed an alliance
against Mysore and also co-operated with the
English Company to curb Mysore.
ˆ But the Nizam was equally apprehensive of the
Marathas and therefore cooperated with the
English company against the Marathas also.

www.sleepyclasses.com 304 1800-890-3043

www.sleepyclasses.com 305 1800-890-3043
 ˆ As per this treaty, the Company got the Northern
Circars and in return promised to give military
support to the Nizam in his endeavours against
Hyder Ali.
ˆ At the same time, Nizam had formed an alliance
with the Marathas as both felt threatened by
the expansionist attitude of Hyder Ali.
ˆ In this way, The Marathas, The Nizam and the
English entered into a tripartite treaty against
Hyder Ali and attacked Mysore.
ˆ Hyder successfully persuaded the Nizam and
the Marathas(???) to join hands with him
against the English. (Nizam-???)
ˆ He then launched an offensive attack against the
Company and reached upto the gates of Madras.
He forced the Madras Council to sign peace on
his terms in 1769, known as the Treaty of Madras.
ˆ In all, 4 Anglo Mysore Wars happened.Except
the first war, the British emerged victorious in ˆ As per the treaty, both the powers agreed to help
all of them. each other in case of an attack by a third party.

ˆ The basic cause of these wars was the Company’s SECOND ANGLO MYSORE WAR (1780 –1784)
objective to undermine the independent authority
ˆ The British had no intention to stick to the treaty
of the Mysore rulers.
of Madras. When Marathas invaded Hyder’s
ˆ After the victory in the fourth war, the British territory in 1771, the English Company did not
disintegrated the Mysore state and have one come to his help.
part of the Kingdom to the minor prince of
ˆ So this feeling of being betrayed laid the
Wadiyar dynasty (1399-1950).
foundation of the Second Mysore War. On the
FIRST ANGLO MYSORE WAR (1767 –1769) other hand the French proved more helpful to
Hyder with his military demands.
ˆ Hyder Ali’ s friendship with French, along with
Mysore border dispute with Nawab of Carnatic ˆ Further, The American War of Independence
is considered as one of the main reason for this had broken out in 1775 and the French help to
war. American colonist made Governor General
Warren Hastings extremely anxious of Hyder’s
ˆ The immediate context of war was provided by closeness with the French.
the rivalry over control of Northern Circars.
ˆ Under these circumstances, The Company
ˆ This part was under the Nizam of Hyderabad and attempted to capture Mahe (A French
the English Company was seeking an overland settlement on the Malabar Coast within Hyder’s
connection between its territories in Madras and Jurisdiction), which was a direct challenge to
Bengal, and the Northern Circars was a series of Hyder Ali.
coastal territories that lay in between.
ˆ The English capture of Mahe provided the
ˆ The Nizam of Hyderabad initially rejected the immediate context for second Mysore War. The
British demand. However, later signed a treaty English won over the Marathas and the Nizam
with the Company in view of his poor financial (Bribery).
condition.

www.sleepyclasses.com 306 1800-890-3043

 brought the Marathas and The Nizam to the
English side.
ˆ Convinced of the inevitability of the war, Tipu
also sought help from the Turks and the French
by sending embassies to Constantinople and
France during 1784-1787.
ˆ However, Tipu’s attack on Travancore became
the immediate cause of the Third-Mysore War
as the English were already itching for a war and
decided to side with the ruler of Travancore.
ˆ The War started in 1790, supported by the
Marathas and the Nizam’s troops, Cornwallis
himself headed a large army and approached
Serinagapatnam.
ˆ Tipu suffered a serious setback and showed
initiative for peace. Thus, the Treaty of
Serinagapatnam was signed in 1792 under
which -
ƒ Tipu had to surrender half of his territory
ˆ In July 1781, The English Army under Sir Eyre
to the Company and his allies (Marathas,
Coote defeated Hyder Ali at Porto-Novo.
Nizam).
ˆ Skrimishes continued for the time being But
ƒ Tipu also had to pay war indemnity of Rs. 3
later Hyder Ali died of cancer in December 1782
crore, but as he was unable to pay this sum
during the course of second Mysore War.
as indemnity, his two sons were kept as
ˆ Tipu, son and successor continued the war. prisoners with Cornwallis.
ˆ However in 1783, The American War of ˆ After Cornwallis, Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
Independence ended, French sailed back to became the Governor General but he adopted
Europe leaving Tipu to fight his own battles. the Policy of non-intervention towards Mysore.
ˆ The Madras Government also desired peace ˆ For this reason, John Shore is known as the
due to lack of resources and uncertainty of the Father of policy of non-intervention.
Maratha attitude.
FOURTH ANGLO MYSORE WAR (1799)
ˆ Tipu also needed time to strengthen his own
administration. Thus the war ended with Treaty ˆ Lord Wellesley sailed for India in 1797, this
of Mangalore (March 1784) signed on the basis was a period when English were struggling
of mutual restitution of each other’s territories. against the French all over the world. Napoleon
This was the last British treaty with an Indian Bonaparte had captured Egypt and Syria and he
ruler on an equal footing. now turned towards India.
ƒ In 1801, he made an alliance with Czar Paul of
THIRD ANGLO MYSORE WAR (1790 –1792)
Russia and drew up a serious plan to invade
ˆ The earlier treaty was only a temporary respite India via Herat and Kandahar.
before a final showdown.
ˆ The English well realised the consequences of a
ˆ Lord Cornwallis had became the Governor defeat at the hands of Napoleon and this would
General in 1786 and through his diplomacy he

www.sleepyclasses.com 307 1800-890-3043

 mean an end to its commerce that had brought
immense financial and political gains. Modern History
ˆ In Napoleon’s plan, Tipu Sultan of Mysore
RISE OF AUTONOMOUS STATES –
saw the right opportunity to oust the English
SIKH EMPIRE
from India. He entered into negotiations with
the French and started making elaborate ˆ Three kind of States that emerged after/alongside
preparations for war with the Company. the Mughal Empire
ˆ He planted a ‘Flag of Liberty’ at Serinagapatnam, ƒ Successor States - These states broke away
styled himself ‘Citizen Tipu’. He employed the from the Mughal Empire and arose as a result
French Commandant Monsieur Raymond and of assertion of autonomy by Governors of
raised a corps of 14000 men with his help. Mughal Province. Example - Hyderabad,
Carnatic, Bengal and Awadh.
ˆ Wellesley alarmed by this, tried to convert as
many as Indian states into the subsidiary allies ƒ New States - These states arose a result of
of the Company, either by persuasion or by force. rebellion by local chiefs against Mughal
authority. Example - Marathas, Jats, Sikhs
ˆ War began in February 1799 and was over by
and Afghans.
May. The English Company won a decisive
victory at the Battle of Serinagapatnam. ƒ Independent States - They had only been a
nominal part of the Mughal Empire and now
ˆ Tipu was killed during the defence of the city,
in the 18th century became fully independent.
before French help could reach him. He died a
Example - Mysore, Kerala and Rajputs.
heroes death defending the capital.
ˆ Much of the remaining Mysorean territory RISE OF REGIONAL POWERS & AUTONO-
was annexed by the Company, Nizam and The MOUS STATES – SIKHS
Marathas. Sikhs
ˆ The remaining core around Mysore and ˆ The rise of Sikhs in the Mughal Province of
Serinagapatnam, was restored to the minor Lahore was somewhat different that other
Indian prince, two year old Krishnaraj Mughal Provinces as they were established by
belonging to the Wadiyar Dynasty, whose the respective Governors of those areas, once
forefathers had been the actual rulers before appointed by the Mughals only. But in the case
Hyder Ali became the de-facto ruler. of Punjab, it was a group of Local people, The
ˆ A special Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance was Sikhs.
imposed on the Wadiyar King and Mysore
RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MUGHALS
virtually became a dependance of the British.
ˆ Tipu’s family was imprisoned in Vellore and his ˆ Many of the Sikh gurus such as Guru Arjan
two sons pensioned. Dev Ji, Guru Teg Bahadur Ji were tortured and
brutally killed by Mughals, one of the reason
ˆ After the success , Wellesley arrogantly being refusal to convert to Islam. Subsequently,
pronounced “Now the Kingdom of the East is Sikhs militarised themselves to oppose the
under our feet”. Mughal dominance.
ˆ The Sikhs became a military fighting group
under the 6th Guru - Guru Hargobind Singh.
However under the 10th Guru - Guru Gobind
Singh, the Sikhs became a military and a
political force.

www.sleepyclasses.com 308 1800-890-3043

LAST SIKH GURU – GOBIND SINGH is also known to have halted the Zamindari
(1666 – 1708) system when he was active and gave the farmers
proprietorship of their own land.
He was Installed as the Sikh guru at the age of 9,
after his father - Guru Teg Bahadur was beheaded ˆ He waged a relentless though unequal struggle
by Mughals for refusing to convert to Islam. against Aurangzeb’s successor for 8 years.

ˆ Guru Gobind’s all 4 sons were also killed ˆ The Mughals tried to suppress this rebellion at
during his lifetime, falling victim to Mughal- the earliest as Punjab was strategically important
Sikh Conflict. and very much crucial for security of Mughal
Empire.
ˆ Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a
military force by establishing the body of Khalsa FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TOWARDS
in 1699. SUPREMACY OF SIKHS
ˆ In order to stop the corruption that may step up ˆ Weakening of the Mughal Imperial Authority
with the time as the religion progresses, therefore
ˆ Series of Persian and Afghan Invasions
he decided to stop this tradition of Guruship,
and the power of Guru was vested in the Panth ˆ Maratha Incursion because of which half the of
and the Holy Scripture - Guru Granth Sahib ji the Mughal energy and resource were diverted
(11th Living Guru). towards the Maratha Region.

ˆ Guru Gobind Singh tried to carve out an

autonomous state in and around Anandpur.
ˆ In 1704, Anandpur was captured by the Mughals
and the Guru was compelled to leave. Guru
Gobind Singh was killed in an conspiracy
(treacherously in 1708) by an Afghan who
stabbed him while sleeping.
ˆ Thereafter the leadership of the Mughals was
passed on the Sikh Military General Baba Banda
Singh Bahadur.

ˆ Ensuing Internal Struggle within province was

another important reason - Zakariya khan was
the Mughal Governor of Lahore during 1726 -
1745. His death resulted in a fratricidal struggle
among his three sons over the Governorship of
Punjab.
ˆ After Third battle of Panipat in 1761, Abdali
BANDA BAHADUR(1708 – 1715-16) withdrew from the Punjab-Lahore region. In
this way, the defeat of the Mughals and the
ˆ He was the first Sikh Military leader to wage Marathas at the hands of Afghans allowed Sikhs
offensive war against India’s Mughal rule. He to consolidate their position in Punjab. Between

www.sleepyclasses.com 309 1800-890-3043

 1765 and 1800, Sikh confederacies brought the (c) Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by
Punjab and Jammu under their control which his uncle.
ultimately resulted into establishment of an (d) Firoz Tughlaq set up a separate department
Autonomous State in the early 19th century. of slaves.
Ans. to previous PYQ: D
PYQ ˆ Firoz Tughlaq set up a separate department of
slaves known as ‘Diwan-i-Bandagan’. Mohd
Q. With reference to the religious history of
Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin
medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known
(not uncle) Firoz Tughlaq. Alauddin Khalji
to pursue which of the following practices?
introduced the branding system of horses in
1. Meditation and control of breath his military.
2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place
3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of
ecstasy in their audience
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below :
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans. to previous PYQ: D
Q. Who was the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty
of the Delhi Sultanate? Q. Which one of the following is the correct
(a) Firoz Shah Tughlaq chronological order of the battles fought in
(b) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Shah II India in the 18th Century?
(c) Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (a) Battle of Wandiwash–Battle of Buxar–Battle
(d) Nasrat Shah of Ambur–Battle of Plassey
Answer: C (b) Battle of Ambur–Battle of Plassey–Battle of
Wandiwash–Battle of Buxar
FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351 - 1388 C.E.) (c) Battle of Wandiwash–Battle of Plassey–Battle
ˆ FST Autobiography - Futuhat - e - Firozshahi of Ambur–Battle of Buxar
(32 page) (d) Battle of Ambur–Battle of Buxar–Battle of
ˆ Shams Siraj Afif – Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi Wandiwash–Battle of Plassey
ˆ Total Rulers- 8 (???) Ans. to previous PYQ: B

ˆ Last Ruler: Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughluq BATTLE OF AMBUR-1749, BATTLE OF

(1394-1413) PLASSEY-1757
Q. With reference to medieval Indian rulers, which BATTLE OF WANDIWASH-1760, BATTLE OF
one of the following statement is correct? BUXAR-1764
(a) Alauddin Khalji first set up a separate ariz’s
department.
(b) Balban introduced the branding of horses in
his military.

www.sleepyclasses.com 310 1800-890-3043

SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-1754)
Intervention by Dupleix
ˆ He was able to intervene in the wars of succession
that started after the death of Nizam ul Mulk, he
pledged support to Muzaffar Jung and Chanda
Sahib. Thus a tripartite bond was developed
between the French, Chanda Sahib and Muzzaffar
Jung.
ˆ In August 1749, the three allied ambushed and
killed Anwaruddin at the Battle of Ambur,
near Vellore. His son Muhammad Ali fled to
Trichonopoly and Chanda Sahib became the
Nawab of Carnatic and thus began the second
CONTROVERSY
phase of Anglo-French War (2nd Carnatic War)

PYQ
Q. Who among the following Indian rulers
established embassies in foreign countries on
modern lines?
(a) Haider Ali (b) Mir Qasim
(c) Shah Alam II (d) Tipu Sultan
Ans. to previous PYQ: D
Tipu Sultan established embassies in France,Turkey
and Egypt on modern lines.

www.sleepyclasses.com 311 1800-890-3043

 SIKHS
1809, Treaty of Amritsar was signed with the
PERIOD OF SOVEREIGN SIKH RULE IN THE
British East India Company.
FORMER MUGHAL PROVINCE OF LAHORE
(1765 – 1845) ˆ The prospects of a joint Franco-Russian invasion
of India through the land-route had alarmed the
ˆ In the face of severe Mughal repression, the Sikhs
English.
had organised themselves into several mobile
bands called Jathas, each headed by a Jathedar. ˆ In 1807, Lord Minto sent Charles Metcalfe to
Lahore. Ranjit Singh offered to accept Metcalfe’s
ˆ These Jathas were eventually absorbed into
proposal of an alliance on the condition that the
12 larger regional confederacies or Misls led
English would remain neutral in case of a Sikh-
by Local Chiefs. These Misls did occasionally
Afghan war and would consider Ranjit Singh
unite, but largely the political authority in
the sovereign of the entire Punjab including the
Punjab remained decentralised and more
Malwa (cis-Sutlej-???) territories.
horizontally dispersed till Ranjit Singh - The
Chief of Sukerchakia Misl, tried to raise a more ˆ However, the negotiations failed. In the changed
centralised Sikh State at the end of the 18th political scenario in which the Napoleonic
century. danger receded and the English became more
assertive, Ranjit Singh agreed to sign the Treaty
ˆ 1799- Conquest of Lahore by Ranjit Singh
of Amritsar (April 25, 1809) with the Company.
(establishment of Sikh Empire).
ˆ As per the terms of the treaty, the Company
recognised him as the sole sovereign ruler
of Punjab, permitting him complete freedom
of action to the north of Sutlej, but the British
established their control over cis-Sutlej Sikh
states, thus preventing Ranjit Singh from any
further expansion to the south of the Sutlej.
ˆ In the North, he then conquered Kashmir,
Peshawar and Multan and in this way he
established his own kingdom. Made no changes
to the existing revenue system and allowed the
THE PUNJAB UNDER RANJIT SINGH
Mughal System to continue.
(1801 – 1839)
ˆ He came to be popularly known as Shere Punjab,
ˆ Ranjit Singh was the son of Mahan Singh, the
because of this ability of being an excellent and a
leader of Sukerchakia Misl.
secular administrator of those times.
ˆ He was a courageous soldier, and efficient
ˆ He greatly modernised his army on European
administrator and a skillful diplomat.
lines with the help of European Instructors. His
ˆ He brought the area extending from Sutlej to army was not confined to the Sikhs. He recruited
Jhelum under him. He conquered Lahore in 1799 Gorkhas, Oriyas, Biharis, Dogras and even
and Amritsar in 1802. Punjabi Muslims.
ˆ The Conflict of English with the Sikhs began ƒ Foundries were set up to manufacture
when they tried to assert their authority in the cannons at Lahore.
North, which the Sikhs relentlessly opposed. In
ˆ As a person, he was a tolerant and liberal in

www.sleepyclasses.com 312 1800-890-3043

 religious matters. He was a devout Sikh but Shuja on the throne of Kabul.
also patronised Hindu and Muslim holy Men. ˆ Between 1809 till 1839, when Ranjit Singh
He is remembered for stepping down from his died there were no major tension internally
throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim and externally in the Sikh Empire. However
mendicants with his long Grey Beard. Therefore after his death, whole of the Sikh Empire fell
the Punjab under him was more of a Secular like a standing pack of Cards. His eldest son
state and not a Sikh State. and successor Kharak Singh proved to be an
ˆ Tripartite Treaty of 1838 - By the end of 1838, unworthy successor. After his death in 1840, his
British forced him to sign a Tripartite Treaty with son Naunihal Singh accidentally died while
Shah Shuja and the English Company whereby returning from his father’s funeral, leading to
he agreed to provide passage to British troops an anarchic situation in Punjab, and British were
through Punjab, enabling them to place Shah quick enough to cash onto this opportunity.
ˆ The first Anglo Sikh war begin in 1845 and the
British finally annexed Punjab in 1849 - with
this the last standing Regional Empire of India
was dismantled by the British and whole of
the Indian Mainland was brought under their
control.

www.sleepyclasses.com 313 1800-890-3043

 BRITISH ACTS IN INDIA
ˆ By this time, Company had already acquired
Consolidation of British political power and power-yielding territories
Rule in India and became an empire in itself. Therefore, the
British Company soon realised that Company
could no longer be allowed to remain outside the
ambit of the State.
ˆ Therefore the British Parliament subjected
the company to control through various
constitutional laws and Acts.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE ACT

ˆ The Dual Govt of Bengal led to rampant
corruption in the whole system and there seemed
to be a fatal divorce of power from law and order
in Bengal.
REGULATING ACT, CHARTER ACT & GOI ˆ The abuses of private trade reached a greater
ACT-??? height than ever before. Clive himself returned
ˆ Permitted the company to retain its territorial to England at the age of 34, with alleged wealth
possessions in India and property in India yielding 40,000 pounds a
year.
ˆ Changed the post of Governor of Bengal
to “Governor-General of Bengal”. ˆ This wealth attracted the interest of British
Parliamentarians and suggestions emerged that
ˆ Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta the Crown should take over the Company.
ˆ For the first time, the British cabinet was given ˆ The first intervention of the British Parliament in
the right to exercise control over Indian affairs. the Company’s affairs in 1767 merely took the
ˆ Creation of Executive Council to Assist the form of a demand for share of Bengal’s plunder
Governor-General to the tune of 400,000 pound per annum.
ˆ Reforms to curb corruptions ˆ There was jealously among Englishmen in
Britain and the Company’s officials began to be
looked down upon in England and were given
the deserve title of ‘Nabobs’. It symbolised the
corrupt form of Nawab.
ˆ Financial Crisis in East India Company - By
1770, the continuous war and expansion policy
of the Company had pushed it on the brinks of
bankruptcy, and a committee was set up.
ˆ Based on the Committee’s report, Lord North
(British PM) presented his famous bill on 18
May 1773, which later came to be known as the
BACKGROUND Regulating Act.

www.sleepyclasses.com 314 1800-890-3043

 ƒ By a separate Act, the Company was granted y The Act provided for establishment of
a loan of Rs. 1,40,000 pounds at 4% interest. Supreme Court of Justice at Calcutta.
y It composed of Chief Justice and three
MAIN PROVISIONS -
puisne Judges. (Sir Elijah Imphey)
ˆ Main aim was to regulate the activities of
y Appeal against the Court’s decision could
Company in both India as well as England.
be made to the King in Council in England.
ˆ In England
ƒ There were two bodies regulating the affairs
of the Company - The Court of Proprietors
and Court of Directors.
ƒ The Regulating Act raised the issue of raising
the qualification for both CoP and CoD.
ƒ The Act also provided for direct Parliamentary
control over the CoD for the first time.
ˆ In India -
ƒ To check the rampant corruption in Bengal,
The Act provided for a new presidency of the
Bengal,
ƒ That would comprise of a Governor - General
and 4 Councillors .(Governor General in
Council) The decision of the Council was
LIMITATIONS
binding on him.
ƒ Warren Hastings was the first Governor ˆ It was intentionally vague in many of its
General. provisions - It had neither given the state a
definite control over the Company, nor the
ƒ The Act provided for payment of liberal Company a definite control over the Servants.
salaries and prohibited immoral activities
such as private trade, receiving or giving ˆ When put to practice - it broke down under the
bribes, money lending etc. weight of its own defects .

ƒ Since there was no supreme Authority in

India, This Act tried to establish an empowered
central authority -
y Bengal Presidency was made supreme
(Madras and Bombay were subordinated
to it).
ƒ Therefore, the Governor of Bengal was now
called as the Governor - General of Bengal.
ƒ This act laid the foundation of Central
Administration in India.
ƒ Another defect in the system, was that there
was no major independent judicial body to
keep check over the executive.

www.sleepyclasses.com 315 1800-890-3043

PITT’S INDIA ACT, 1784 ACT OF 1786
ˆ Named after ???? ˆ In 1786, Pitt moved this bill in order to make
Cornwallis accept the Governor-Generalship.
ƒ Cornwallis wanted to assume the power of
both the GG and Commander-in-Chief.
ˆ This Act joined both the offices of GG and the
CnC in the same person.
ˆ The GG was further empowered and allowed to
override the majority of his Council in matters
of War and peace on his own responsibility
(Important).

CHARTER ACT OF 1793

ˆ It extended the Company’s exclusive privilege
ˆ This bill was introduced by William Pitt which
of trade for a further period of 20 Years.
later came to be known as Pitt’s India Act.
ˆ This act laid the foundation of Governance
ƒ Its aim was to remove the weakness of the
based on written laws in British India in place
Regulating Act of 1773 and bring Company’s
of personal rules of past rulers.
administration in India under the supreme
control of British Parliament.

MAIN PROVISIONS
ˆ Allowed the Court of Directors to manage the
commercial affairs of the Company.
ƒ But for Political Affairs, the Act appointed a
Board of six Commissioners, known as Board
of Control.
CHARTER ACT OF 1813
ˆ In this way, a form of Double Government was
introduced. Continental System in Europe & Napoleon
Changes with respect to Company’s Governance in ˆ Features:
India 1. Charter act of 1813 ended the monopoly of the
ˆ The number of members in the Governor- East India Company in India, the company’s
General’s Council was reduced to 3. monopoly in trade with China and trade in
tea with India was kept intact.
ˆ The power of GG-in-Council over subordinate
2. The company’s rule was extended to another
presidencies was extended to include all matters
20 years.
of war, diplomatic relations and revenue.
3. The act granted permission to the persons
ˆ The GG and council were made subordinate to
who wished to go to India for promoting
British Government.
moral and religious improvements.
ˆ The Act also introduced the principle of non- (Christian Missionaries)
intervention in the affairs of Indian Princely
4. There was also a provision that Company
states to end further war and conquests.
should invest Rs. 1 Lakh every year on the
education of Indians.

www.sleepyclasses.com 316 1800-890-3043

 5. It empowered the Local Governments in
India to impose taxes on persons and to
punish those who did not pay them.

BACKGROUND
ˆ Before this Act, there were elaborate discussion
on the continuation of commercial privileges
enjoyed by the company.
ˆ By 1813, The Companies territories in India had
greatly expanded and it was considered nearly
impossible for the Company to function both
as a commercial as well as political entity.
ˆ In the above context, the demand for ending the CHARTER ACT OF 1833
Company’s trade monopoly had grown much
louder.

MAIN PROVISIONS
ˆ The Act of 1813 renewed the Company’s Charter
for next 20 years but ended the Company’s
monopoly of trade with India.
ƒ It however, retained its monopoly, in tea
trade and trade with China.
ˆ In this way, Indian Trade was thrown open to
all British merchants.
ˆ It allowed Missionaries to go to India and
allowed them to settle there under a license. CHARTER ACT OF 1833 – BACKGROUND

ˆ This marked the beginning of ecclesiastical ˆ This was a period of Industrial Revolution and
settlement in India. the Englishmen were looking for new export
markets.
ˆ It provided a yearly fund of Rs. 1 Lakh for
promotion of literature and sciences among ˆ In 1830, The Whigs (later known as Liberal
Indian Subjects. Party) came into power.
ƒ Two Liberals - Macaulay and James Mill,
had a visible impact on the Charter of 1833.
y Macaulay was the Secretary of Board of
Control.
y James Mill was a renowned Historian.
ˆ By this time, Slavery has been abolished all over
Britain (1833) and the dignity of mankind was
being recognised.
ˆ It was in this atmosphere that Charter Act of
1833 was passed.

www.sleepyclasses.com 317 1800-890-3043

MAIN PROVISIONS presidencies were simultaneously decreased.
ˆ The Company’s exclusive trade privileges were ƒ These laws were applicable to all persons
ended and the Company was asked to wind up British or India, including the servants of the
its commercial business as soon as possible. Company.
ˆ The Act declared the complete power of the ˆ The Act provided for new presidency of Agra.
British Parliament over the GG-in-Council.
SIGNIFICANCE
ˆ All restriction to immigration of Europeans into
India and acquisition of land and property by ˆ Marked the culmination of centralisation
them was completely removed. process which first began with the Regulating
Act.
ˆ Hence the Act lifted the legal barrier on the
colonialisation of India by Europeans. ƒ Now the GG in council had complete authority
over the entire Indian Administration.
ˆ An Indian Law Commission was appointed for
the codification of existing laws. CHARTER ACT OF 1853
ˆ The Indian Penal Code and Codes of Civil and
Criminal Procedure were enacted by its efforts.
ˆ The Act enlarged the Executive Council by
addition of 4th member.
ƒ A law member (A British Barrister) was
added to the GG-in-Council, and his work
was fully legislative.
ƒ He had no vote in the Council and he could
only attend meetings through invitation.
ƒ Macaulay became the first Law member and
President of the Law Commission.
ˆ It provided for education and employment of
Indians in public services.
ˆ The Act stated that ‘Fitness’ is henceforth to be
the criteria of eligibility.
ˆ No native shall by reason only of his religion,
place of birth, descent or colour be disabled from
holding any employment under the Company.
ˆ GG was directed to work towards abolition of
slavery in India.
ƒ (It was ultimately abolished by Act V of 1843.)
ˆ The Act further centralised the Indian ˆ It said that Indian Territories would remain ‘in
Administration and the GG of Bengal was made trust for the Crown, until Parliament should
the GG of India. (William Bentinck) otherwise direct’.

ƒ The powers of GG-in-Council were further ˆ Now the Company disappeared as a commercial
extended and they had the power to legislate agency, remaining as a political agent for the
for the whole of British territories in Crown.
India while the legislative powers of other

www.sleepyclasses.com 318 1800-890-3043

ˆ The separation of executive and legislative y The provincial representatives were to be
functions was carried a step further and civil servants of the Company with not
additional members of the Council were less than a standing of 10 Years.
appointed for legislative work.
ˆ In this way, the Central Legislature was formed,
ƒ The Law member wad made a full member of though no Indian member was associated with
the GG Executive Council. the Legislative Council.
ˆ This council while sitting in Legislative capacity ƒ A clear distinction was made between the
was enlarged by the addition of six members Legislative Councillors, legislation was for
namely the first time treated as a special function of
ƒ The Chief Justice and the puisne judge the Government.
of the Calcutta Supreme Court and Four y However, the Executive Council retained
representatives, one each from Bengal, power to veto a bill of the Legislative
Madras, Bombay and North-Western Council.
Provinces.

www.sleepyclasses.com 319 1800-890-3043

 BRITISH ACTS IN INDIA (1858 - 1935)

ˆ Edward Henry Stanley (He became the first

Secretary of State for India) introduced bill -
“An Act for the Better Government of India”
and passed on 2 August 1858.

MAIN PROVISIONS
ˆ The Act ended the Company’s rule in India and
power was transferred from the Company to the
Crown.
ˆ The Court of Directors and the Board of Control
were abolished and their powers transferred to
QUEEN’S PROCLAMATION, 1858 the Principal Secretary of State for India and
ˆ ‘Act for the Good government of India’ India Council.
ˆ Ended the Dual government scheme ƒ A 15 Member Council to aid and advice the
ˆ India became a direct British colony through the Secretary of State.
passage of this act
INDIA COUNCIL
ˆ Viceroy
ˆ They were to govern India in the name of the
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ACT Crown.
ˆ The Secretary of State was a member of the British
Cabinet as such responsible to the Parliament .
He was required to submit a periodic report on
the moral and material progress of India.
ˆ The Governor General received the title of
Viceroy, as he was now the direct representative
of the Crown.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ACT

ˆ Brought an end to the Company’s rule in India
and at the same time, the transfer of power was
more ‘formal’ than ‘substantial’.
CHARTER ACT OF 1858 – BACKGROUND ˆ It was intended that the change of the name will
ˆ The Revolt of 1857 gave a death blow to immediately remove the past and give a fresh
the existing system of Governance, gave an starting point to the empire.
immediate push to demand for transfer of power ˆ After a few months, The Act was followed by
from the Company to the crown. Queen Victoria’s proclamation on 1st November
1858 at grand Darbar held at Allahabad.

www.sleepyclasses.com 320 1800-890-3043

ˆ This document is known as ‘Magna Carta of the
People of India’ and it declared future policy of
the British rule in India.

IN THIS PROCLAMATION, THE IMPORTANT

POINTS WERE:
ˆ We appoint Viscount Canning, to be our first
Viceroy and Governor General in India.
ˆ We announce to the Native Princes that all
treaties made with them by the Company will
be accepted.
ˆ We desire no extension of our territorial
possessions.
ˆ Our clemency will be extended to all offenders
except those who have been convicted or directly
taken part in murder of British subjects.
ˆ They talked about equality in terms of
employment, treatment etc.

ˆ Viceroy also had the power to promulgate

ordinances without the council’s concurrence
during emergencies.
ˆ Provision made for the formation of legislative
councils in other provinces. New provinces
could also be created for legislative purposes and
Lieutenant Governors be appointed for them.
ˆ The Regulating Act had begun the process
of centralisation culminating in the Act of
ˆ Restored the legislative powers of the Governor-
1833 which took away legislative powers from
in-Councils of the Presidencies of Madras and
the province, but the Indian Councils Act of
Bombay (which was taken away by the Charter
1861 started an opposite process - A process
Act of 1833).
of decentralisation. Lord Canning (Viceroy)
ˆ Lord Canning, who was the Viceroy at the time, and Sir Charles Wood (Secretary of State) were
introduced the portfolio system. In this system, responsible for the passage of the Act of 1861.
each member was assigned a portfolio of a
ƒ The Executive Council of the Viceroy was
particular department.
enlarged by the addition of fifth member who
ˆ For legislative purposes, the Viceroy’s Council was a jurist.
was enlarged. Now, there were to be between 6
ƒ For the purpose of legislation, it enlarged the
and 12 additional members (nominated by the
Central Council by addition of not less than
Viceroy).
six and not more than twelve. Additional
ˆ Lord Canning nominated three Indians to the Members were to be nominated by the Viceroy
Council in 1862 namely, the Raja of Benares, the for a period of 2 years and it was provided
Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao. that at least half the them were to be non-
official. (Further, the function of the Council

www.sleepyclasses.com 321 1800-890-3043

 for legislative purposes was confined strictly indirect elections and there was nothing for a
to legislature only) common Indian. The system of indirect election
ˆ Changes in functions of the Central Legislature prevented direct contact between the public and
the representatives.
ƒ The Act restored the legislative powers of
Councils of Bombay and Madras. However-??? ˆ Main Provisions

ƒ The Act allowed establishments of new ƒ Act increased the number of members in the
Councils in other Provinces. Accordingly, Central Legislature.
North Western Provinces (1886) and Burma ƒ Increased to not less than 10 and not more
and Punjab (1897) were established. than 16.
ƒ It also provided for non official members in
CONFUSION-???
the Provincial Legislature. (8 to 12)
ˆ NWP vs NWFP
ƒ However in central as well as provincial
ˆ The Viceroy was empowered to issue
legislature official majority was maintained.
ordinances in case of emergency and without
the concurrence of Legislative Council, which ˆ The Act enlarged the functions of the Councils.
could remain in force for a maximum period of ˆ The members of the Central Legislature were
six months. now allowed to hold a discussion on the annual
ˆ The Act also empowered the Viceroy to create financial statement.
new provinces for legislative purposes and ƒ The members could not only discuss their
appoint Lieutenant Governor for them. It also views, they could also ask questions to the
empowered him to make territorial adjustment Government on matter of public interest after
between different provinces. six days notice.
ˆ Lord Canning introduced the portfolio system ˆ This Act was criticised by the Congress during
in India for the first time. Canning now divided its session in 1892 and 93 because it failed to
the various departments among the council introduce the system of direct elections in India.
members, thus laying the foundation of Cabinet
System in India.

Indian Councils Act of 1892

ˆ Increased the number of additional (non-official)
members in the Central and provincial legislative
councils.
ˆ Members could now discuss the budget without
right to vote on it.
ˆ A system of indirect elections was introduced to
elect the members of the councils. The universities,
district board, municipalities, zamindars and
chambers of commerce were empowered to
recommend members to provincial councils. INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1909
ˆ Said to be a first step towards the beginning
ˆ The legislative councils at the Centre and the
of the representative government in India.
provinces increased in size.
However such representation was via only

www.sleepyclasses.com 322 1800-890-3043

ˆ Central Legislative Council – from 16 to 60 member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
members; Legislative Councils of Bengal, ˆ Two Indians were nominated to the Council of
Madras, Bombay and United Provinces – 50 the Secretary of State for Indian affairs.
members each; Legislative Councils of Punjab,
Burma and Assam – 30 members each

ˆ The legislative councils at the centre and the

provinces were to have four categories of
members as follows: Ex officio members:
Governor-General and members of the
executive council; Nominated official members:
Government officials who were nominated by
the Governor-General; Nominated non-official MORLEY MINTO REFORMS OF 1909
members: nominated by the Governor-General Factors leading to this Act
but were not government officials; Elected ˆ Tremendous rise in national consciousness
members: elected by different categories of
Indians. ˆ Economic critique of colonial rule

ˆ The elected members were elected indirectly. ˆ Role of Curzon’s reactionary policies
The local bodies elected an electoral college who ˆ Rise of extremists and the revolutionaries
would elect members of the provincial legislative ˆ Shimla Deputation, 1st October 1906
councils. These members would, in turn, elect
ƒ A deputation led by Aga Khan met Viceroy
the members of the Central legislative council.
Lord Minto at Shimla on 1st October 1906.
ˆ The elected members were from the local
ƒ The deputationists expressed loyalty
bodies, the chambers of commerce, landlords,
to the British Crown but also expressed
universities, traders’ communities and Muslims.
apprehensions that if the principle of
ˆ It introduced separate electorates for the ‘election’ was introduced without conceding
Muslims. Some constituencies were earmarked reservation for Muslims, it would prove
for Muslims and only Muslims could vote their detrimental to their interests.
representatives.
ƒ Thus, deputation demanded reservation of
ˆ The members could discuss the budget and seats for Muslim community not only on the
move resolutions. They could also discuss basis of their population but on the basis of
matters of public interest. They could also ask their political importance and their ‘service
supplementary questions. No discussions on in the defence of the British Empire’.
foreign policy or on relations with the princely
states were permitted. MAIN PROVISIONS - CHANGE IN THE COM-
POSITION OF COUNCILS
ˆ Lord Minto appointed (on much persuasion by
Morley) Satyendra P Sinha as the first Indian ˆ Under this Act, the number of additional
members were more than doubled. (It includes

www.sleepyclasses.com 323 1800-890-3043

 GG’s council, Central Legislature, Presidencies)
(The Act of 1909 raised it to 60)
Montague Chelmsford Re-
ˆ In this Act for the first time, Non official majority
forms 1919
was being introduced in the provinces for the
first time. However at the Central Legislature GOI ACT, 1919
official majority was being maintained. ˆ Based on the recommendations of a report by
ƒ Muslims were elected by separate electorate Edwin Montagu, the then Secretary of State for
I.e. electorates comprising Muslims only. India, and Lord Chelmsford, India’s Viceroy
between 1916 and 1921.
CHANGES IN FUNCTIONS OF COUNCILS
ˆ It relaxed the central control over the provinces
ˆ Under the Act of 1909, functions of the Councils by demarcating and separating the central and
were enlarged in three ways - provincial subjects. The central and provincial
ƒ The members were allowed to discuss the legislatures were authorised to make laws
financial statement at length and move on their respective list of subjects. However,
resolutions on it, before it was presented in the structure of government continued to be
final form. centralised and unitary.
ƒ The members were given the right to move ˆ It further divided the provincial subjects into
resolutions on matters of general public two parts—transferred and reserved. The
interest. But these resolutions were to be in transferred subjects were to be administered by
the form of recommendations only and may the governor with the aid of ministers responsible
or may not be accepted by the Government. to the legislative Council. The reserved subjects,
However, there were certain subjects on on the other hand, were to be administered by
which questions could not be asked such as the governor and his executive council without
foreign relations, expenditure on railways, being responsible to the legislative Council.
interest on debt etc. This dual scheme of governance was known as
‘dyarchy’—a term derived from the Greek word
ƒ The right to ask questions was also extended
di-arche which means double rule.
and all the member asking original questions
were given the right to ask supplementary
questions as well.

www.sleepyclasses.com 324 1800-890-3043

ˆ It introduced, for the first time, bicameralism
and direct elections in the country. Thus,
the Indian Legislative Council was replaced
by a bicameral legislature consisting of an
Upper House (Council of State) and a Lower
House (Legislative Assembly). The majority of
members of both the Houses were chosen by
direct election.
ˆ It granted franchise to a limited number of people
on the basis of property, tax or education.
ˆ It required that the three of the six members
of the Viceroy’s executive Council were to be
Indian.
ˆ It extended the principle of communal
representation by providing separate electorates
for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians
and Europeans. MONTAGUE CHELMSFORD REFORMS 1919
ˆ It provided for the establishment of a public ˆ The Act carried a preamble which laid down
service commission. Hence, a Central Public the basic principle on which reforms were to
Service Commission was set up in 1926 for be carried out. It was based on the Montague
recruiting civil servants. declaration of 20th August 1917 and embodied
ˆ It created a new office of the High Commissioner the following principles -
for India in London and transferred to him ƒ British India is to remain an integral part of
some of the functions hitherto performed by the the British Empire.
Secretary of State for India. ƒ Responsible Government in British India is
ˆ It provided for the appointment of a the objective of declared policy of Parliament.
statutory commission to inquire into and report ƒ Responsible Government is possible through
on its working after ten years of its coming into progressive reforms only.
force.

www.sleepyclasses.com 325 1800-890-3043

ˆ For this, it was necessary to provide - ƒ To meet the issues of political backwardness
ƒ Increasing association of Indian in every and administrative inexperience of the Indian
branch of administration. people.

ƒ Gradual development of self Governing y Thus,responsibility of certain subjects of

Institutions. Government was transferred to the Indian
hands (Transferred list) while control over
ƒ The provincial governments to be in a large
others was reserved to the British hands
measure independent of the Government of
(Reserved list).
India and to be responsible in some measure
to popular representatives. y In this way, the provincial government was
divided into two halves - The Governor
ˆ Central Government
and his Executive council administered
ƒ To implement the policy of increasing the reserved list while the Governor and
association of Indians, of the members of his ministers administered the Transferred
the GG’s executive council, three would be list.
Indians.
ˆ Transferred list - nation building subjects -
ˆ Central Legislature Local Self Government, Heath , Education (other
ƒ Under the Act, Bicameral Legislature was than European and Anglo Indian Education),
established. The two houses were the Indian and some departments related to Agriculture etc.
Legislative assembly and the Council of ˆ These were to be administered by Governor
State. acting with Ministers appointed by him from
among the elected members of the Legislature
INDIAN LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY and who were responsible to the Legislature.
ˆ The method of Indirect election as prevalent
under the Act of 1909 was abolished and for the RESERVED LIST - LAND REVENUE, POLICE,
first time direct election was introduced. JUSTICE, PRINTING, PRESSES ETC,
ˆ These were to be administered by Governor
OTHER CHANGES with the help of members of Executive Council
ˆ Special powers of the GG - in addition to the who were to be nominated by him and who were
the veto power, he was given the power of not responsible to the Legislature.
certification. ˆ The Governor and his executive council were

ƒ Meaning, once the bill was refused by the to be appointed for a period of 5 years by the
legislature, he could certify a bill as essential Crown and were jointly responsible to GG and
for safety, and in the interest of British India SOS.
and secure its enactment. And also the GG ˆ The franchise was extremely narrow and only
could refuse his assent to bills passed by the 5% of the people got the right to vote,
Legislature. ˆ Women could not vote or contest elections. In
Britain itself, women got the right to vote only
THE PROVINCIAL EXECUTIVE after 1918.
ˆ Dyarchy - Dyarchy was introduced in the ˆ Muddiman Report - Analysis of Dyarchy
provinces to meet two main aims -
ƒ To give responsibility
representatives.
to popular
GoI Act, 1935
ˆ While under previous Governments of India
Acts, the Government of India was unitary, the

www.sleepyclasses.com 326 1800-890-3043

 Government of India Act, 1935 prescribed an All introduced in provinces like Bengal, Madras,
India Federation, taking provinces and princely Bombay, Bihar, Assam and the United
states as units. Although, it was optional for Provinces.
Indian states to join the Federation. ƒ The act provided for the establishment of
ˆ Distribution of Legislative powers between Reserve Bank of India.
Centre and the Provinces ƒ A Federal Railway Authority was set up to
1. Federal List- External Affairs, Currency and control Indian railways.
coinage, Naval, Military, Air-Force, Census, ˆ Federal court
etc.
ƒ A federal court was to be established at
2. Provincial List- Police, Provincial Public
Delhi for the resolution of disputes between
Service, Education, etc.
provinces and also between the centre and the
3. Concurrent List- Criminal Law and provinces.
procedure, Civil Procedure, Marriage and
ƒ The Act also provided for the establishment
Divorce, Arbitration, etc.
of federal, provincial and joint Public Service
ˆ Provincial Autonomy Commissions.
ƒ Act proposed provinces as autonomous units ˆ Reorganisation
of administration. It ended dyarchy at the
1. Sindh was carved out of Bombay Presidency.
provinces introduced in the Government of
India Act, 1919. The executive authority was 2. Bihar and Orissa were split.
to be exercised by a Governor on behalf of 3. Burma was severed off from India.
Crown and was required to act with advice of 4. Aden was also separated from India and
Ministers responsible to legislature. made into a Crown colony.
ˆ The Government of India Act, 1935 extended the
franchise to one-sixth of the adults.
ˆ GOI Act 1935 was based on White Paper on
Indian Constitution prepared by the British
Government after the Third Round Table
Conference.
ƒ Falling short of the Complete Independence,
the White paper was criticised by all the
political parties of that time.
ˆ Dyarchy at Centre ˆ GOI Act of 1935 contained 4 major provisions
- All India Federation, Provincial Autonomy,
ƒ Under the Act, the Viceroy had two functions:
dyarchy at the centre and safeguards which
1. Administration of defence, external affairs, vested special powers with the central and
tribal area in his discretion with the help of provincial executive.
‘counsellors’ who were not responsible to
legislature. SOURCES - GOI ACT 1935
2. Other subject matters- on advice of ‘Council ˆ Simon Commission Report
of Ministers’ who were responsible to
ˆ Nehru Report
legislature.
ˆ Discussions at the Round Table Conference
ƒ Act introduced bicameral legislature in 6 of
the 11 Provinces. Bicameral legislatures were ˆ White Paper

www.sleepyclasses.com 327 1800-890-3043

ˆ Lothian Committee ˆ Abolition of India Council - which was
established under the Act of 1858, on account
GOI ACT 1935 - MAIN PROVISIONS - PROVI- of much agitation in India against its Anti-India
SIONAL PART policies.
ˆ Abolition of dyarchy in provinces - replaced by ˆ On this Act - JL Nehru commented - “We are
provincial autonomy. The distinction between provided with a car, all brakes and no engine”.
Reserved ad Transferred subjects was abolished
and full responsible Government was established
subject to certain safeguards. PYQ
GOI ACT 1935 - MAIN PROVISIONS - FEDERAL Q. What was/were the objective/objectives of
PART Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858?
ˆ Proposal for an All India Federation (Never 1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian
materialised) - it was to comprise of Provinces States
and Indian States with federal central and 2. To place the Indian administration under the
provincial legislatures. British Crown
ƒ For the States, accession to Federation was 3. To regulate East India Company’s trade with
voluntary and Federation could not be formed India
unless two conditions were met - Select the correct answer using the code given
y States entitled to at least half of the seats below.
(52) allotted to the states in the proposed (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
Council of States should agree to join the (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
federation. Answer: A
y The aggregate population of states in the Q. Which one of the following is not a feature of
above category should be at least 50% of the Government of India Act of 1935?
the total population of the Indian States.
(a) Dyarchy at the Centre as well as in the
ˆ Dyarchy at the Centre - Dyarchy now from provinces
provinces was introduced at the Centre. Reserved (b) a bicameral legislature
Departments were under the GG who was the be
(c) provincial autonomy
administered by his counsellors appointed by
him and responsible only to him. Transferred (d) an All-India federation
subjects, were to be administered by the GG on Answer: A
the advice of popular ministers answerable to Q. Consider the following statements (PYQ):
legislature. 1. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919
ˆ Other Federal Institutions - This act provided recommended granting voting rights to all
for establishment of Federal Bank and Federal the women above the age of 21.
Court (1935 and 1937). The Act vested the control 2. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave
of Railways in new authority called Federal women reserved seats in legislature.
Railway Authority, free from control of ministers
Which of the statements given above is/are
and councillors.
correct?
ˆ Extension of Separate Electorates - Now it also (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
included women.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

www.sleepyclasses.com 328 1800-890-3043

Answer: B under the direct control of the Governor; others
Q. In the Government of India Act 1919, the such as education, public health & sanitation,
functions of Provincial Government were public works, agriculture, fisheries, religious
divided into “Reserved and Transferred“ endowments, local self governments, medical
subjects. Which of the following were treated services etc, were called ‘transferred’ subjects and
as “Reserved“ subjects? were to be controlled by ministers responsible to
1. Administration of Justice the legislatures.
2. Local Self-Government ˆ In other words, the subjects which were
considered of key importance for the welfare of
3. Land Revenue
the masses and for maintaining peace and order
4. Police in the state were classified as reserved, while
Select the correct answer using the code given subjects in which there was more local interest
below: were treated as transferred.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 ˆ Hence option (c) is the correct answer.
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4 Q. With reference to medieval India, which one
Answer: C of the following is the correct sequence in
ˆ Montagu-Chelmsford or Montford Reforms. ascending order in terms of size? (2021)
Based on these, the Government of India Act, (a) Paragana—Sarkar—Suba
1919 was enacted. (b) Sarkar—Paragana—Suba
MAIN FEATURES: (c) Suba—Sarkar—Paragana
(d) Paragana—Suba—Sarkar
ˆ The Provincial Legislative Councils were
enlarged and the majority of their members were Answer: A
to be elected. ˆ Using the methods of Sher Shah, Akbar
ˆ The Act introduced dyarchy for the executive at organised his empire into administrative units
the level of the provincial government. independently of existing local usage. Groups
of villages formed parganas, then sarkars, and
ˆ The Dyarchy system provided more powers to the
finally subahs.
Provincial governments. Under this system some
subjects, such as Land revenue administration, ˆ Hence the correct order is Paragana-Sarkar-Suba.
famine relief, irrigation, administration of justice,
law and order, newspapers, borrowing, forests
etc., were called ‘reserved’ subjects and remained

www.sleepyclasses.com 329 1800-890-3043

 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
CAUSES OF SOCIAL AWAKENING (at least among the higher castes) when their
husbands died they were expected to commit
The Impact of British rule sati. If they escaped this social coercion, they were
ˆ The British conquest and the consequent condemned to a life of misery and humiliation.
dissemination of colonial culture and ideology Slaves, Sati [12th NCERT]
led to an inevitable introspection about the
ˆ “Natural” state of Affair
strengths and weaknesses of indigenous culture
and institutions. ˆ Ibn Battuta: purchased “horses, camels & slaves”
as gifts
The effort of the European Orientalists
ˆ Bernier: Child Sati (Lahore)
ˆ They put India’s glorious past into limelight.
This includes work done by Sir William Jones THE CASTE PROBLEM
(‘Asiatick Researches’-8th NCERT), James ˆ This entailed a system of segregation,
Princep, Max Muller etc. hierarchically ordained on the basis of ritual
ˆ Further, many Indian scholars such as Raja status. At the bottom of the ladder came the
Rammohan Roy, Radhakanta Deb, MG Ranade untouchables or scheduled castes, as they came
etc. also contributed in reinterpreting India’s to be called later. The untouchables suffered
past. from numerous and severe disabilities and
The detrimental effect of the Christian missionaries restrictions. The system splintered people into
numerous groups.
ˆ They held that propaganda of Christianity in
ˆ Caste consciousness, particularly with regard
India would serve Britain’s imperial interests;
to marriage, prevailed also among Muslims,
and would secure the empire. The Indians took
Christians and Sikhs who also practiced
it as an onslaught on their religion and social
untouchability, though in a less virulent form.
customs.
Under a rigid caste system, social mobility was
ˆ Social Conditions that facilitated the Reforms checked, social divisions grew, and individual
Religious and Social Ills initiative was thwarted. Above all, the humiliation
of untouchability—so much a part of the caste
ˆ Indian society in the nineteenth century was
system—militated against human dignity.
caught in a vicious web created by religious
superstitions and social obscurantism. OTHER CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATED
Hinduism had become steeped in magic and THE REFORMS
superstition. Idolatry and polytheism helped
to reinforce their position, and their monopoly OPPOSITION TO WESTERN CULTURE
of scriptural knowledge imparted a deceptive ˆ The establishment of colonial rule in India was
character to all religious systems. followed by a systematic attempt to disseminate
Depressing Position of Women colonial culture and ideology as the dominant
cultural current.
ˆ Attempts to kill female infants at birth were
ˆ Faced with the challenge of the intrusion of
not unusual. Child marriage was another bane
colonial culture and ideology, an attempt to
of society. The practice of polygamy prevailed
reinvigorate traditional institutions and to realize
and in Bengal, under Kulinism, even old men
the potential of traditional culture developed
took very young girls as wives. Several women
during the nineteenth century.
hardly had a married life worth the name, yet

www.sleepyclasses.com 330 1800-890-3043

NEW AWARENESS AMONG ENLIGHTENED Samaj, the infallibility of the Vedas was repudiated,
INDIANS while the Aligarh movement emphasised reconciliation
ˆ There was awareness that a vast country like India of Islamic teachings with the needs of the modern age.
had been colonized by a handful of foreigners
REFORMISM VERSUS REVIVALISM
because of weaknesses within the Indian social
ˆ Social awakening movements can be grouped
structure and culture.
into two schools viz. Reformist and Revivalist.
ˆ Some English-educated Bengali youth developed
ˆ The colonial rule reflected that many of the
revulsion for Hindu religion and culture,
Indian social practices and institutions had
gave up old religious ideas and traditions and
become obsolete and they needed reforms.
deliberately adopted practices most offensive to
ˆ Reformist: This school felt shackled in within the
Hindu sentiments, such as drinking wine and
archaic traditional set up and wanted to inculcate
eating beef.
the liberal ideas and education to reform the
ˆ The response, indeed, was varied but the need to society. This was called reformism.
reform social and religious life was a commonly
ˆ Reformists included the newly emerging
shared conviction.
western educated section of society in India, who
SOCIAL AND IDEOLOGICAL BASE pioneered reform movements to bring about
conclusive changes in Indian society. Raja Ram
MIDDLE CLASS BASE
Mohan Roy was one example.
ˆ The social base of the regeneration seen in the
ˆ On the other hand the revivalism focused on
nineteenth century = newly emerging middle
golden ancient period of India and efforts to
class and the educated intellectuals
bring back the past glory.
ˆ The nineteenth century intelligentsia searched for
its model in the European ‘middle class’, which TYPES OF REFORM MOVEMENTS
had brought about the great transformation REFORM FROM WITHIN
in the West from medieval to modern times
ˆ A reform can be effective if it emerged from
through movements like the Renaissance, the
within the society itself and it should create a
Reformation, the Enlightenment and democratic
sense of awareness among the people.
revolution or reform.
ˆ Raja Ram Mohan Roy believed that Philosophy
ˆ However, the intelligentsia of nineteenth century
of Vedanta was based on principle of reason;
India did not grow from trade or industry
and there is no need of blind reliance of India’s
(which were firmly under the control of British
own past or blind aping of west. He believed that
agencies); their roots lay in government service
India should learn from west, not copy the west.
or the professions of law, education, journalism
or medicine. REFORMS THROUGH LEGISLATION
THE INTELLECTUAL CRITERIA ˆ This method believed that reforms cannot
be effective unless supported by the State.
ˆ What gave these reform movements an
Therefore, they appealed to the government to
ideological unity were rationalism, religious
give legislative sanction for reforms like widow
universalism and humanism.
remarriage and increase in the age of consent.
ˆ Rationalism was brought to judge social
relevance. Raja Rammohan Roy used a rational REFORM THROUGH SYMBOL OF CHANGE
approach to study tradition; they evaluated the ˆ This method represented radical reforms such as
contemporary socio-religious practices from the attack on old customs and rejection of traditional
standpoint of social utility and to replace faith archaic social norms of Indian Society.
with rationality. As a consequence, in the Brahmo

www.sleepyclasses.com 331 1800-890-3043

ˆ Henry Louis Vivian Derozio and his Young marriage of widows and declared issues from
Bengal Movement came into this category. such marriages as legitimate, was passed by the
Government.
ˆ Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the
Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage.

CHILD MARRIAGE

REFORM THROUGH SOCIAL WORK

ˆ As per this method, the question whether a social
reform was having religious sanctions or not, is
immaterial. This method included social work
such as schools, colleges, missions, hospitals etc.

FEMALE ISSUE REFORMS

ABOLITION OF SATI
ˆ The government declared the practice of sati
illegal and punishable by criminal courts as
culpable homicide.
ˆ The regulation of 1829 (Regulation XVII, A.D.
1829 of the Bengal Code) was applicable in the
first instance to Bengal Presidency alone, but was ˆ The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, B.M.
extended in slightly modified forms to Madras Malabari, were rewarded, by the enactment of
and Bombay Presidencies in 1830. the Age of Consent Act (1891) which forbade the
marriage of girls below the age of 12.
FEMALE INFANTICIDE
ˆ The Sarda Act (1930-???) further pushed up the
ˆ The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls
infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder. respectively.
ˆ An Act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for
EDUCATION OF WOMEN
parents to register the birth of all babies and
provided for verification of female children ˆ The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune,
for some years after birth, particularly in areas president of the Council of Education in Calcutta
where the custom was resorted to in utmost in 1849, was the first fruit of the powerful
privacy. (Current IMR: 25-26, MMR: 97) movement for women’s education that arose in
the 1840s and 1850s.
WIDOW REMARRIAGE
ˆ Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was
ˆ Efforts of The Brahmo Samaj and Pandit associated with no less than 35 girls’ schools in
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar that the Hindu Bengal.
Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, which legalized

www.sleepyclasses.com 332 1800-890-3043

ˆ Wood’s Dispatch on Education (1854) laid great
stress on the need for female education. other social ills.
ˆ Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha
WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS in Calcutta in August 1828; it was later renamed
ˆ Pandita Ramabai Saraswati founded the Arya Brahmo Samaj. Through the Sabha he wanted to
Mahila Samaj to serve the cause of women. institutionalize his ideas and mission.
ˆ In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the ˆ Prayers, meditation and readings of the
first meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Upanishads were to be the forms of worship and
Allahabad. no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving,
painting, picture, portrait, etc., were to be allowed
ˆ Considered as the first major Indian women’s
in the Samaj buildings, thus underlining the
organisation set up by a woman, its objectives
Samaj’s opposition to idolatry and meaningless
included promotion of education for women,
rituals.
abolition of the purdah system and improvement
in the socio-economic and political status of ˆ The long-term agenda of the Brahmo Samaj—to
woman all over India. purify Hinduism and to preach monotheism—
was based on the twin pillars of reason and the
ˆ The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC),
Vedas and Upanishads.
founded by Margaret Cousins in 1927, was
perhaps the first women’s organization with an ˆ He combined the teachings of the Upanishads,
egalitarian approach. Its first conference was the Bible and the Koran in developing unity
held at Ferguson College, Pune. among the people of different religions.
ˆ Important founding members included Maharani ˆ Raja Rammohan Roy is most remembered for
Chimnabai Gaekwad, Rani Sahiba of Sangli, helping Lord William Bentinck to declare the
Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya practice of Sati a punishable offence in 1829.
and Lady Dorab Tata. ˆ In 1817, he founded(???) the Hindu College
ˆ Its objectives were to work for a society based on (now Presidency College, Calcutta) along with
principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights David Hare, a missionary.
and opportunities; and to secure for every human ˆ He also set up schools for girls.
being, the essentials of life, not determined by
ˆ Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly
accident of birth or sex but by planned social
Samvad Kaumudi and edited a Persian weekly
distribution.
Mirat-ul-Akhbar.
IMPORTANT LEADERS & ORGANISATIONS ˆ He is considered as the first ‘modern man of
RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY India’. He inculcated a brilliant freedom of
thought and rationality.
ˆ Rammohan Roy believed in the modern scientific
approach and principles of human dignity and PRARTHANA SAMAJ
social equality. He put his faith in monotheism.
ˆ In 1867, Keshub Chandra Sen helped found the
ˆ He wrote Gift to Monotheists (1809) and Prarthana Samaj in Bombay(???). It was an off-
translated into Bengali the Vedas and the five shoot of Brahmo Samaj.
Upanishads to prove his conviction that ancient
Hindu texts support monotheism. ˆ Here the emphasis was on monotheism, on
‘works’ rather than on faith, but on the whole, the
ˆ In 1815, Raja Rammohan Roy established the samaj was more concerned with social reforms
Atmiya Sabha to propagate the monotheistic than with religion.
ideals of the Vedanta and to campaign against
idolatry, caste rigidities, meaningless rituals and

www.sleepyclasses.com 333 1800-890-3043

ˆ They relied on education and persuasion and not ˆ Later, Surendranath Banerjee was to describe
on confrontation with Hindu orthodoxy. the Derozians as “the pioneers of the modern
ˆ There was a four-point social agenda also civilisation of Bengal”.
ƒ disapproval of caste system
PT. ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR
ƒ women’s education
ˆ Pandit Ishwar Chandra was a great educator,
ƒ widow remarriage humanist and social reformer.
ˆ raising the age of marriage for both males and ˆ In 1850, he became the principal of Sanskrit
females. College.
ˆ It was a reform movement within Hinduism and ˆ His ideas were a happy blend of Indian and
concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, Western thought.
inter-marriage, widow remarriage and uplift of
ˆ He was determined to break the priestly
women and depressed classes.
monopoly of scriptural knowledge, and for this
ˆ Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined he opened the Sanskrit College to non-brahmins.
it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
ˆ He introduced western thought in Sanskrit
HENRY VIVIAN DEROZIO AND THE YOUNG College to break the self-imposed isolation of
BENGAL MOVEMENT Sanskritic learning.
ˆ He did much for the cause of women’s education.
ˆ Henry Vivian Derozio, who taught in the Hindu
As government inspector of schools, he helped
College, Calcutta, was the founder of the Young
organize thirty-five girls’ schools many of
Bengal Movement.
which he ran at his own expense. He helped J.D.
ˆ Drawing inspiration from the great French Bethune to establish the Bethune School.
Revolution, Derozio inspired his pupils to think
ˆ It was due to his great support for the spread
freely and rationally, question all authority,
of education that he was given the title of
love liberty, equality and freedom, and oppose
Vidyasagar.
decadent customs and traditions.
ˆ He started a movement in support of widow
ˆ They founded associations and organized remarriage which resulted in legalisation of widow
debates against idol worship, casteism and remarriage : Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
superstitions.
ˆ He was also a crusader against child marriage
ˆ The Derozians also advocated for women’s rights and polygamy.
and their education.
ˆ Derozio was perhaps the first nationalist poet of JYOTIRAO PHULE
modern India. ˆ Born in Satara, Maharashtra, he belonged to
ˆ The main reason for their limited success was the the mali (gardener) community and organized
prevailing social conditions at that time, which a powerful movement against upper caste
were not ripe for the adoption of radical ideas. domination and brahmanical supremacy.
Further, there was no support from any other ˆ In 1873 he founded the Satyashodak Samaj
social group or class. (Truth Seekers’ Society), with the leadership of
ˆ Despite their limitations, the Derozians carried the Samaj coming from the backward classes, to
forward Rammohan Roy’s tradition of public fight against the caste system.
education on social, economic and political ˆ The main aims of the movement were
questions. ƒ social service
ƒ spread of education among women and lower
caste people.

www.sleepyclasses.com 334 1800-890-3043

ˆ He pioneered the widow remarriage movement
ˆ The original name of Swami Vivekananda was
in Maharashtra and worked for the education of
Narendranath Dutta and in 1886 Narendranath
women.
took the vow of Sanyasa and was given the
ˆ Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first name, Vivekananda.
girls’ school at Poona in 1851.
ˆ He spread Ramakrishna’s message and tried to
ˆ Phule aimed at the complete abolition of the caste reconcile it to the needs of contemporary Indian
system and socio-economic inequalities. society.
ˆ Phule’s works, Sarvajanik Satyadharma and ˆ He preached Vedantic Philosophy which he
Gulamgiri, became sources of inspiration for the considered a fully rational system with a superior
common masses. approach.
ˆ His mission was to bridge the gulf between
SWAMI VIVEKANANDA AND RAMAKRISH-
paramartha (service) and vyavahara (behaviour),
NA MISSION
and between spirituality and day-to-day life.
ˆ The teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
ˆ He believed in the fundamental oneness of God.
(1836-1886), a poor priest at the Kali temple in
Dakshineshwar, on the outskirts of Calcutta, ˆ He condemned the caste system and the current
found many followers. Hindu emphasis on rituals and ceremonies.

ˆ He spoke simply, in the form of parables and ˆ Swami Vivekananda participated at the
metaphors, drawn from the observation of Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in
ordinary life and nature. September 1893.

ˆ Two objectives of the Ramakrishna movement ˆ He attempted to bring about a unification

were of Hinduism by pointing out the common
foundation of its sects; to make the educated
ˆ to bring into existence a band of monks dedicated
people see the misery of the downtrodden and
to a life of renunciation and practical spirituality,
work for their upliftment by the application of
from among whom teachers and workers would
practical Vedanta principles. His emphasis was
be sent out to spread the universal message of
not only on personal salvation, but also on social
Vedanta as illustrated in the life of Ramakrishna .
good and reform.
ˆ in conjunction with lay disciples to carry on
ˆ He founded the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in
preaching, philanthropic and charitable works,
Howrah in 1897.
looking upon all men, women and children,
irrespective of caste, creed or colour, as veritable ˆ The objectives of this Mission are providing
manifestations of the Divine. humanitarian relief and social work through the
establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals and
ˆ Paramahamsa sought salvation through
orphanages.
traditional ways of renunciation, meditation and
bhakti amidst increasing westernization and ˆ Vivekananda advocated the doctrine of service—
modernisation. the service of all beings. The service of jiva
(living objects) is the worship of Shiva. Life
ˆ He recognized the fundamental oneness of all
itself is religion. By service, the Divine exists
religions and emphasized that Krishna, Hari,
within man.
Ram, Christ, Allah are different names for the same
God. SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI AND THE
ˆ The second objective of Ramakrishna Movement ARYA SAMAJ
was taken up by Swami Vivekananda after ˆ The Arya Samaj Movement, a revivalist
Ramakrishna’s death when he founded the movement in form, was the result of a reaction to
Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. Western influences.

www.sleepyclasses.com 335 1800-890-3043

ˆ It was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati Indian to succeed in the Indian Civil Services
at Bombay in 1875. Examination.
ˆ The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by Answer : B
him at Bombay in 1875 and later the headquarter
of the Samaj was established at Lahore. PYQ
ˆ There are 10 guiding principles of Arya Samaj,
enunciating the Ten Universal Principles as Q. Who among the following was associated as
a code for Universalism, called Krinvanto Secretary with Hindu Female School which
Vishwaryam. later came to be known as Bethune Female
School? (2021)
ˆ Swami Dayanand believed the Vedas were the
source of true knowledge. His motto was “Back (a) Annie Besant
to the Vedas”. (b) Debendranath Tagore
ˆ Along with the emphasis on Vedas, he stressed (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
the significance of individual interpretation of (d) Sarojini Naidu
the scriptures and said that every person has the
right of access to God. He criticized later Hindu ANSWER : C
scriptures such as the Puranas and the ignorant
priests for perverting Hinduism. Caste Movements
ˆ He launched a frontal attack on Hindu
orthodoxy, caste rigidities, untouchability, SREE NARAYANA DHARMA PARIPALANA
idolatry, polytheism, belief in magic, charms and (SNDP) YOGAM
animal sacrifices, taboo on sea voyages etc. ˆ This movement was a regional movement born
ˆ He was against idol worship, child marriage and out of conflict between the depressed, classes
caste system based on birth. and upper non-Brahmin castes.
ˆ He encouraged inter-caste marriages and widow ˆ Padmanabhan Palpu & Sri Narayan Guru
remarriage. ˆ It was started among the Ezhavas of Kerala,
ˆ In its zeal to protect the Hindu society from the who were a caste of toddytappers and were
onslaught of Christianity and Islam, the Samaj considered to be untouchables.
started the Shuddhi (purification) movement
to reconvert to the Hindu fold the converts to ARAVIPPURAM MOVEMENT
Christianity and Islam. This led to increasing ˆ On the occasion of Sivarathri in 1888, Sri
communalization of social life during the 1920s Narayana Guru, despite belonging to a lower
and later snowballed into communal political caste, installed an idol of Siva at Aravippuram in
consciousness Kerala in his effort to show that the consecration
ˆ He wrote the book Satyartha Prakash which of a god’s image was not a monopoly of the
contains his ideas. brahmins.
Q. Which among the following events happened SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT (1925)
earliest? (2018)
ˆ S Ramanathan & E.V. Ramasamy(Periyar)
(a) Swami Dayanand established Arya Samaj.
ˆ The movement aimed at a rejection of the
(b) Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neel Darpan.
Brahmanical religion and culture which Naicker
(c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote felt was the prime instrument of exploitation of
Anandmath. the lower castes.
(d) Satyendranath Tagore became the first

www.sleepyclasses.com 336 1800-890-3043

ˆ He sought to undermine the position of brahmin ˆ It focused attention on the social issues of
priests by formalizing weddings without importance; it could be called the social reform
brahmin priests. cell of the Indian National Congress

TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT THE SERVANTS OF INDIA SOCIETY

ˆ In 1924, Vaikom Satyagraha led by K.P. Kesava, ˆ Gopal Krishna Gokhale, the liberal leader of
was launched in Kerala demanding the throwing Indian National Congress, founded the Servants
open of Hindu temples and roads to the of India Society in 1905.
untouchables. ˆ The aim of the society was to train national
ˆ Gandhi undertook a tour of Kerala in support of missionaries for the service of India; to promote,
the movement. by all constitutional means, the, true interests
ˆ Again in 1931 when the Civil Disobedience of the Indian people; and to prepare a cadre of
Movement was suspended, temple entry selfless workers who were to devote their lives
movement was organized in Kerala. to the cause of the country in a religious spirit.

ˆ Finally, in 1936 the Maharaja of Travancore issued SEVA SADAN

a proclamation throwing open all government
ˆ A Parsi social reformer, M. Malabari, founded
controlled temples to all Hindus.
the Seva Sadan in 1885.
ˆ A similar step was taken by the C. Rajagopalachari ˆ The organization specialized in taking care of
administration in Madras in 1938. women who were exploited and then discarded
by society.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
ˆ It catered to all castes and women with education,
ˆ The Theosophical Society was founded in New medical and welfare services.
York (USA) in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky,
a Russian lady, and Henry Steel Olcott, an DHARMA SABHA
American colonel. ˆ Radhakant Deb
ˆ Their main objectives were to form a universal ˆ An orthodox society, it stood for the preservation
brotherhood of man without any distinction of of the status quo in socio-religious matters,
race, colour or creed and to promote the study of opposing even the abolition of sati.
ancient religions and philosophies.
ˆ They arrived in India and established their
headquarters at Adyar in Madras in 1882.
ˆ Later in 1893, Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India
and took over the leadership of the Society after
the death of Olcott.
ˆ Mrs. Annie Besant & BHU (Central Hindu
School)

OTHER REFORM ORGANIZATIONS

INDIAN SOCIAL CONFERENCE
ˆ Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao,
the conference met annually from its first session BHARAT DHARMA MAHAMANDALA
in Madras in 1887 at the same time and venue as
ˆ An all-India organization of the orthodox
the Indian National Congress.
educated Hindus, it stood for a defence of

www.sleepyclasses.com 337 1800-890-3043

 orthodox Hinduism against the teachings of THE DEOBAND SCHOOL
the Arya Samaj, the Theosophists, and the ˆ The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema
Ramakrishna Mission. organised the Deoband Movement.
GOPALHARI DESHMUKH ‘LOKAHITAWADI’: ˆ It was a revivalist movement whose twin
objectives were
ˆ He advocated a reorganization of Indian society
on rational principles and modern, humanistic, ˆ to propagate among the Muslims the pure
secular values. teachings of the Koran
ˆ He attacked Hindu orthodoxy and supported ˆ to keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign
social and religious equality rulers
ˆ Weekly “Prabhakar”
WAHABI/WALLIULLAH MOVEMENT
MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS ˆ Shah Walliullah (1702-62) inspired this essentially
ˆ The Muslim reform movements started a revivalist response to western influences and the
little later because they had avoided western degeneration which had set in among Indian
education in the beginning. Muslims.
ˆ The first effort was in 1863 when the Muhammad ˆ Initially the movement was directed at Sikhs in
Literary Society was set up in Calcutta. Its aim Punjab but after the British annexation of Punjab
was to popularise the study of English and (1849), the movement was directed against the
western sciences. It established a number of British.
schools in Bengal. ˆ The movement fizzled out in the face of British
military might in the 1870s.
ALIGARH MOVEMENT
ˆ Related: Kashmir Issue
ˆ The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) for the social and FARAIZI MOVEMENT
educational advancement of the Muslims in India. ˆ The movement, also called the Fara’idi Movement
ˆ He fought against the medieval backwardness because of its emphasis on the Islamic pillars of
and advocated a rational approach towards faith, was founded by Haji Shariat-Allah.
religion. ˆ Its scene of action was East Bengal, and it aimed
at the eradication of social innovations current
ˆ He wanted to reconcile Western scientific
among the Muslims of the region.
education with the teachings of the Quran which
were to be interpreted in the light of contemporary ˆ The movement became revolutionary from 1840
rationalism and science even though he also held onwards.
the Quran to be the ultimate authority. ˆ The Fara’id is organized paramilitary forces
armed with clubs to fight the Hindu landlords
ˆ He said that religion should be adaptable with
and even the police.
time or else it would become fossilised .
ˆ In 1866, he started the Mohammadan Educational AHMADIYA MOVEMENT
Conference as a general forum for spreading ˆ This movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam
liberal ideas among the Muslims. Ahmed in 1889. It was based on liberal principles.
ˆ In 1875, he founded a modern school at Aligarh to ˆ It described itself as the standard-bearer of
promote English education among the Muslims. Mohammedan Renaissance, and based itself, like
ˆ This had later grown into the Mohammadan the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of universal
Anglo-Oriental College and then into the Aligarh religion of all humanity, opposing jihad (sacred
Muslim University. war against non-Muslims).

www.sleepyclasses.com 338 1800-890-3043

ˆ The movement spread western liberal education PARSI REFORM MOVEMENT
among the Indian Muslims.
The Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious
RADHA SWAMI MOVEMENT Reform Association):
ˆ TulsiRam, a banker from Agra, also known as ˆ It was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji
Shiv Dayal, founded this movement in 1861. and S.S. Bengalee in 1851 for the “regeneration
of the social conditions of the Parsis and the
ˆ It believed in one Supreme Being-supremacy of
restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its
the Spiritual attainment, which they believe does
pristine purity“.
not call for renunciation of the worldly life.
ˆ They advocated the spread of women’s
ˆ They consider all religions to be true. education.
ˆ While the sect has no belief in temples, shrines ˆ The message of reform was spread by the
and sacred places; it considers as necessary newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller).
duties, works of faith and charity, service and ˆ They also wanted to reform their marriage
prayer. customs.
THE SINGH SABHA MOVEMENT ˆ Parsi religious rituals and practices were
reformed and the Parsi creed redefined.
ˆ Founded at Amritsar in 1873 with a two-fold
ˆ Naoroji published a monthly journal, Jagat
objectives:
Mithra.
ƒ to make available modern western education ˆ The momentum gathered through these reform
to the Sikhs movements went a long way in uplifting the
ƒ to counter the proselytizing activities of entire community.
Christian missionaries as well as Hindu ˆ By the middle of the twentieth century most of
revivalists. them were highly placed in various capacities
ˆ For the first objective, a network of Khalsa and have made a significant contribution to
schools was established by the Sabha throughout India’s development.
Punjab.

THE AKALI MOVEMENT PYQ

ˆ It was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement. Q. His principle forte was social and religious
ˆ It aimed at liberating the Sikh gurudwaras from reform. He relied upon legislation to do away
the control of corrupt Udasi Mahants who were a with social ills and work unceasingly for the
loyalist and reactionary lot, enjoying government eradication of child marriage and the purdah
patronage. system. To encourage consideration of social
ˆ The Government tried its repressive policies problems on a national scale, he inaugurated
against the non-violent non-cooperation the Indian National Social Conference, which
satyagraha launched by the Akalis in 1921 but for many years met for its annual session
had to bow before popular demands and passed alongside the Indian National Congress. The
the Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922 which gave the reference in this passage is to: [1996]
control of Gurdwara as to the Sikh masses to be (a) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
administered through Shiromani Gurudwara (b) Behramji Merwanji Malabari
Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) as the apex (c) Mahadev Govind Ranade
body.
(d) B.R. Ambedkar
Answer to prev. PYQ : C

www.sleepyclasses.com 339 1800-890-3043

 Answer to prev. PYQ : B
ˆ Indian (National) Social Conference was
founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao. It
was virtually the social reform cell of the Indian
National Congress. Its first session was held
in Madras in December 1887. The Conference
met annually as a subsidiary convention of the
Indian National Congress, at the same venue,
and focused attention on social reform. The
Conference advocated intercaste marriages and
Q. During Indian freedom struggle, the National opposed kulinism and polygamy. It launched the
Social Conference was formed. What was the famous “Pledge Movement” to inspire people to
reason for its formation? [2012] take an oath to prohibit child marriage.
(a) Different social reform groups or
organizations of Bengal region united to
form a single body to discuss the issues of
larger interest and to prepare appropriate
petitions/representations to the government
(b) Indian National Congress did not want to
include social reforms in its deliberations
and decided to form a separate body for such
a purpose
(c) Behramji Malabari and M. G. Ranade decided
to bring together all the social reform groups
of the country under one organization
(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given
above is correct in this context

www.sleepyclasses.com 340 1800-890-3043

 WEEKLY CURRENT AFFAIRS
HISTORY
MODERN HISTORY
ˆ She published Kavya Phule in 1854 and Bavan
Jyotirao Phule Anniversary Kashi Subodh Ratnakar in 1892.
ˆ Jyotirao Phule setup Satyashodhak Samaj (The
Truth-Seeker’s Society) with the objective to
achieve equal rights for the marginalised lower
castes in 1873.
ˆ He started to educate his wife at home and
trained her to become a teacher.
ˆ In 1868, Jyotirao constructed a common bathing
tank outside his house to exhibit his idea of
equality of all human beings.
ˆ He was appointed commissioner to the Poona
municipality and served in the position until 1883.
CONTEXT ˆ He was influenced by Thomas Paine’s book
ˆ Prime Minister paid tribute to the great social ‘The Rights of Man’ and believed that only
reformer, philosopher and writer Mahatma way to reform society is through upliftment of
Jyotiba Phule on his birth anniversary on 11th women and members of the lower castes.
April. ˆ He was given the title of Mahatma on May
11, 1888, by Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar, a
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER Maharashtrian social activist.
ˆ Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitribhai Phule ˆ His major works include Tritiya Ratna,
were two of the greatest social reformers of the Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha,
19th century India. Gulamgiri, Shetkarayacha Aasud or Cultivator’s
ˆ Savitribhai Phule was born on 3 January, 1831 Whipcord.
and Jyotirao Phule on 11 April, 1827, both in ˆ His works had a major influence on the likes
Maharashtra. of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi,
ˆ Savitribhai Phule is widely regarded as one of who undertook many initiatives against caste
India’s first-generation modern feminists. discrimination later.
ˆ She became one of the first female teacher in ˆ They both started ‘Satya Shodhaka Marriage’
India in 1848. where the marrying couple has to take a pledge
to promote education and equality.
ˆ In 1852, Savitribai started the Mahila Seva
Mandal to raise awareness about women’s ˆ They both opened a school for girls, Shudras
rights. and Ati-Shudras in Poona in 1848.
ˆ She opened a clinic in 1897 for victims of the
bubonic plague that spread across Maharashtra.

www.sleepyclasses.com 341 1800-890-3043

ˆ They had established three schools but all of ˆ In 1927,he led Mahad Satygraha to fight for the
them had shut by 1858 due to the shortage of right of Untouchables, to draw water from the
funds after the Revolt of 1857. main tank of the town.
ˆ In 1930, He launched the Kalaram Temple
DR. Bhimrao Ambedkar Movement.
ˆ He participated in all three Round Table
Conferences.
ˆ In late 1931, he was invited to attend the Second
Round Table Conference in London, which
resulted in the announcement of the Communal
Awards.
ˆ Further to nullify Communal Awards, Poona
Pact was signed between Madan Mohan
Malviya (on behalf of Mahatma Gandhi) and B.R
Ambedkar in Yerwada Jail – Poona.
ˆ Poona Pact abandoned the idea of separate
electorates for the depressed classes (Communal
Award).
ˆ However, the seats reserved for the depressed
CONTEXT classes were increased from 71 to 147 in
ˆ The birth anniversary of Dr. B R Ambedkar was provincial legislatures and to 18% of the total in
recently celebrated on 14th April. the Central Legislature.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER: ˆ In 1936, founded the Independent Labour

Party to contest the Bombay elections to Central
ˆ He was born on 14th April, 1891 into a Mahar
Legislative Assembly.
(Dalit) caste, who were treated as untouchables
and subjected to socio-economic discrimination. ˆ This political party was further transformed into
Scheduled Castes Federation.
ˆ He was invited to testify before the South
borough Committee, which was preparing for ˆ He served on the Defence Advisory Committee
the Government of India Act of 1919. and Minister of Labour in the Viceroy’s
ˆ Here he for the first time argued for the demand Executive Council.
of separate electorates and reservations for ˆ He was Chairman of the Constitution Drafting
untouchables. Committee.
ˆ In 1924, He founded Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha ˆ He was appointed as the first Law Minister of
- to improve education and Socio Economic Independent India.
development of the depressed classes. ˆ He resigned from the cabinet in 1951, when
ˆ In 1925, He was appointed by Bombay Parliament stalled his draft of the Hindu Code
Presidency Committee to work with all- Bill.
European Simon Commission in 1925. ˆ In the first General Elections of India in 1952,
ˆ His ideas before the Hilton Young Commission he lost to his former assistant and Congress
(1926) served as the foundation of the Reserve Candidate Narayan Kajrolkar and thus joined as
Bank of India (RBI). an appointed member in Rajya Sabha.
ˆ On October 14, 1956, B R Ambedkar along with
3,65,000 of his Dalit followers converted to

www.sleepyclasses.com 342 1800-890-3043

 Navayana Buddhism - which refers to the re-
interpretation of Buddhism by Ambedkar. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
ˆ He died on 6 December, 1956.
ˆ Important Works: Autobiography “Waiting for
a Visa”; Annihilation of Caste”; “Who were the
Shudras”.
ˆ Newspapers: “Mooknayak” (Mute Hero - 1920);
“Bahiskrit Bharat” (India Ostracised - 1927);
“Junta” (Masses - 1930); “Prabhudha Bharat”
(An awakened India - 1956).
Q. The Poona Pact which was signed between the
British Government and Mahatma Gandhi in
1934 provided for: [PYQ]
(a) creation of dominion status for India CONTEXT
(b) separate electorates for the Muslims ˆ Recently tributes were paid to people killed in
(c) separate electorate for the Harijans the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919.
(d) joint electorate with reservation for Harijans IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
Answer to prev. PYQ : D ˆ Jallianwala Bagh Massacre occurred on April 13,
Explanation 1919.
ˆ Poona Pact was signed by Ambedkar on behalf ˆ Locals were there to discuss and protest against
of the depressed classes in September, 1932. the confinement of Satya Pal and Saifuddin
ˆ The pact abandoned separate electorates for the Kitchlew, and implementation of the Rowlatt
depressed classes. But the seats reserved for the Act.
depressed classes were increased both in Centre ˆ Rowlatt Act was based on the recommendation
and state legislatures. of Sedition Committee headed by Sydney
Rowlatt.
ˆ It gave enormous powers to repress political
activities and allowed detention of political
prisoners without trial for two years.
ˆ General Dyer opened fired on the peaceful
gathering, killing nearly 1000 people.
ˆ Rabindranath Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi,
as a sign of condemnation, renounced their
British Knighthood and Kaiser-i-Hind medal
respectively.
ˆ In October 1919, the Disorders Inquiry
Committee, also known as the Hunter
Commission, was formed to inquire about the
massacre.
ˆ In 1920, the Commission censured Dyer for his
actions, directed him to resign.

www.sleepyclasses.com 343 1800-890-3043

ˆ In 1922, the infamous Rowlatt Act was repealed birthright of all Hindus’.
by the British. ˆ Christian missionaries, supported by the East
ˆ Later in 1940, at Caxton Hall in London, Udham India Company, had expanded their reach and
Singh killed Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant many lower castes converted to Christianity to
Governor of Punjab during the massacre, who escape the clutches of an oppressive system that
had approved of Dyer’s actions. continued to bind them.
ˆ A memorial was set up by the Jallianwala Bagh
National Memorial Act, 1951 (amended in 2019). LAUNCH OF THE SATYAGRAHA
ˆ It is first national monument governed by an Act ˆ Vaikom Satyagraha, from 30 March 1924 to 23
of Parliament with PM as its chairperson. November 1925, was a nonviolent agitation for
access to the prohibited space of the Vaikom
Temple in the Kingdom of Travancore.
Vaikom Satyagraha
ˆ The campaign, led by Congress leaders T. K.
Madhavan, K. Kelappan and K. P. Kesava
Menon.
ˆ It started on the morning of March 30, 1924,
when the Satyagrahis walked in procession
towards the forbidden public roads.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

ˆ They were stopped 50 yards away from the place
where a board (first put up in 1905) cautioning
the oppressed communities against walking on
CONTEXT
the roads, was placed.
ˆ As the year 2024 marks the centenary of the
ˆ Dressed in khadi and wearing khadi caps, three
Vaikom Satyagraha, Kerala CM and Tamil
young men namely Govinda Panikkar, a Nair,
Nadu CM jointly inaugurated the centenary
Bahuleyan, an Ezhava and Kunjappu, a Pulaya,
celebrations.
marched ahead, defying the prohibitionary
BACKGROUND OF THE SATYAGRAHA orders.

ˆ The Kingdom of Travancore was known for its ˆ The police who asked about their castes, stopped
rigid and oppressive caste system. them when they answered.
ˆ Most of the great temples in the princely state of ˆ In protest, the three men sat on road and were
Travancore had for years forbidden lower castes arrested.
(untouchables) not just from entering, but also ˆ Then on, every day, three volunteers from three
from walking on the surrounding roads. different communities were sent to walk on the
prohibited roads.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
ˆ Within a week, the leaders of the movement
ˆ At the 1923 Indian National Congress session
were all arrested.
at Kakinada, a resolution was passed which
committed the party to work for ‘the eradication ˆ Then EV Ramasamy “Periyar” got directly
of untouchability’. involved with the Satyagraha when he reached
Vaikom on April 13, 1924.
ˆ This resolution was introduced by T. K.
Madhavan and stated that ‘temple entry was the ˆ From the day of his arrival, Periyar was at the
forefront of the struggle till its conclusion.

www.sleepyclasses.com 344 1800-890-3043

ˆ Mobilising volunteers and garnering public IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
support, he visited various villages in and around ˆ The other side and the temple remained closed
Vaikom and delivered witty yet fiery speeches. to the lower castes and was reserved only for
ˆ He was eventually arrested in May 1924 and Brahmins and was remained out of bounds for
served one month of simple imprisonment. Muslims and Christians too.
ˆ When Periyar returned to Vaikom after release, ˆ The Vaikom Satyagraha had however failed to
he was arrested again in July 1924 and was convince the Sri Narayana Guru who wanted
sentenced to rigorous imprisonment for four activists to ‘not only walk along the prohibited
months. roads but enter the temple’.
ˆ The participation of women, especially ˆ Further, the Vaikom Satyagraha brought open
those from the families of Satyagrahi leaders the rift between Gandhi and Periyar.
including Periyar’s wife Nagammai and sister ˆ While Gandhi saw it as Hindu reformist
Kannammal, empowered womenfolk to play an movement, Periyar called it a fight against caste-
unprecedented role in the fight. based atrocities.
ˆ Congress leader C. Rajagopalachari also arrived ˆ Periyar was not happy with the partial success
at Vaikom and offered advice to the activists. attained, and he eventually quit Congress
ˆ In a show of solidarity for the social reform, a months later in 1925.
large group of caste Hindus, in November 1924, ˆ Finally, in 1936, the historic Temple Entry
marched from Travancore till the royal palace at Proclamation was signed by the Maharaja of
Tiruvananthapuram, as advised by Gandhi. Travancore which removed the age-old ban on
ˆ Mahatma Gandhi also supported the Satyagraha the entry of temples.
and also visited Vaikom in March, 1925.

CONCLUSION OF THE SATYAGRAHA

ˆ The Vaikom Satyagraha was officially
withdrawn on November 30, 1925 after
consultations between Gandhi and W.H. Pitt,
the then police commissioner of Travancore.
ˆ The Vaikom Satyagraha settled with a
compromise which allowed the entry of lower
caste Hindus to (the newly constructed) roads
on three sides of the Vaikom Temple.

www.sleepyclasses.com 345 1800-890-3043

 TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
REBELLIONS & UPRISINGS IN EASTERN
ˆ Some important tribes: INDIA
ƒ Dongria Kandh- Odisha (Vedanta) SANYASI REVOLT(1763-1800)
ƒ Baiga- Central India ˆ Coming of the British brought with it economic
ƒ Nyishi- Arunachal Pradesh hardships symbolized by the massive famine of
1770, and a general callousness on the part of the
ˆ ‘Dikus’- Outsiders
Company’s stooges.
ˆ ‘Bewar’- Term used in MP for shifting
ˆ Restrictions imposed on visits to holy places
cultivation
estranged the Sanyasis.
ˆ Land ownership
ˆ Sanyasis retaliated by organizing raids on the
ƒ One of the main reasons for tribal revolts were Company’s factories and state treasuries. Only
ƒ enactment of Indian Forest Acts of 1865 & after prolonged military action could Warren
1878, which Hastings contain the raids by the Sanyasis.
ƒ prepared background of ‘state monopoly
versus community control.’

CIVIL REBELLIONS & TRIBAL UPRISINGS

ˆ Rebellions began as British rule was established
in Bengal and Bihar, and they occurred in area
after area as it was incorporated into colonial
rule.
ˆ There was hardly a year without armed
opposition or a decade without a major armed
rebellion in one part of the country or the other.
ˆ From 1763 to 1856, there were more than forty
major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor
ones.

www.sleepyclasses.com 346 1800-890-3043

 “SANTHAL HOOL”(1855-56)
PYQ ƒ Santhals of Rajmahal Hills resented the
oppression by revenue officials, police,
Q. Which one of the following revolts was made
money– lenders, landlords, in general, by
famous by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in his
the “outsiders” (whom they called Diku).
novel ‘AnandMath’? [2006]
The Santhals under Sido and Kanhu rose up
(a) Bhil uprising against their oppressors, declared the end of
(b) Rangpur and Dinapur uprising the Company’s rule and asserted themselves
(c) Bishnupur and Birbhum rebellion independent in 1854.
(d) Sanyasi rebellion ƒ It was only in 1856 after extensive military
Anandmath operations that the situation was brought
under control. Sido died in 1855, while Kanhu
Answer to prev. PYQ : D
was arrested in 1866. A separate district
ˆ Anand Math is a Bengali novel, written by Bankim of Santhal Parganas was created by the
Chandra Chatterjee and published in 1882. Set in Government to pacify the Santhals.
the background of the Sanyasi Rebellion in the
late 18th century. REBELLIONS & UPRISINGS IN EASTERN
INDIA
MUNDA REVOLT(1890S-1900)
ˆ For over three decades, the Munda Sardar of
Chhota Nagpur had been struggling against
the destruction of their system of common
land–holdings by the intrusion of Jagirdars and
traders–moneylenders.
ˆ During the last decade of the nineteenth
century, the Mundas rose under Birsa Munda
in a movement or rebellion (Ulgulan) with an
agrarian and political discontent. They aimed
to establish a Munda rule in the land by killing
Thekedars, Jagirdars, Rajas and Hakims.
ˆ To bring about the liberation, Birsa gathered
“SANTHAL HOOL”(1855-56) a force of 6,000 Mundas armed with swords,
NCERT spears, battle–axes, and bows & arrows. Birsa
was, however, captured in 1900 and he died in
ˆ Rajmahal Hills
jail the same year.
ƒ ‘Paharias’ (Late 18th Century)
ƒ 1770s & 1780s
ƒ Augustus Cleveland (Collector of Bhagalpur)
ƒ Entry of ‘Santhals’
ƒ ‘Hoe(kudal) and Plough(Hal)’ Conundrum
ˆ ‘Damin-i-Koh’
ˆ Santhal Revolt (1855-56)
ƒ Santhal Pargana (Bhagalpur, Birbhum)

www.sleepyclasses.com 347 1800-890-3043

 “Ravana” (dikus/outsiders and the Europeans)
and establish a kingdom under his leadership.
ˆ Birsa’s followers began targeting the symbols of
diku and European power.
ˆ They attacked police stations and churches,
and raided the property of moneylenders and
zamindars.
ˆ They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa
Raj.
ˆ He was arrested in 1900 and he died of cholera(???)
in the jail and the movement faded out.
ˆ His struggle led British to introduce Chotanagpur
Tenancy Act being passed in 1908.
JANJATIYA GAURAV DIVAS
REBELLIONS & UPRISINGS IN EASTERN
CONTEXT INDIA
ˆ President of India paid her respects to tribal AHOM REVOLT (1828)
freedom fighters such as Birsa Munda, Alluri
ˆ British had pledged to withdraw after the First
Sitarama Raju and Rani Gaidinliu. (Nov. 2022-
Burma War (1824-26) from Assam. But, after
???)
the war, instead of withdrawing, the British
ˆ Janjatiya Gaurav Divas is a name given to 15th attempted to incorporate the Ahom’s territories
November by the Union Cabinet in its meeting in the Company’s dominion.
held on 10 November 2021, to remember the
ˆ This sparked off a rebellion in 1828 under the
contribution of tribal freedom fighters.
leadership of Gomdhar Konwar. Finally, the
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER RE- Company decided to follow a conciliatory policy
GARDING BIRSA MUNDA and handed over Upper Assam to Maharaja
Purandar Singh Narendra and part of the
ˆ Birsa Munda was born on 15th November 1875
kingdom was restored to the Assamese King.
in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
ˆ He was a folk hero and a tribal freedom fighter
hailing from the Munda tribe.He mobilised the
tribal community against the British. He also forced
the colonial officials to introduce laws protecting
the land rights of the tribals.
ˆ He started the faith of ‘Birsait’: stressed on
the importance of prayer, staying away from
alcohol, having faith in God and observing a
code of conduct.
ˆ Munda Rebellion was led by Birsa Munda in the
south of Ranchi in 1899-1900. This movement is
also called ‘Ulgulan’, or ‘The Great Tumult’.
ˆ Munda used traditional symbols and language
to rouse people, urging them to destroy

www.sleepyclasses.com 348 1800-890-3043

KANDH (OR KHOND) UPRISING [1837-56] land from Kol headmen (Mundas) to outsiders
ˆ Covered Ghumsar, China–ki–Medi, Kalahandi like Sikh and Muslim farmers.
and Patna. The Kandhs retaliated under Chakra ˆ The Kols of Chhota Nagpur resented this and
Bisoi against the British efforts to put an end to in 1831, the Kol rebels killed or burnt about
the Kandh’s practice of human sacrifice (Mariah) a thousand outsiders. Only after large–scale
first through persuasion and later through force. military operations could order be restored.

PYQ
Q. The word Adivasi was used for the first time to
refer to the tribal people by: [1995]
(a) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Thakkar Bappa
(c) Jyotiba Phule (d) B.R. Ambedkar
Answer to prev. PYQ : B
Adivasi
ˆ Adivasi means primitive people.
ˆ Collective term for tribes of the Indian
subcontinent, who are considered indigenous to
places within India wherein they live, either as
foragers or as tribalistic sedentary communities.
The term is also used for ethnic minorities, such
as Chakmas of Bangladesh, Tharus of Nepal, and
Vedda of Sri Lanka.

CHUAR UPRISING
ˆ Famine, enhanced land revenue demands and
economic distress goaded the Chuar aboriginal
tribesmen of Midnapore district to take up arms.
The uprising lasted from 1766 to 1772 and then,
again surfaced between 1795 and 1816.
ˆ Jungle Mahal Movement

HO RISING
ˆ Ho and Munda tribesmen of Chhota Nagpur
challenged the Company’s forces in 1820– 22,
then again in 1831, and the area remained
disturbed till 1837.

KOL MUTINY (1831)

ˆ Covered Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh,
Palamau and the western parts of Manbhum.
The trouble started with large-scale transfers of

www.sleepyclasses.com 349 1800-890-3043

 BHIL UPRISINGS
ˆ An aboriginal tribe concentrated around
Khandesh, revolted against their new masters,
the East India Company, fearing agrarian
hardships and the worst under the new regime.
One of their leaders was Sewaram.
ˆ The Bhils revolted in 1817-19, and again in 1825,
1836 and 1846.

REMEMBER
ˆ Bhil Seva Mandal-???
ˆ Pal Dadhvav Massacre-???

THAKKAR BAPPA
ˆ Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar, popularly known
as Thakkar Bapa was an Indian social worker
who worked for upliftment of tribal people in
Gujarat state in India. He became a member of
the Servants of India Society founded by Gopal
Krishna Gokhale in 1905. In 1922, he founded the
Bhil Seva Mandal.

www.sleepyclasses.com 350 1800-890-3043

 PAL-DADHVAV MASSACRE
REBELLIONS & UPRISINGS IN
WESTERN INDIA
RAMOSI UPRISINGS
ˆ Ramosis, the hill tribes of the Western Ghats,
had not reconciled to British rule and the British
pattern of administration. They rose under
Chittur Singh in 1822 and plundered the country
around Satara. Again, there were eruptions in
1825-26 and the disturbances continued till 1829.
ˆ The disturbance occurred again in 1839 over
deposition and banishment of Raja Pratap Singh
CONTEXT of Satara, and disturbances erupted in 1840-41
also. Finally, a superior British force restored
ˆ Recently, Gujarat government observed the
order in the area.
anniversary of the Pal-Dadhvav killings, calling
it a massacre “bigger than the Jallianwala Bagh”.

ANALYSIS FOR PRELIMS AND MAINS

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
ˆ The Pal-Dadhvav massacre took place on March
7, 1922, in the Pal-Chitariya and Dadhvaav
villages of Sabarkantha district.
ˆ Villagers from Pal, Dadhvav, and Chitariya had
gathered on the banks of river Heir as part of the
‘Eki movement’, led by one Motilal Tejawat.
ˆ The movement was to protest against the land
revenue tax (lagaan) imposed on the peasants by
the British and feudal lords.
ˆ Tejawat had been outlawed by the Udaipur state,
which had announced a Rs-500 reward on his
head.
ˆ The Mewad Bhil Corps (MBC), a paramilitary
force raised by the British that was on the
lookout for Tejawat, heard of this gathering and
reached the spot.
ˆ Bhils under the leadership of Tejawat lifted
their bows and arrows. But, the Britishers opened
fire on them.
ˆ Nearly 1,000 tribals (Bhils) fell to bullets.
ˆ While the British claimed some 22 people were
killed, the Bhils believe 1,200-1,500 of them died.

www.sleepyclasses.com 351 1800-890-3043

CUTCH REBELLION
ˆ British interfered in the internal feuds of the
Cutch and, in 1819, defeated and deposed the
ruler Rao Bharamal II in favour of his infant.
A British resident governed the areas as the de
facto ruler with the help of a regency council.
ˆ The administrative innovations made by the
regency council coupled with excessive land
assessment caused deep resentment. The
news of the British reverses in the Burma War JANJATIYA GAURAV DIVAS
emboldened the chiefs to rise in revolt and ALLURI SITARAMA RAJU
demand the restoration of Bharamal.
ˆ Alluri Sitarama Raju was born in July, 1897 in
WAGHERA RISING a village called Mogallu near Bhimavaram in
Andhra Pradesh.
ˆ A resentment against the alien rule coupled
ˆ He was involved in anti-British activities in
with the exactions of the Gaekwar of Baroda
response to the 1882 Madras Forest Act.
supported by the British Government compelled
the Waghera chiefs of Okha Mandal to take up ˆ This Act restricted the free movement of Adivasis
arms. The Wagheras carried out inroads into (tribal communities) in their forest habitats and
British territory during 1818-19. A peace treaty prevented them from practicing a traditional form of
was signed in November 1820. agriculture known as podu (shifting cultivation).
ˆ So he organised the Rampa Rebellion against
KOLI RISINGS the British in which he organised the tribal people of
ˆ Kolis living in the neighbourhood of Bhils rose up Vishakhapatnam and East Godavari districts to revolt
in rebellion against the Company’s rule in 1829, against the foreigners.
1839 and again during 1844-48. They resented ˆ The Rampa Revolt was fought between the
the imposition of Company’s rule which brought years 1922 and 1924.
with it large-scale unemployment for them and ˆ He was nicknamed “Manyam Veerudu” (Hero
the dismantling of their forts. of the Jungle) by local villagers for his heroic
exploits.
REBELLIONS & UPRISINGS IN SOUTHERN
INDIA REVOLT OF RAJA OF VIZIANAGARAM
RAMPA REVOLT ˆ East India Company invited the wrath of
ˆ Hill tribesmen of Rampa in coastal Andhra the people of Northern Sarkar when, after the
revolted in March 1879 against the depredations acquisition of these territories in 1765, it demanded
of the government-supported Mansabdar and
a tribute of three lakh rupees from the Raja and
the new restrictive forest regulations. Only after
also asked the Raja to disband his troops.
a large military operation could the rebels be
defeated in 1880. ˆ The Raja supported by his subjects rose up in
revolt. The Raja died in a battle in 1794. Finally,
the Company offered the estate to the deceased
Raja’s son and reduced the demand for presents.

www.sleepyclasses.com 352 1800-890-3043

 REBELLIONS & UPRISINGS IN NORTHERN
INDIA
KUKA MOVEMENT
ˆ Founded in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal (also
called Sian Saheb) in western Punjab. After
the British took the Punjab, the movement
transformed from a religious purification
campaign to a political one.
ˆ Its basic tenets were abolition of caste and similar
discriminations among Sikhs, discouraging the
eating of meat and taking of alcohol and drugs,
and encouraging women to step out of seclusion.
ˆ In 1872, one of their leaders, Ram Singh, was
DIWAN VELU THAMPI’S REVOLT (1808) deported to Rangoon.
ˆ East India Company’s harsh conditions imposed
on the state of Travancore, after both of them
agreed to a subsidiary alliance arrangement
under Wellesley in 1805, caused deep resentment.
The ruler failed to pay the subsidy and fell in
arrears.
ˆ The high-handed attitude of the Company
compelled the Diwan, Velu Thampi, to rise
against the Company, assisted by the Nair
battalion. A large military operation had to be
undertaken to restore peace.

WEAKNESSES OF THESE REBELLIONS

& UPRISINGS
ˆ These uprisings were massive in totality but
were, in fact, localized and isolated.

www.sleepyclasses.com 353 1800-890-3043

ˆ They were the result mostly of local grievances. BACKGROUND (8TH NCERT)
ˆ The leadership was semi-feudal in character, ˆ ‘Permanent Settlement’  Anyone who failed to
backward- looking, traditional in outlook pay revenue lost his zamindari
and their resistance represented no societal ˆ ‘Mahalwari System’  Holt Mackenzie (1822)
alternative.
ˆ ‘Ryotwari System’  Alexander Read
ˆ These rebellions were centuries old in form and
ideological-cultural content. The less recalcitrant ƒ Thomas Munro (Governor of Madras)
of these were pacified through concessions ƒ But why South India???
by the authorities. On the whole, however, ˆ Land Revenue Systems
these rebellions were able to establish valuable
ˆ Why ‘PS’ failed?
traditions of local resistance to authoritarianism.
ƒ High demand, Depressed Prices

Questions ƒ Invariable Revenue (Sunset Law)

ƒ Limited power of Zamindar
Q. Which of the following rebellion occurred due
ˆ ‘Amlah’
to the removal of King Bharmal II?
(a) Kutch Rebellion (b) Bhil Rebeliion ƒ ‘Jotedars’or ‘Haoladars’ or
(c) Ramosi Uprising (d) None of the Above ƒ ‘Gantidars’ or ‘Mandals’
Answer: A ƒ ‘Adhiyars’ or ‘Bargadars’
Q. The famous ‘Ramosi Uprising’ against the CAUSES
British Rule took place in India during the latter
half of the 19th century. From the following ˆ “Alienation of land” Concept
options, identify the region where it occurred. ˆ Atrocities by the Moneylenders
(a) Bundelkhand region ˆ De-Industrialisation
(b) Chota Nagpur region ˆ Debt Trap
(c) Western Maharashtra ˆ Failure of Land Revenue Systems
(d) Southern region of India
Answer: C SANYASI REVOLT (1763-1800)
ˆ Discussed earlier
Peasant Movements “SANTHAL HOOL”(1855-56)

www.sleepyclasses.com 354 1800-890-3043

INDIGO REVOLT (8TH NCERT) Answer
ˆ ‘Nij’ and ‘Ryoti’ Cultivation NEW FEATURES
ˆ ‘Blue Rebellion’- Mar. 1859 (Bengal) ˆ Organised social boycott
ˆ ‘Gomasthas’ ˆ Courts flooded with cases
ˆ ‘Neel Darpan’ ˆ No-rent campaign
ˆ Intervention of educated middle class and some
of European missionaries
ˆ Use of literature like ‘Neel-Darpan’ to create
awareness

OLD FEATURE
ˆ Uprising- violence
ˆ Indigo rebellion marked the transformation in
modes of peasant discontent against colonial
rule.

DECCAN RIOTS (1875)

ˆ Gave birth to a political movement and ˆ 12th NCERT
stimulated national sentiment against the British
rulers among Indian masses. ˆ Why ???? (P-100, I-2000)

ˆ The government appointed an Indigo ˆ ‘Cotton Boom’

Commission and issued an order in November ˆ Relation with ‘American Civil War’
1860, notifying that it was illegal to force the ryots ˆ Which land revenue system???
to cultivate indigo. This marked the victory for
ˆ Any relation with ‘Ramosi Uprising’???
the peasants.
RAMPA REVOLT
PYQ
Q. “Indigo Rebellion (1859-60) of Bengal carried
both old and new characteristics of peasant
movements.” Comment. (10 Marks, 150 Words)

20TH CENTURY PEASANT MOVEMENTS

CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA (1917)
ˆ ‘Tinkathia System’
ˆ Champaran Agrarian Act, 1918

www.sleepyclasses.com 355 1800-890-3043

 Hindus.
ˆ Their grievances centred around lack of security
of tenure, high rents and other oppressive
exactions.
ˆ The Moplah movement merged with the
ongoing Khilafat agitation.
ˆ Mahatma Gandhi, Shaukat Ali and Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad addressed Moplah meetings.
ˆ Many Hindus were seen by the Moplahs
to be helping the British authorities.
KHEDA SATYAGRAHA (1918) The anti-government and anti-landlord
ˆ 1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda movement acquired communal overtones.
district of Gujarat due to droughts. ˆ Communalisation isolated the Moplah from the
ˆ As per law, the farmers were entitled to remission Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movement.
if the produce was less than a quarter of the ˆ The movement was called off by December 1921.
normal output. But the government refused any
remission from paying land revenue.
PYQs
ˆ As part of the experiment, Mahatma Gandhi
advised the peasants to withhold payment of Q. “The roots of Moplah discontent were clearly
revenue till their demand for its remission was agrarian.” Comment. (1986, 20 Marks)
met. Q. The roots of Moplah uprising (1921) were
ˆ The protest was peaceful and people showed clearly agrarian. Do you agree? (1990, 60 Marks)
remarkable courage even in the face of adversities Q. The 1921 Moplah Rebellion was “in essence an
like confiscation of personal property and arrest. expression of long-standing agrarian discontent
ˆ The struggle was withdrawn when it was learnt which was intensified by the religious and
that the government had issued instructions that ethnic identity.” Comment. (2000, 20 Marks)
revenue should be recovered only from those TEBHAGA MOVEMENT (1946–47)
peasants who could afford to pay.
ˆ The Tebhaga movement was manifested in the
undivided Bengal in the mid-1940s.
ˆ This movement centers around a demand
for tebhaga (two-third shares) by sharecroppers
of their produce for themselves, instead of one-half
traditionally given to them by the jotedars—a class
of intermediary landowners.
ˆ The colonial rulers used all possible repressive
measures to crash this movement by introducing
a reign of terror in the rural areas.
Q. Consider the following events: [1999]
MOPLAH REBELLION (1921) 1. Indigo Revolt
2. Santhal Rebellion
ˆ The Moplahs were the Muslim tenants inhabiting
the Malabar region where most of the landlords were 3. Deccan Riot

www.sleepyclasses.com 356 1800-890-3043

 4. Mutiny of the Sepoys
The correct chronological sequence of these
events is:
(a) 4, 2, 1, 3 (b) 4, 2, 3, 1
(c) 2, 4, 3, 1 (d) 2, 4, 1, 3
Answer to prev. PYQ : D

CHRONOLOGY OF REBELLIONS
ˆ Indigo revolt – 1859-60; Santhal rebellion – 1855-
56; Deccan riot – 1875
ˆ Indigo revolt (or Nil bidroha) was a Q. Consider the following statements : [2010]
peasant movement and subsequent uprising 1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad persuaded Mahatma
of indigo farmers against the indigo planters that Gandhi to come to Champaran to investigate
arose in Chaugacha village of Nadia in Bengal in the problem of the peasants.
1859. 2. Acharya J.B. Kriplani was one of Mahatma
ˆ In May and June 1875, peasants of Maharashtra Gandhi’s colleagues in his Champaran
in some parts of Pune and Ahmednagar districts investigation.
revolted against increasing agrarian distress. Which of the statements given above is/are
The Deccan Riots of 1875 targeted conditions of correct ?
debt peonage (kamiuti) to moneylenders. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Q. What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi to (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
organize a satyagraha on behalf of the peasants Answer to prev. PYQ : B
off Kheda ? [2011]
ˆ Statement 1 is incorrect as it was Raj Kumar
1. The administration did not suspend the land Shukla who requested Gandhi to come to
revenue collection in spite of a drought. Champaran to investigate the problems of
2. The administration proposed to introduce peasants. Gandhi’s colleagues in this movement
permanent settlement in Gujarat. were JB Kriplani, Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-
Which of the statements given above is/are Haq, Mahadeo Desai, and Narhari Parekh.
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only MCQ
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q. Dewan Velu Thampi’s rebellion against the
Answer to prev. PYQ : A
British took place in the Indian state of (PSC)
ˆ A famine had struck the district and a large part
(a) Awadh (b) Kashmir
of Gujarat, and virtually destroyed the agrarian
economy. (c) Travancore (d) Mysore
Answer: C
ˆ The poor peasants had barely enough to feed
themselves, but the British government of the
Bombay Presidency insisted that the farmers not
only pay full taxes, but also pay the 23% increase
stated to take effect that year.

www.sleepyclasses.com 357 1800-890-3043

 THE REVOLT OF 1857
ˆ Abolition of Regal Titles - The Mughal Emperor
Bahadur Shah II had grown old and weak. Lord
Dalhousie recognised the succession of Mughal
Prince Faqir-Ud-Din, but he imposed strict
conditions on him.
ƒ In 1856, Faqir-ud-din died and Lord Canning
declared that the prince next in succession
would have to renounce the regal title and the
ancestral Mughal palaces.
ƒ In addition, the British also abolished the regal
titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic and Tanjore.
PYQ
ECONOMIC CAUSES
Q. Who was the Governor-General of India during
EXPLOITATIVE LAND REVENUE
the Sepoy Mutiny? SETTLEMENTS INTRODUCED BY BRITISH -
(a) Lord Canning (b) Lord Dalhousie
ˆ The huge drain of wealth, the destruction
(c) Lord Hardinge (d) Lord Lytton of its industry and increasing land revenue
Answer: A (Introduction of Permanent, Ryotwari and
Mahalwari settlement)had become the common
features of the latter half of the eighteenth
century.
CAUSES OF 1857 REVOLT ƒ The East India Company, after attaining
POLITICAL CAUSES political power, used it to fund the growth
of British trade and commerce at the cost of
ˆ Discontent among ruling chiefs and royal
Indians.
families: Broken pledges and oaths resulted in
loss of political prestige for some, while policies ˆ A new plantation system was introduced in the
such as policies of ‘Subsidiary Alliance’ and year 1833: It resulted in incalculable misery for
‘Doctrine of Lapse’ caused alarm and suspicion the Indian peasants.
in the minds of others. ƒ This was the result of permitting Englishmen
ˆ The collapse of rulers—the erstwhile to acquire land plantations in India. The hard
aristocracy—also adversely affected those hit were the peasants on the indigo plantations
sections of the Indian society which derived their in Bengal and Bihar. (Tin Kathiya System)
sustenance from cultural and religious pursuits. ƒ Sometimes, zamindars, the traditional landed
ˆ The Alien rule of the British - The practice of aristocracy, often saw their land rights
‘Absentee Sovereignty’ embittered the Indians forfeited by the administration. This resulted
against the British. in a loss of status for them in the villages. These
dispossessed taluqdars seized the opportunity
ˆ Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in
presented by the sepoy revolt, particularly in
those regions like Burma, Assam, Sind and the
Awadh.
Punjab which were unjustly annexed to the
British Empire.

www.sleepyclasses.com 358 1800-890-3043

 MILITARY CAUSES:
DESTRUCTION OF INDIAN TRADE, LOW SALARY AND POOR PROSPECTS OF
HANDICRAFT AND INDUSTRY PROMOTION
ˆ High tariff in Britain against Indian goods: It ˆ Alongside, The conditions of service in the
damaged the Indian trade and manufacture; Company’s Army and cantonments increasingly
British also encouraged the import of British came into conflict with the religious beliefs and
goods to India. prejudices of the sepoys.
ƒ In India the ruin of the millions of artisans ƒ Restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian
and craftsmen was not accompanied by any marks and secret rumours of proselytising
alternative growth of new industrial forms. activities (often maintained on the Company’s
ƒ Annexation of Indian states by the Company expenses) were interpreted by Indian sepoys,
cut off their major source of patronage. who were generally conservative by nature, as
interference in their religious affairs.
MONEYLENDERS AND TRADERS EMERGED
AS THE NEW LANDLORDS To the religious Hindu of the time, crossing the
seas meant loss of caste.
ˆ Compelled by this new form of revenue
settlement, the peasants resorted to loans from ˆ In 1856 Lord Canning’s Government passed the
moneylenders/traders at usurious rates, the General Service Enlistment Act which decreed
latter often evicting the former on nonpayment that all future recruits to the Bengal Army
of debt dues. would have to give an undertaking to serve
ƒ The ruination of Indian industry increased the anywhere their services might be required by the
pressure on agriculture and land. Government.

SOCIAL CAUSES: The Indian sepoy was equally unhappy with his
emoluments compared to his British counterpart.
ARROGANT ATTITUDE OF THE BRITISH AND
THE RACIAL DISCRIMINATION ˆ A more immediate cause of the sepoys’
ˆ Racial overtones and a superiority complex dissatisfaction was the order that they would not
characterized by Indiscrimination and assaults on be given the foreign service allowance (batta)
Indians by Englishmen, became quite common. when serving in Sindh or in Punjab.
ˆ The Indian sepoy was made to feel a subordinate
British Interference in Religion and Culture
at every step and was discriminated against
ˆ A general alarm was raised among the Hindus racially and in matters of promotion and
and Muslims by the activities of the Christian privileges.
missionaries. (Charter Act of 1813) ˆ The sepoy, in fact, was a ‘peasant in uniform’
ƒ The educational institutions established by whose consciousness was not divorced from that
the missionaries inculcated western education of the rural population.
and culture in the place of oriental learning. ˆ In 1854, The Post Office Act was passed which
ˆ Legislations were passed regarding prohibition withdrew the free postage privilege of the
of female infanticide, sati and slavery and passing Sepoys.
of legislations regarding widow marriage. ˆ In 1806, at Vellore, the turban was replaced by
ƒ In 1850, the Religious Disabilities Act a leather cockade. This caused the Sepoys to rise
was passed which modified certain Hindu in Mutiny.
customs, for example, it stated that a change of ˆ In 1824, the sepoys of Barrackpore refused to go
religion would not debar a son from inheriting to Burma as crossing the sea meant loss of caste.
the property of his father.

www.sleepyclasses.com 359 1800-890-3043

 The regiment was disbanded and some leaders ƒ This sparked off a general mutiny among the
put to death. Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut.
ˆ In 1856, General Service Enlistment Act was ƒ The very next day, on May 10, they released
passed by the Canning Government, which their imprisoned comrades, killed their
further angered the Sepoys. officers and unfurled the banner of revolt.
ƒ It stated that all further recruits of Bengal ƒ They set off for Delhi after sunset.
Army would have to give an undertaking ˆ The revolt began at Meerut, 58 km from Delhi, on
to serve anywhere their service might be May 10, 1857 and then, gathering force rapidly,
required by the Government. soon embraced a vast area from the Punjab in
ˆ Close to 1857, there were reports of bone dust in the north and the Narmada in the south to Bihar
flour rations. in the east and Rajputana in the west.
ˆ In Delhi, the local infantry joined them, killed
INTRODUCTION OF THE ENFIELD RIFLE
their own European officers including Simon
ˆ This enhanced the sepoys’ growing disaffection Fraser, the political agent, and seized the city.
with the Government.
ˆ The aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar
ˆ The cartridge of the new rifle had to be bitten was proclaimed the emperor of India. The long
off before loading and the grease was reportedly reign of Mughals had made them the traditional
made of beef and pig fat and the administration symbol of India’s political unity.
did nothing to allay these fears, and the sepoys
ˆ All the Indian chiefs who took part in the revolt
felt their religion was in grave danger.
hastened to proclaim their loyalty to the Mughal
ˆ There had been a long history of revolts in the emperor.
British Indian Army—in Bengal (1764), Vellore
ˆ On 12 May 1857, Delhi was seized by rebelling
(1806), Barrackpore (1825) to mention just a few.
sepoys after they overcame Lt. Willioughby, the
EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE REVOLT commanding officer at Delhi. The loss of Delhi
was a serious blow to the prestige of British.
ˆ The 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur, which
refused to use the newly introduced Enfield ˆ Bahadur Shah, after initial vacillation, wrote
rifle and broke out in mutiny in February 1857 letters to all the chiefs and rulers of India urging
was disbanded in March 1857. them to organise a confederacy of Indian states
to fight and replace the British regime.
ƒ A young sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry,
Mangal Pande, went a step further and fired at ˆ The entire Bengal Army soon rose in revolt
the sergeant major of his unit at Barrackpore. which spread quickly. Awadh, Rohilkhand, the
Doab, the Bundelkhand, central India, large
ˆ He was overpowered and executed on April 6
parts of Bihar and East Punjab shook off British
while his regiment was disbanded in May.
authority.
ˆ The 7th Awadh Regiment which defied its
ˆ The revolt of the sepoys was accompanied by a
officers on May 3 met with a similar fate.
rebellion of the civil population, particularly in
THE GREAT REVOLT the north-western provinces and Awadh.
ˆ On April 24, ninety men of 3rd Native Cavalry ˆ Their accumulated grievances found immediate
refused to accept the greased cartridges. expression and they raised support to give vent
to their opposition to British rule.
ƒ On May 9, eighty five of them were dismissed,
sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment and put ˆ It is the widespread participation in the revolt
in fetters. by the peasantry, the artisans, shopkeepers, day
labourers, zamindars, religious mendicants,

www.sleepyclasses.com 360 1800-890-3043

 priests and ‘civil servants which gave it real the zamindar of Jagdishpur . An old man in
strength as well as the character of a popular his seventies, he nursed a grudge against the
revolt. British who had deprived him of his estates.
ˆ Peasants and petty zamindars gave free He unhesitatingly joined the sepoys when they
expression to their grievances by attacking the reached Arrah from Dinapore .
moneylenders and zamindars that had displaced ˆ Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad was another
them from the land. outstanding leader of the revolt. He was a native
ˆ They took advantage of the revolt to destroy the of Madras and had moved to Faizabad in the
moneylenders’ account books and debt records. north where he fought a stiff battle against the
British troops. He emerged as one of the revolts’s
ˆ They also attacked the British-established law acknowledged leaders once it broke out in
courts, revenue offices (tehsils), revenue records Awadh in May 1857.
and police stations.
ˆ Rani Laxmibai assumed the leadership of the
ˆ Although, the Revolt spread to major parts sepoys at Jhansi. Lord Dalhousie, the governor
of North India, but practically India, south of general, had refused to allow her adopted son
Narmada remained undisturbed. to succeed to the throne after her husband Raja
ˆ One Important thing was the Hindu Muslim Gangadhar Rao died, and had annexed the state
unity that was witnessed during the revolt. by the application of the infamous ‘Doctrine of
Lapse’ .
STORM CENTRES AND LEADERS OF THE
REVOLT ˆ She was joined by Tantia Tope, a close associate
of Nana Saheb, after the loss of Kanpur. Rani
ˆ At Delhi the nominal and symbolic leadership of Jhansi and Tantia Tope marched towards
belonged to the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah, Gwalior where they were hailed by the Indian
but the real command lay with a court of soldiers soldiers.
headed by General Bakht Khan who had led the
revolt of Bareilly troops and brought them to SUPPRESSION OF REVOLT
Delhi.
ˆ The British captured Delhi in September 20,
ˆ At Kanpur, Nana Saheb, was the adopted son of 1857 after prolonged and bitter fighting.
the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II. He was refused the
ˆ Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner. The royal
family title and, banished from Poona, was living
princes were captured and butchered on the
near Kanpur. Nana Saheb expelled the English
spot, publicly shot at point blank range.
from Kanpur, proclaimed himself the Peshwa,
acknowledged Bahadur Shah as the emperor of ƒ The emperor was exiled to Rangoon where he
India and declared himself to be his governor. died in 1862.
(Tantya Tope) ƒ Thus the great House of Mughals was finally
ˆ Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the reins at and completely extinguished.
Lucknow where the rebellion broke out on June 4, ƒ With the fall of Delhi the focal point of the
1857 and popular sympathy was overwhelmingly revolt disappeared.
in favour of the deposed Nawab. ˆ Nana Saheb, defeated at Kanpur, escaped to
ˆ Jhansi - Doctrine of Lapse - Rejecting the claim Nepal in early 1859, never to be heard of again.
of Damodar Rao (adopted son of Rani and ✓His close associate Tantia Tope escaped into
Gangadhar Rao) the jungles of central India, was captured while
ˆ Bareilly - Khan Bahadur Khan asleep in April 1859 and put to death.
ˆ In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, ˆ The Rani of Jhansi had died on the battlefield
earlier in June 1858.

www.sleepyclasses.com 361 1800-890-3043

ˆ By 1859, Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan ƒ The electric telegraph kept the commander-
Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of in-chief informed about the movements and
Nana Saheb) and Maulvi Ahmadullah were all strategy of the rebels.
dead, while the Begum of Awadh was compelled ˆ The revolt was poorly organized with no
to hide in Nepal. coordination or central leadership.
ˆ By the end of 1859, British authority over India ƒ The principal rebel leaders—Nana Saheb,
was fully reestablished. Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, Laxmibai—
were no match to their British opponents in
BRITISH OFFICERS WHO SURPASSED
THE REVOLT generalship.

ˆ Delhi and Lucknow - Sir Collin Campbell ˆ The mutineers did not have a clear
understanding of colonial rule; nor did they
ˆ Jhansi - Sir Hugh Rose have a forward looking programme, a coherent
ˆ Banaras - Colonel Neil ideology, a political perspective or a societal
alternative.
REASONS FOR FAILURE
ˆ The rebels represented diverse elements with
ˆ Limited territorial spread was one factor; there differing grievances and concepts of current
was no all-India veneer about the revolt. politics.
ƒ The eastern, southern and western parts of
India remained more or less unaffected. CONSEQUENCES
ƒ Certain classes and groups did not join and, ˆ The direct responsibility for the administration
in fact, worked against the revolt. (Scindia of the country was assumed by the British
Ruler of Gwalior) Crown and Company rule was abolished.
ˆ Big zamindars acted as “breakwaters to storm”; ƒ The assumption of the Government of India by
even Awadh tehsildars backed off once promises the sovereign of Great Britain was announced
of land restitution were spelt out. by Lord Canning at a durbar at Allahabad
ƒ Moneylenders and merchants suffered the in the ‘Queen’s Proclamation’ issued on
wrath of the mutineers badly and anyway saw November 1, 1858.
their class interests better protected under ˆ The era of annexations and expansion ended and
British patronage. the British promised to respect the dignity and
ˆ Modern educated Indians viewed this revolt rights of the native princes.
as backward looking, and mistakenly hoped ƒ The Indian states were henceforth to recognise
the British would usher in an era of the paramountcy of the British Crown and
modernization. were to be treated as parts of a single charge.
ƒ Most Indian rulers refused to join and often ˆ The Army, which was at the forefront of the
gave active help to the British. outbreak, was thoroughly reorganised and
ˆ The Indian soldiers were poorly equipped British military policy came to be dominated by
materially, fighting generally with swords and the idea of “division and counterpoise”.
spears and very few guns and muskets.
ˆ The 1857 Revolt, however, sowed the seeds of
ƒ On the other hand, the European soldiers were Indian nationalism.
equipped with the latest weapons of war like
the Enfield rifle.

www.sleepyclasses.com 362 1800-890-3043

 PYQ TATYA TOPE
ˆ British forces had failed to subdue Tatya for over
Q. Which one of the following territories was not a year. He was however betrayed into the hands
affected by the Revolt of 1857? of the British by his trusted friend, Man Singh,
(a) Jhansi (b) Chittor while asleep in his camp in the Paron forest. He
(c) Jagdishpur (d) Lucknow was captured on 7 April 1859 by a detachment
of native infantry from British General Richard
Answer: B
John Meade’s troops led to him by Singh and
Q. With reference to the ‘revolt of the year’ who of escorted to Shivpuri where he was tried by a
the following was betrayed by ‘friend’, captured military court.
and put to death by the British?
(a) Nana Sahib (b) Kunwar Singh
(c) Khan Bahadur Khan (d) Tatya Tope
Answer: D

www.sleepyclasses.com 363 1800-890-3043

 MODERN HISTORY (POST-1857 SCENARIO)
THE ACT FOR BETTER GOVERNMENT OF
INDIA, 1858
ˆ It promised equal and impartial protection under
ˆ Even before the Revolt could be suppressed fully, The law to all Indians, besides equal opportunities
British Parliament, on August 2, 1858, passed an in government services irrespective of race or
Act for the Better Government of India. creed. It was also promised that old Indian
ˆ The 1857 revolt had exposed the Company’s rights, customs and practices would be given
limitations in administering under a complex due regard while framing and administering the
situation. The 1858 Act sought to rectify this law.
ƒ India was to be governed by and in the name ˆ The Army, which was at the forefront of the
of the Crown through a secretary of state and outbreak, was thoroughly re-organized and
a council of fifteen members. British military policy came to be dominated
by the idea of “division and counterpoise”. The
ˆ The initiative and the final decision were to be
British could no longer depend on Indian loyalty, so
with the secretary of state and the Council was to
the number of Indian soldiers was reduced even as the
be just advisory in nature. Thus, the dual system
number of European soldiers was increased (???).
introduced by the Pitt’s India Act came to an end.
ˆ Recruits were to be drawn from the ‘martial’ races
ˆ Governor-general became the Viceroy (his
(???) of Punjab, Nepal, and north-western frontier
prestige, if not authority, increased).
that had proved loyal to the British during the
ˆ The assumption of power by the Crown was one Revolt. Effort was made to keep the army away
of formality rather than substance. It gave a decent from civilian population.
burial to an already dead horse—the Company’s
ˆ All higher posts in the army were reserved for
administration.
the Europeans.
QUEEN’S PROCLAMATION, 1858 ˆ The earlier reformist zeal evaporated as many
ˆ The assumption of the Government of India by liberals in Britain began to believe that Indians
the sovereign of Great Britain was announced were beyond reform. Thus the era of reforms
by Lord Canning at a durbar at Allahabad in came to an end.
the ‘Queen’s Proclamation’ issued on November ˆ The conservative reaction in England made the
1, 1858. It was by this proclamation that the British Empire in India more autocratic; it began
governor-general acquired the additional title of to deny the aspirations of the educated Indians
‘Viceroy’. for sharing power.
ˆ As per the Queen’s proclamation, ˆ In the long term, this new British attitude proved
ˆ The era of annexations and expansion had ended counter-productive for the Empire, as this caused
and the British promised to respect the dignity frustrations.
and rights of the native princes. ˆ The policy of divide and rule started in earnest
ˆ The Indian states were henceforth to recognise after the Revolt of 1857. The British used one class/
the paramountcy of the British Crown. community against another unscrupulously.
ˆ While British territorial conquest was at an end,
AFTERMATH OF REVOLT OF 1857
a period of systematic economic loot by the British
ˆ The people of India were promised freedom of began. The Indian economy was fully exploited
religion without interference from British officials. without fear.

www.sleepyclasses.com 364 1800-890-3043

ˆ The complete structure of the Indian government ˆ Indian Councils Act of 1861
was re-modelled based on the notion of a master ˆ Sir Bartle Frere, in his famous Minute of 1860,
race—justifying the philosophy of the ‘White man’s pushed for representation of Indians in the Legislative
burden’. This widened the gulf between the rulers Council - As the British now realised that a major
and the ruled. cause of the Revolt was the miscommunication
between the ruler and the ruled.
CHANGE IN MILITARY POLICY -
ˆ Thus this Act marked the starting of the active
ˆ The number of European Soldiers were increased.
representation of Indian in these Councils.
ˆ In the Bengal army, ratio was fixed at one
ˆ Socio-Religious Reforms - The Policy of limited
European soldier for two Indian soldiers.
social intervention was abandoned by the
ˆ In Bombay and Madras armies, ratio was fixed 1:3 Colonial Government after the Revolt of 1857.
or 2:5.
ˆ It now openly put forward that there were many
ˆ All big positions in Army were reserved for social and cultural defects in Indian Society
Europeans. which made Indian unfit to rule themselves.
ˆ Soldiers from Awadh, Bihar and Central India were ˆ Hence they must be governed by the British for
declared as non-martial while Punjabis and Gorkhas an indefinite period of time.
(who had fought for the British) were declared as
ˆ Racial Discrimination - The British began to assert
martial and recruited in large numbers. By 1875,
vigorously the doctrine of Racial Supremacy to
half of the British Indian Army was recruited
assert their authority and humiliate the Indians.
from Punjab.
ˆ They justified this by the philosophy of ‘White
ˆ Change in Policy towards the Upper Class
Man’s Burden’ - the burden of civilising the non-
(Princes and Landlords)
whites.
ˆ Policy of Annexation abandoned.
ˆ Princes and Landlords rewarded and befriended.
PYQ-1
ˆ Britain as a paramount power - Britain was
acknowledged as a paramount power. Q. Consider the following statements:
ˆ In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Some of the main features of the Government
‘Empress of India’. of India Act, 1935 were the :
1. abolition of diarchy in the Governor’s
CHANGE IN ATTITUDE TOWARDS provinces
EDUCATED INDIANS
2. power of the Governors to veto legislative
ˆ Hostility towards Higher Education - The British action and to legislate on their own
now became hostile to Higher Education in India 3. abolition of the principle of communal
and even took active steps to curtail it after the representation
formation of Indian National Congress in 1885.
Which of the statements given above is/are
ˆ Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 - In order to correct?
show off the notion of equality and transparency,
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
this act was passed which provided for an annual
competitive exam to be held in London. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer : B
ƒ However, the detailed rules framed were such
that they had the effect of keeping the civil
services a close preserve of the Englishmen.

www.sleepyclasses.com 365 1800-890-3043

Q. The “Instrument of Instructions” contained in
the Government of India Act, 1935 have been
incorporated in the Constitution of India in the
year 1950 as :
(a) Fundamental Rights
(b) Directive Principles of State Policy
(c) Extent of executive power of State
(d) Conduct of business of the Government of
India
Answer : B

1935 ACT & DPSP

ˆ Instrument of instructions under GoI Act 1935

were instructions issued to Governors of the
colonies or Governor in general by British
government.
ˆ Under the draft constitution these instructions
were proposed to issue directives to state
and central governments and adopted under
Directive Principles of State policies.

GOVERNOR, GOVERNOR-GENERALS & VICE-

ROYS (EXERCISE CAUTION!!!)

www.sleepyclasses.com 366 1800-890-3043

Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Robert Clive was the first Governor-General
of Bengal.
2. William Bentinck was the first Governor-
General of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
ˆ Lord Lytton (1876-1880) brought Vernacular
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Press Act, which came into force in 1878. It was
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 repealed by Lord Ripon in 1882.
WARREN HASTINGS

Q. Consider the following Viceroys of India

during the British rule:
1. Lord Curzon 2. Lord Chelmsford
3. Lord Hardinge 4. Lord Irwin
Which one of the following is the correct
chronological order of their tenure?
(a) 1, 3, 2, 4 (b) 2, 4, 1, 3
(c) 1, 4, 2, 3 (d) 2, 3, 1, 4

VICEROY CHRONOLOGY

Q. Who among the following repealed the

Vernacular Press Act?
(a) Lord Dufferin (b) Lord Ripon
(c) Lord Curzon (d) Lord Hardinge
Answer : B

www.sleepyclasses.com 367 1800-890-3043

 Q. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly
ˆ Lord Curzon (1899-1905); Lord Chelmsford matched?
(1916-1921); Lord Hardinge (1910-1916); Lord (a) Pitt’s India Act : Warren Hastings
Irwin (1926-1931)
(b) Doctrine of Lapse : Dalhousie
(c) Vernacular Press Act : Curzon
(d) Ilbert Bill : Ripon
Answer : C

VERNACULAR PRESS ACT

ˆ Vernacular Press Act was passed by Lord Lytton
in 1878 and it was repealed by Ripon in 1882.

LORD LYTTON (1876-1880)

www.sleepyclasses.com 368 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Dalhousie-”Maker of Modern India”

Q. The ruler of which one of the following States

was removed from power by the British on the
pretext of misgovernance?
(a) Awadh (b) Jhansi
(c) Nagpur (d) Satara
Answer : A

ANNEXATION OF AWADH

Q. With reference to colonial rule in India, what

was sought by the Ilbert Bill in 1883?
(a) To bring Indians and Europeans at par as
far as the criminal jurisdiction of courts was
concerned
(b) To impose severe restrictions on the freedom
of the native press as it was perceived to be
hostile to colonial rulers
(c) To encourage the native Indians to appear
for civil service examinations by conducting
them in India
(d) To allow native Indians to posses arms by
amending the Arms Act
Answer : A
ˆ Ilbert Bill

www.sleepyclasses.com 369 1800-890-3043

www.sleepyclasses.com 370 1800-890-3043
 POLITICAL ASSOCIATION BEFORE
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
(MODERN HISTORY)
POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS IN EASTERN
INDIA
ˆ Raja Ram Mohan Roy - Morning Star of Reform
Movement (or Indian Renaissance) in the country,
was the first(???) great leader of the modern India.
ˆ He was also the pioneer of the political
movement in India. Well read and deeply
influenced by Western Ideas, considered to be
the first to focus the attention of the Englishmen
on the grievances of Indian people.
ˆ Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the first
Politically active leader in the modern sense.
Indian National Movement ˆ He started agitations for demands like
appointments of Indians to Higher Govt Offices,
POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE THE IN- Freedom of Press, Prevent Zamindari Oppression
DIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS of Ryots, etc.

ˆ Most of the political associations in the early BANGABHASHA PRAKASHIKA SABHA (1836)
half of the nineteenth century(focus-???) were
ˆ The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha was formed
dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements.
in 1836 by associates of Raja Rammohan Roy
ˆ They were local or regional in character. (ex-Gourishankar Tarkabagish) with the aim of
Through long petitions to the British Parliament, discussing Government Policy and seeking
most of them demanded redressal through petitions and memorandums.

ˆ Administrative reforms. LANDHOLDER’S SOCIETY (OR ZAMINDARI

ASSOCIATION)
ˆ Association of Indians with the administration.
ˆ Founded by Dwarka Nath Tagore, Prasanna
ˆ Spread of education.
Kumar Tagore, RadhaKanta Deb and others in
ˆ The political associations of the second half of ??? to safeguard the interests of Zamindars.
the nineteenth century came to be increasingly
ˆ This organization is credited with launching of
dominated by the educated middle class—the
Organized political activity in India and the use of
lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers, etc.,—
constitutional methods for grievance redressal.
and they had a wider perspective and a larger
agenda. ˆ At times, the Landholders Society cooperated
with the British India Society founded by William
Adam in London.

www.sleepyclasses.com 371 1800-890-3043

RECAP BENGAL BRITISH INDIA SOCIETY (1843)
DHARMA SABHA ˆ The Bengal British India Society was founded in
ˆ Radhakant Deb 1843 with the objectives of ―

ˆ An orthodox society, it stood for the preservation ˆ Collection and dissemination of information
of the status quo in socio-religious matters, relating to the actual condition of the people of
opposing even the abolition of sati. British India
ˆ And to employ such other means of peaceful
and lawful character as may appear calculated
to secure the welfare, extend the just rights and
advance the interests of all classes of our fellow
subjects.

BRITISH INDIAN ASSOCIATION (1851)

ˆ In 1851, both the Landholders‘ Society and the
Bengal British India Society merged into the
British Indian Association.
ˆ They sent some suggestions to the British
Parliament to be included in the Company
Charter
ˆ Establishment of a separate legislature of a
popular character
ˆ Separation of executive from judicial
functions(???)

CHARTER ACT OF 1853

BRITISH INDIAN ASSOCIATION (1851)

ˆ Reduction in salaries of higher officers
ˆ Abolition of salt duty, abkari(???) and stamp
duties

www.sleepyclasses.com 372 1800-890-3043

(In one of their petitions they stated that - ‘While
Indians acknowledged the blessings of an improved
form of Government, they could not but feel that
they had not profited from their connections with
Great Britain to the extent which they had a right to
look for’.)

INDIA (OR INDIAN) LEAGUE

ˆ The Indian League was started in 1875 by Sisir
Kumar Ghosh with the objectives of ―stimulating
the sense of nationalism amongst the people and of
encouraging political education.
ˆ Ghosh himself was a noted journalist and a
founder of Amrita Bazar Patrika. (A noted
INDIAN ASSOCIATION (1876)
Bengali Newspaper).

INDIAN ASSOCIATION (1876)

ˆ Most Important of the Pre Congress
Organisations
ˆ The Indian Association of Calcutta (also
known as the Indian National Association)
superseded the Indian League and was founded
in 1876 by younger nationalists of Bengal led
by Surendra Nath Banerjee & Anand Mohan
Bose to -
ˆ Create a strong public opinion on political
questions
ˆ Unify Indian people on a common political
program.
ˆ It demanded simultaneous holding of civil ˆ Soon the Indian Association became the leading
service examination in England and India and representative of the educated community of
Indianization of higher administrative posts. Bengal as well as a major force in Indian politics.
ˆ It led a campaign against the repressive Arms ˆ When in 1876, Lytton reduced the age for
Act and the Vernacular Press Act. appearing in the ICS to 19 years from 21 Years,
ˆ It sponsored an all India conference which The Indian Association took up this issue and
first took place in Calcutta on December 28 to organized a pan India agitation, known as the
30, 1883. More than hundred delegates from Indian Civil Service Agitation.
different parts of the country attended.
POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS IN WESTERN
ˆ The Annual subscription rate was Rs 5 per INDIA
annum, and it showed all signs of a broad based
BOMBAY ASSOCIATION (1852)
nationalist movement.
ˆ In 1852, Jaggannath Shankersheth started the
Bombay Association along with Sir Jamshedji
Jejibhai, Jagannath Shankarshet, Naoroji

www.sleepyclasses.com 373 1800-890-3043

 Fursungi, Dr. Bhau Daji Lad, Dadabhai Naoroji ˆ The Bombay Presidency Association was started
and Vinayak Shankarshet. by Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta and
ˆ Founded on the lines of British India Association K.T. Telang in 1885.
of Calcutta and its objective was sending prayers ˆ It was formed in opposition to the Ilbert Bill and
and petitions to the Government to advance Lytton’s other reactionary policies.
Indian interests. This association did not survive ˆ It championed Indian interests and hosted the
for long. first meeting of the Indian National Congress in
Bombay at the end of 1885.
POONA SARVAJANIK SABHA (1870-???)
POLITICAL ASSOCIATION IN SOUTHERN
INDIA
MADRAS NATIVE ASSOCIATION (1852)
ˆ Formed by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty in
Madras Presidency.
ˆ It was, in a way, branch of the British Indian
Association of Calcutta.

MADRAS MAHAJAN SABHA (1884)

ˆ The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded by

Mahadeo Govind Ranade and others, with
the objective of serving as a bridge between the
government and the people.
ˆ Many prominent leaders of Freedom struggle
like Lokmanya Tilak were member of this
organisation.
ˆ This body is considered as a precursor to the
Indian National Congress which was also formed
in Maharashtra. ˆ The Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded in 1884
by M. Viraraghavachari, G. Subramania Aiyar
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY ASSOCIATION (1885) and P. Anandacharlu to coordinate the activities
of the Local Associations.

POLITICAL ASSOCIATION IN ENGLAND

ˆ The East India Association was organized by
Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in London to discuss
the Indian question and influence public men in
England to promote Indian welfare.
ˆ In 1866, the Ethnological Society of London, tried
to prove Asian’s were inferior to the Europeans.
The East India Association’s work also intended
to challenge this notion.

www.sleepyclasses.com 374 1800-890-3043

ˆ Later, branches of the association were started in ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND WESTERN
prominent Indian cities. EDUCATION
ˆ The English-educated Indians, who led
PRECURSOR OF INC
the national movement, developed Indian
ˆ Associations before 1858 - Dominated by Wealthy nationalism and organised it.
Landed Gentry and the annual subscription for
ˆ Western education facilitated the spread of
some organizations was Rs 50 per annum which
the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and
was too high for the middle class.
nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism.
ˆ Another drawback was that they promoted their
class interest only, they were found to be active in THE ROLE OF THE PRESS
their own province only and had little influence ˆ The Indian Press, both English and vernacular,
over the rest of the country. had also aroused the national consciousness.

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
ˆ The leaders of various organizations like the
Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Arya
Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a
feeling of regard for and pride in the motherland.

ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION BY THE BRITISH

ˆ The English systematically ruined the Indian
trade and native industries.

RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
ˆ The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent
FACTORS PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF
bitterness and suspicion between the British and
NATIONALISM IN INDIA
the Indians. India as a nation and Indians as
POLITICAL UNITY individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation
ˆ For the first time, most of the regions in India and contemptuous treatment.
were united politically and administratively
under a single power (the British rule). ADMINISTRATION OF LYTTON

ˆ It introduced a uniform system of law and ˆ Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time
government. when the larger part of India was in the grip of
famine.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND ˆ He passed the Vernacular Press Act which
TRANSPORT curbed the liberty of the Indian Press.
ˆ The introduction of railways, telegraphs and ˆ His Arms Act was a means to prevent the Indians
postal services and the construction of roads from keeping arms. All these measures created
and canals facilitated communication among the widespread discontent among the Indians.
people.
ˆ All these brought Indians nearer to each other THE ILBERT BILL CONTROVERSY
and provided the facility to organise the national ˆ The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central
movement on an all India basis. Legislature during the Viceroyalty of Lord
Ripon.

www.sleepyclasses.com 375 1800-890-3043

ˆ The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between ˆ In 1860s, a Bengali play called Neel Darpan
Indian and European judges in courts. This Bill (Dinbandhu Mitra) became popular which
was opposed by the British residents in India. reflected the plight of Indigo Farmers.
Ultimately the Bill was modified. ˆ Bankim Chandra Chaterjee wrote Anand
Math which contains the immoral song ‘Bande
RISE OF MIDDLE-CLASS INTELLIGENTSIA Mataram’.
ˆ Understanding of Contradictions in Indian and ˆ Bhartendu Harishchandra, the father of Modern
Colonial Interests. Hindi, also urged his countrymen in his plays
and poems to buy Swadeshi things.
EVENTS LEADING TO FORMATION OF THE
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS ROLE OF POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS PRIOR
ˆ Two sessions of the Indian National Conference TO INC
had been held in 1883 and 1885, which had ˆ The final shape to the idea of an all-India
representatives drawn from all major towns of organisation was given by a retired English
India. (Indian Association) civil servant, A.O. Hume, who mobilised
ˆ Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose leading intellectuals of the time and, with their
were the main architects of the Indian National cooperation,
Conference. ˆ Organized the first session of the Indian National
Congress at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College
THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
in Bombay in December 1885. (GG at this time
ˆ Now it was only a matter of time before a - Lord Dufferin) (1885 to 1906, Hume was the
national body was created and the stage was set General Secretary of the Congress).
for the birth of the INC.
ˆ Events leading to formation of Indian National
Congress -
ˆ Accumulated dissatisfaction against the British
Rule Ex. Revolt of 1857
ˆ Emergence of Educated Indians as the New
leaders.

EVENTS LEADING TO FORMATION OF THE

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
ROLE OF NATIONALIST ART AND LITERATURE.

www.sleepyclasses.com 376 1800-890-3043

ˆ Hume and Lord Ripon were of the view that SAFETY VALVE THEORY
educated middle class in India is here to stay and
its legitimitate aspirations should be met and
grievances addressed.
ˆ Earlier the INC was to be known by the name
of ‘Indian National Union’ whose first session
was the be convened in Poona but due to
outbreak of Cholera, the venue was shifted to
Bombay.

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

ˆ First Phase (1885 - 1905) - This phase is
known as the Moderate Phase. During this
period, the vision and the activities of the
Congress were represented by 3Ps (Prayer,
Petition & Protest).
ˆ Second Phase (1905 - 1918) - This phase is ˆ There is a theory that Hume formed the Congress
known as the Extremist phase. Swaraj or with the idea that it would prove to be a ‘safety
valve’ for releasing the growing discontent of the
Self Government was adopted as the political
Indians. To this end, he convinced Lord Dufferin
Goal.
not to obstruct the formation of the Congress.
ˆ Third Phase (1919 - 1947) - This phase is known
ˆ Aimed at providing a safe, mild, peaceful and
as the phase of Mass Mobilisation under constitutional outlet or safety valve for rising
Mahatma Gandhi. Purna Swaraj or Complete discontent among the masses, which was
Independence was the main Goal. inevitably leading towards a popular & violent
revolution
CONGRESS SESSION
ˆ The extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai
ˆ The first session of the Indian National Congress
believed in the ‘safety valve’ theory. Even the
was presided over by Womesh Chandra
Marxist historian’s ‘conspiracy theory’ was an
Bonnerjee. (He was a Barrister and also the offspring of the ‘safety valve’ notion.
first Indian to contest the election for the
British House of Commons, although he lost the
elections)
ˆ In his first speech, he declared that Congress
had immense faith in the British sense of
Justice, and the Congress was loyal well wisher
of the Government and in return they demanded
greater representation of Indians in Government
and Higher Posts.
ˆ This session was attended by 72 delegates of
which 39 were lawyers.

www.sleepyclasses.com 377 1800-890-3043

ORGANIZATION FOR EXPRESSION OF ˆ Modern Indian historians dispute the idea of
INDIAN DEMANDS ‘safety valve’. In their opinion the Indian National
Congress represented the urge of the politically
conscious Indians to set up a national body to
express the political and economic demands of
the Indians.
ˆ Historian Bipan Chandra observes early
Congress leaders used Hume as a catalyst to
bring them together.

SAFETY VALVE THEORY

ˆ The early leaders cooperated with Hume because ˆ Rather than AO Hume using Congress leaders as
they did not wanted to arouse official hostility of Safety Valve, it was rather Congress leaders who
leadership at such an early stage of their works used Hume as “lightning conductor”.

INC

www.sleepyclasses.com 378 1800-890-3043

 ˆ In 1875 the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha submitted
MCQs a petition to the House of Commons signed by
21,713 persons demanding direct representation
Q. Bombay Presidency Association was established of India in British Parliament.
by: (PSC)
(a) Ferozshah Mehta (b) K T Tailang
(c) W C Banerjee (d) Badruddin Tyabji
(e) None of the Above/ More than One of the
Above
Answer : E
Q. Which political organisation was First formed
in Maharashtra in 1852 ? (PSC)
(a) Bombay Association
(b) East India Association
(c) Sarvajanik Sabha
(d) Bombay Presidency Association Q. Zamindari Association was formed by?
Answer : A (a) Prasanna Kumar Tagore
Q. When was Zamindari Association established (b) Rabindranath Tagore
in India? (Some Exam) (c) Pheroz Shah Mehta
(a) 1876 (b) 1838 (d) None of the Above
(c) 1834 (d) 1890 Answer : A
Answer : B Q. Madras Native Association was a regional
Q. Which one of the following submitted in 1875 a political organization formed in the year:
petition to the House of Commons demanding (a) 1852 (b) 1885
India’s direct representation in the British (c) 1884 (d) 1870
parliament?
Answer : A
(a) The Deccan Association
(b) The Indian Association
(c) The Madras Mahajan Sabha
(d) The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
Answer : D

POONA SARVAJANIK SABHA

Answer to Previous PYQ: B

www.sleepyclasses.com 379 1800-890-3043

www.sleepyclasses.com 380 1800-890-3043
 MODERATE PHASE (1885 – 1905)

MODERATE PHASE (1885 – 1905) due to British exceptions and was never taken
ˆ Period of Tea-Party Politics or Political up again.
Mendicancy. DEMANDS
ˆ From 72 delegates in Bombay, the Congress POLITICAL DEMANDS
swelled to 434 delegates in Calcutta session ˆ Expansion of Legislative Council with more
(1886). These delegates were elected from various powers and representation of Indians in them.
local bodies from different parts of the country.
They decided to meet every year in a different ˆ Representation of Indians in various Councils.
part of the country every time. ˆ Formation of Provincial Council
ˆ Abolition of Indian Council
METHOD OF WORK OF THE MODERATES
ˆ More Opportunities for Indians in Civil Service
ˆ Peaceful, Constitutional Agitations within the and simultaneous examination for ICS in London
four walls of the Law, they relied mainly on and in India.
prayers and petitions, meetings and speeches
and resolutions. (Through Press and Congress ˆ End of aggressive foreign policy against Indian
Sessions) Neighbours.

ˆ The Congress sent deputations of Indian Leaders ECONOMIC DEMANDS

to Britain to present the Indian view point.
ˆ End of Economic Drain.
ƒ Dadabhai Naoroji became a British MP and
ˆ Enquiry into the economic and industrial
spent a large part of his life working for Indian
condition of the country.
Interests over there.
ˆ Reduction of Land Revenue
ƒ In 1889, A British Committee of Indian
National Congress was set up. ˆ Abolition of Salt Tax

ƒ In 1890, the weekly Journal ‘India’ was started ˆ Encouragement to Modern Industry through
by this committee to educate the British people direct Government Aid
about Indian Issues. ˆ Development of Agricultural Banks to end the
ƒ In 1892, a session of the INC was scheduled to atrocities of moneylenders.
be held in London to spread awareness about ˆ Extension of Irrigation facilities to save the
Indian grievances but the idea was postponed people from famines.

www.sleepyclasses.com 381 1800-890-3043

MILITARY DEMAND for Indians within the British Empire on the
ˆ Repeal of Arms Act model of self Governing colonies like Australia
or Canada. (This demand was first referred by
ˆ Appointment of Indians in commissioned ranks GK Gokhale).
in the Army
ƒ In 1906, at Calcutta Session, Swaraj was
ˆ Reduction of Military Expenditure explicitly demanded by Dadabhai Naoroji.
SOCIAL DEMANDS ˆ Birth of Democratic Ideas.
ˆ More Expenditure on Welfare Activities ˆ Training of Indians in Political Work laid the
foundation for rise of Extremists.
ˆ Civil Rights like freedom of speech, thought,
association and press. ECONOMIC ACHIEVEMENTS
ˆ Improvement in condition of Plantation ˆ Economic Critique of British Rule - Early
labourers. economists like Dadabhai Naoroji, RC Dutt
BRITISH REACTION TO CONGRESS and DE Wacha and other put forth the throw of
‘Drain of Wealth’ which explained how Indian
ˆ Initially the attitude of the British was quite Poverty was a result of colonial exploitation.
flexible towards the INC. However after 1887,
ƒ Naoroji first mentioned the drain theory in his
their attitude stiffened and they began to brand
book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’.
Nationalists as ‘Disloyal Babus’, ‘seditious
Brahmins’ and ‘Violent Villains’. ƒ RC Dutt mentioned it in his book ‘Economic
History of India’.
ˆ Challenging the national character of the
Congress, Lord Dufferin stated that ‘Congress ˆ Welby Commission on Indian Expenditure
only represented a Microscopic Minority’. - In 1895, The Welby Commission on Indian
Hence forth, the British began to encourage the Expenditure was appointed to enquire into
pro-British elements like Sir Sayyid Ahmed Indian Expenditure.
Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad of Banaras.
CONSTITUTIONAL AGITATION WITHIN THE
ˆ United India Patriotic Association was formed CONFINES OF THE LAW
to counter Congress. The British further pushed
ˆ The Moderates believed that the British basically
the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ to increase the
wanted to be just to the Indians but were not
divide between Hindus and Muslims.
aware of the real conditions.
ˆ In 1890s, Government Employees were
ˆ Therefore, if public opinion could be created in
forbidden to attend Congress meetings.
the country and public demands be presented to
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MODERATES the government through resolutions, petitions,
POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS meetings, etc., the authorities would concede
these demands gradually.
ˆ Indian Councils Act of 1892.
ˆ To achieve these ends, they worked on a two-
ˆ ICS Examination in India - In 1893, The House of pronged methodology.
Commons passed a resolution for simultaneous
examination for ICS in London and in India. ƒ Create a strong public opinion to arouse
consciousness and national spirit and then
ˆ Demand for Swaraj - In 1905, Benaras Session, educate and unite people on common political
the Congress first demanded Swaraj or Self Rule questions.
ƒ Persuade the British Government and British
public opinion to introduce reforms in India

www.sleepyclasses.com 382 1800-890-3043

 on the lines laid out by the nationalists. (1896), the Boer wars (1899-1902) where the
ˆ They used the method of ‘prayer and petition‘ British faced reverses and Japan‘s victory over
and if that failed, they resorted to constitutional Russia (1905) demolished myths of European
agitation. invincibility.
ˆ Also, the nationalists were inspired by the
nationalist movements worldwide—in Ireland,
Russia, Egypt, Turkey, Persia and China.

GROWTH OF EDUCATION
ˆ While, on the one hand, the spread of education
led to an increased awareness among the masses,
on the other hand, the rise in unemployment and
underemployment among the educated drew
RISE OF THE EXTREMISTS attention to poverty and the underdeveloped
state of the country‘s economy under colonial
ˆ A radical trend of nationalist approach to
rule.
political activity started emerging in the 1890s
and it took a concrete shape by 1905 (during the REACTION TO INCREASING
Bengal Partition). WESTERNISATION

REASONS FOR RISE OF EXTREMISTS ˆ Intellectuals like Swami Vivekananda, Bankim

Chandra Chatterjee and Swami Dayananda
RECOGNITION OF THE TRUE NATURE OF
BRITISH RULE Saraswati inspired many young nationalists
with their forceful and articulate arguments,
ˆ The economic miseries of the 1890s - Severe painting India‘s past in brighter colours than the
famines killed 90 lakh persons between 1896 and British ideologues had.
1900.
ˆ These thinkers exploded the myth of western
ˆ Bubonic plague affected large areas of the Deccan. superiority by referring to the richness of Indian
ˆ Instead of giving more rights, the government civilisation in the past. Dayananda‘s political
was taking away existing ones. Imprisonment message was ‘India for the Indians‘.
of Tilak (Sedition), Official Secrets Act, Indian
Universities Act etc. DISSATISFACTION WITH ACHIEVEMENTS
OF MODERATES
GROWTH OF CONFIDENCE AND SELF-RE- ˆ The younger elements within the Congress
SPECT were dissatisfied with the achievements of the
ˆ There was a growing faith in self-effort. Tilak, Moderates during the first 15-20 years.
Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal repeatedly ˆ They were strongly critical of the methods of
urged the nationalists to rely on the character peaceful and constitutional agitation, popularly
and capacities of the Indian people. known as the ―Three ̳P‘s‖—prayer, petition
ˆ A feeling started gaining currency that the masses and protest—and described these methods as
had to be involved in the battle against colonial ‘political mendicancy‘.
government as they were capable of making the ˆ Tilak described Congress as ‘A Congress of
immense sacrifices needed to win freedom. flatterers’ and the Congress session as ‘a Holiday
Recreation’.
INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCES
ƒ He did not believe in an Armed Struggle,
ˆ The defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopians
rather he felt that Indian should withdraw

www.sleepyclasses.com 383 1800-890-3043

 ˆ They firmly believed that the Swaraj could be
from all active cooperation with the British obtained only through Direct Political Action
and attain Swaraj through Self Help, based on self-reliance, self-sacrifice, and strong
determination and sacrifice. He gave the will.
slogan - ‘Swaraj is my Birth Right and I shall
ˆ They had faith in the capacity of the masses and
have it’.
worked to make Both the Congress as well as the
ƒ He was the first Congress leader to serve National Movements - Mass Movements.
several terms of Imprisonment for speaking
ˆ Inspired by India’s Glorious Past, But at the
his mind against the Government.
same time they had no desire to eternally dwell
REACTIONARY POLICIES OF CURZON upon the past, but wanted to manfully build the
future.
ˆ A sharp reaction was created in the Indian mind
by Curzon‘s seven-year rule in India which was ˆ They were inspired by ideology of Swami
full of missions, commissions and omissions. He Vivekanand, Dayanand Saraswati and Bankim
refused to recognise India as a nation. Chandra Chatterjee.

ˆ Administrative measures adopted during ˆ Programmes of Boycott and Swadeshi

his rule—the Official Secrets Act, the Indian ˆ National Education - National Scheme of
Universities Act, and, above all, the partition Education was set up for students who boycotted
of Bengal— left no doubt in Indian minds about the Government Schools and Colleges.
the basically reactionary nature of British rule in ƒ Bengal Council of National Education was set
India. up by Gurudas Banerjee.
ˆ By the dawn of the twentieth century, a band of ˆ Non-Cooperation or Passive Resistance
nationalist thinkers had emerged who advocated
a more aggressive approach to political work. ˆ Co-Operative Organisations.

ˆ These included, among others, Aurobindo WORK OF EXTREMISTS

Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal; ˆ In 1891, Tilak opposed the Age of Consent
Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Bill (introduced after the death of Child Bride
Tilak in Maharashtra; and Lala Lajpat Rai in from sexual Injuries), Bill aimed to raise the age
Punjab. of consent for sexual intercourse for all girls,
ˆ Tilak emerged as the most outstanding married or married, from 10 to 12 years (Violation
representative of this school of thought. subject to rape) and insisted that British should
not interfere in the private life of India.
THE BASIC TENETS OF THIS SCHOOL OF
THOUGHT WERE: ˆ (Ganpati Festivals) (Shivaji Festival) (Tilak
Newspaper - Mahratta - English and Kesari -
ˆ Hatred for foreign rule; Marathi)
ˆ Swaraj to be the goal of national movement; ˆ In 1895, Tilak ousted Gokhale and Ranade from
ˆ Direct political action required; Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and now the control of
ˆ Belief in capacity of the masses to challenge the the Sabha came in the hand of the extremists.
authority; ƒ Gokhale organised a separate association
ˆ Personal sacrifices required and a true nationalist Called “Deccan Sabha” - This Completed
to be always ready for it. the division between the Moderates and
Extremists in Maharashtra.
MODE OF ACTION - THE EXTREMISTS’ ˆ During 1893-94, Aurobindo published a series of
IDEOLOGY
Articles - “New Lamps for the Old” in the Indu

www.sleepyclasses.com 384 1800-890-3043

 Prakash wherein he described Congress as being DADABHAI NAOROJI
out of Contact with the ‘Proletariat’. ˆ In his famous book Poverty and UnBritish Rule
ˆ Extremists Group - They arose in three in India, he wrote about ‘Drain Theory’. He
Geographical Regions - The Maharashtra Group showed how India‘s wealth was going away to
led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak , the Bengal Group England in the form of:
led by Bipin Chandra Pal and and Aurobindo ƒ salaries
Ghose, and the Punjab Group led by Lala Lajpat
Rai. (Lal - Bal - Pal). ƒ savings
ƒ pensions
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MODERATES
AND EXTREMISTS ƒ payments to British troops in India
ƒ profits of the British companies.
ˆ Difference in the understanding of Swaraj.
ˆ Dayanand Sarawasti was the first man to give a
ˆ Difference in attitude towards British
call for Swaraj (India for Indians in 1876). Some
Benevolence
Historians call him ‘Grandfather of India’.
ˆ Difference in Methodology - 3 P’s vs 3 S’s (self-
ˆ Bankim Chandra Chaterjee (1838 - 1894) - He
reliance, self-sacrifice, and strong will)
wrote the poem ‘Vande Matram’ to counter
SOME IMPORTANT MODERATES the British attempt, and was later published in
Bengali script in his Novel Anandmath (1882),
ˆ G. Subramaniya Aiyar preached nationalism
set in the backdrop of Sanyasi Rebellion.
through the Madras Mahajana Sabha.
ˆ During the Congress Session of 1896, the poem
ƒ He also founded the The Hindu and
was first sung by Rabindranath Tagore.
Swadesamitran.
ˆ In October 1937, The Congress adopted the first
ˆ Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old
2 verses of the Song as National Song of India.
Man of India.
ƒ He is regarded as India‘s unofficial
Ambassador in England.
ƒ He was the first Indian to become a Member
of the British House of Commons.

www.sleepyclasses.com 385 1800-890-3043

 15 MOST IMPORTANT INC SESSIONS
(AND THEIR MOST IMPORTANT FEATURES)
IMPORTANT “INC” SESSIONS National Education
ˆ Formation of Indian National Congress was an ˆ 1907: Surat. President: Rash Bihari Ghosh Split in
effort in the direction of promoting the process Congress- Moderates & Extremist
of nation building. ˆ 1910: Allahabad. President: Sir William Wedderburn;
ˆ In an effort to reach all regions, it was decided M.A Jinnah decried the separate electorate system
to rotate the Congress session among different introduced by act of 1909(???)
parts of the country. ˆ 1911: Calcutta. President: B.N. Dhar
ˆ The President belonged to a region other than ˆ First time recital of Jan-Gan-Man in Congress
where the Congress session was being held. session
ˆ First Session: held at Bombay in 1885. President: ˆ 1915: Bombay. President: Sir S.P. Sinha
W.C. Bannerjee Constitution of the Congress was altered to
ˆ Second Session: held at Calcutta in admit the delegates from the extremist section
1886. President: Dadabhai Naoroji ˆ 1916: Lucknow. President: A.C. Majumdar
ˆ Third Session: held at Madras in 1887. President: Unity between two factions-Moderates and
Syed Badruddin Tyabji, first Muslim President. Extremists of Congress; Lucknow Pact signed
ˆ Fourth Session: held at Allahabad in 1888. between Congress and Muslim League to build
President: George Yule, first English President. political consensus

ˆ 1896: Calcutta. President: Rahimtullah Sayani ˆ 1917: Calcutta. President: Annie Besant, First
National Song ‘Vande Mataram’ sung for the Woman President of Congress
first time by Rabindranath Tagore.
ˆ 1899: Lucknow. President: Romesh Chandra Dutt.
Demand for permanent fixation of Land revenue
ˆ 1905: Benaras. President: Gopal Krishan Gokhale
Formal proclamation of Swadeshi movement

ˆ 1918 (Special session): Bombay. President:

Syed Hasan Imam. The session was convened to
deliberate the contentious Montagu–Chelmsford
ˆ 1906: Calcutta. President: Dadabhai Naoroji
Reforms Scheme
Adopted four resolutions on: Swaraj (Self
Government), Boycott Movement, Swadeshi &

www.sleepyclasses.com 386 1800-890-3043

ˆ 1919: Amritsar. President: Motilal Nehru Congress ˆ 1936: Lucknow. President: Jawahar Lal Nehru
extended support to Khilafat Movement Push towards socialist ideas by Jawahar Lal
ˆ 1920 (Special Session): Calcutta. President: Lala Nehru
Lajpat Rai Mahatma Gandhi moved the Non ˆ 1938: Haripura. President: Subhas Chandra Bose
cooperation resolution National Planning Committee set up under
ˆ 1920: Nagpur. President: C. Vijayaraghavachariar Jawahar Lal Nehru.

ˆ Reconstitution of Working committees of ˆ 1939: Tripuri. President: Rajendra Prasad

Congress on Linguistic basis ƒ Subhas Chandra Bose was re-elected but had
ˆ MA Jinnah left the Indian National Congress to resign

ˆ 1922: Gaya. President: C.R. Das Formation of ƒ Rajendra Prasad was appointed in his place
Swaraj Party ƒ Subhash Chandra Bose formed Forward Bloc
ˆ 1924: Belgaum. President: M.K. Gandhi Only
Session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi
ˆ 1925: Kanpur. President: Sarojini Naidu, First Indian
Woman President
ˆ 1928: Calcutta. President: Motilal Nehru Formation
of All India Youth Congress

ˆ 1941–45:
ˆ This Period is marked by events i.e. Quit India
movement, RIN Mutiny & INA trials.
ˆ Phase of constitutional negotiations such as
Cripps Mission, Wavell Plan and Cabinet
ˆ 1929: Lahore. President: Jawahar Lal Nehru Mission.

ˆ Passed the resolution on ‘Poorna Swaraj.’ ˆ On account of these events during this phase no
congress session was held.
ˆ Civil Disobedience movement for complete
independence to be launched ˆ 1946: Meerut. President: J.B Kripalani

ˆ 26 January to be observed as ‘Independence Day’. ƒ Last session before independence

ˆ 1931: Karachi. President: Vallabhbhai Patel ƒ J.B Kriplani was the president of INC at
independence.
ˆ Resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National
Economic Programme
ˆ Endorsement of Gandhi-Irwin pact
ˆ Gandhi nominated to represent INC in
the Second Round Table Conference to be held
in London

www.sleepyclasses.com 387 1800-890-3043

 Which of the statements given above is / are
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer to prev. PYQ: B
ˆ Annie Besant was the first woman President of
Indian National Congress. She presided over
the 1917 Calcutta session of the Indian National
Congress.

15 MOST IMPORTANT “INC” SESSIONS

1. 1929: Lahore 2. 1916: Lucknow
3. 1905: Benaras 4. 1906: Calcutta
5. 1907: Surat 6. 1885: Bombay
7. 1931: Karachi
8. 1920 (Special Session): Calcutta
Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
9. 1920: Nagpur 10. 1946: Meerut
answer using the codes given below the lists:
11. 1938: Haripura 12. 1939: Tripuri [PYQ]
13. 1922: Gaya 14. 1917: Calcutta List-I List-II
15. 1925: Kanpur 16. 1924: Belgaum A. Surat Split 1. 1929
Q. Four resolutions were passed at the famous B. Communal Award 2. 1928
Calcutta session of Indian National Congress C. All Party Convention 3. 1932
in 1906. The question of either retention OR of D. Poorna Swaraj 4. 1907
rejection of these four resolutions became the Resolution 5. 1905
cause of a split in Congress at the next Congress Codes:
session held in Surat in 1907. Which one of the
(a) A – 4; B – 3; C – 1; D – 5
following was not one of those resolutions ?
(b) A – 4; B – 3; C – 2; D – 1
[PYQ]
(c) A – 2; B – 5; C – 4; D – 1
(a) Annulment of partition of Bengal
(d) A – 1; B – 4; C – 2; D – 3
(b) Boycott
Answer: B
(c) National education
(d) Swadeshi
Answer: A
Q. Consider the following statements [PYQ]
1. The first woman President of the Indian
National Congress was Sarojini Naidu.
2. The first Muslim President of the Indian
National Congress was Badruddin Tyabji.

www.sleepyclasses.com 388 1800-890-3043

 Partition of Bengal Swadeshi Movement Surat Split

ˆ Education Reforms - Universities Commission

in 1902, in order to improve discipline and
failing educational standards. He believed that
Universities had become factories of political
Revolutionaries. Based on the recommendations,
he passed Indian Universities Act of 1904 -
Increased control over the Indian Universities.
ˆ Army Reforms - Carried out by Lord Kitchener,
commander in chief of army at that time, Indian
Army was grouped in two commands, The
Northern Command and the Southern Command.
Every army battalion was to pass a severe test
called “Kitchener Test”.
ˆ Foreign Policy - He sent a special mission to Tibet
headed by Colonel Younghusband to counter
the Russian influence, and to Persian Gulf the
mission was sent under Sir Henry McMohan.
ˆ Famine Commission - under Sir Anthony
MacDonnell
ˆ Irrigation Commission - Under Sir Colin Scott
LORD CURZON
Moncrieff
CURZONIAN ATTACK - GG AND VICEROY
OF INDIA (1899 - 1905) ˆ Ancient Monuments Act, 1904 - To protect and
save the Historical Monuments in India.
ˆ He came to India in the backdrop of the famine
ˆ Partition of Bengal (1905) was announced.
and plague of 1896-97. He tried to reform every
department of the Indian System, his system of ˆ PUSA Agricultural Institute in 1905 established
work was to first appoint an Expert Commission
PARTITION OF BENGAL
and then to enact the required legislation.
ˆ Police Reforms - Police Commission in 1902 under ˆ The British authorities said that Bengal had
Sir Andrew Frazer - It reported that the Police was grown too big to be efficiently administered by
corrupt, oppressive and failed to secure the trust a single provincial government. Bengal was a
of the common man - Recommended increase in province with a population of 78 million which
Police Salaries, setting up training schools, etc. formed about a quarter of the population of

www.sleepyclasses.com 389 1800-890-3043

 British India. However, the plan they worked out propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers
showed other motives in mind. Bengal originally such as Bengalee.
comprised of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam.
ƒ (In 1874, some portion of Assam was
separated from Bengal and made into Chief
Commissioner’s Province)
ˆ The British government‘s decision to partition
Bengal had been made public in December 1903.
ˆ The idea was to have two provinces: Bengal
comprising Western Bengal as well as the
provinces of Bihar and Orissa, and Eastern
Bengal and Assam. ˆ The objective was to exert pressure on the
government through an educated public opinion
THE PARTITION in India and England to prevent the unjust
ˆ The Scheme for partition began with Curzon’s partition from being implemented.
Minute on Terrestrial Redistribution on 1st June ˆ Ignoring a loud public opinion against the
1903. partition proposal, the Government announced
ˆ On 20 July 1905, Curzon issued the orders to partition of Bengal in July 1905.
divide Bengal into two parts ˆ On August 7, 1905, with the passage of Boycott
ƒ Eastern Bengal and Assam - with a population Resolution in a massive meeting held in the
of 31 Million. Calcutta Town hall, the formal proclamation of
Swadeshi Movement was made. The message
ƒ Rest of the Bengal with a population of 54
was to boycott Manchester cloth and Liverpool
Million (18 Million Bengalis and 36 Million
salt.
Biharis and Oriyas).
ˆ October 16, 1905, the day the partition formally
came into force, was observed as a day of
mourning throughout Bengal.
ƒ Vande Matram song became the song of the
National Movement and Rabindranath Tagore
composed the song ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ for
the occasion. (Later adopted by Bangladesh as
its National Anthem in 1971)
ƒ Tagore also gave the call for Raksha Bandhan
or tying of Rakhi as a symbol of unbreakable
unity of Bengalis.
ˆ Later in the day, Surendranath Banerjee and
Ananda Mohan Bose addressed huge gatherings.
ANTI – PARTITION CAMPAIGN
ˆ Soon, the movement spread to other parts of the
ˆ During this period, the leadership was provided country—in Poona and Bombay under Tilak, in
by men like Surendranath Banerjee, K.K. Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh,
Mitra(Sanjibani-???) and P C Ray. in Delhi under Syed Haider Raza, and Madras
ˆ The methods adopted were petitions to the under Chidambaram Pillai.
Government, public meetings, memoranda, and ˆ The Indian National Congress, meeting in 1905

www.sleepyclasses.com 390 1800-890-3043

 under the presidentship of Gokhale, resolved to ˆ The Moderate-Extremist dispute over the pace
ƒ Condemn the partition of Bengal and the of the movement and techniques of struggle
reactionary policies of Curzon reached a deadlock at the Surat session of the
Indian National Congress (1907) where the party
ƒ Support the anti-partition and Launch of split. (Rash Behari Ghosh-???)
Swadeshi Movement of Bengal.
NEW FORMS OF STRUGGLE
ˆ Boycott of foreign goods: This included boycott
and public burning of foreign cloth, boycott of
foreign made salt or sugar, refusal by priests
to solemnize marriages involving exchange of
foreign goods, refusal by washer-men to wash
foreign clothes.
ˆ Public meetings and processions: These emerged
as major methods of mass-mobilisation and
simultaneously as forms of popular expression.
ˆ Corps of volunteers or ‘samitis: Samitis such as
the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti of Ashwini Kumar
Dutta (in Barisal) emerged as a very popular
and powerful method of mass mobilisation.
ˆ Imaginative use of traditional popular festivals
and, melas
ƒ The idea was to use such occasions as a means
of reaching out to the masses and spreading
political messages.
ƒ For instance, Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji
SWADESHI MOVEMENT festivals became a medium of swadeshi
propaganda not only in western India, but
ˆ The militant nationalists led by Tilak, Lajpat Rai,
also in Bengal.
Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh wanted
the movement to be taken outside Bengal to other ƒ In, Bengal also, the traditional folk theatre
parts of the country and go beyond a boycott of forms were used for this purpose.
foreign goods to become a full-fledged political ˆ Emphasis given to self-reliance or atma shakti
mass struggle with the goal of attaining swaraj.
ƒ Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises: The
ˆ But the Moderates, dominating the Congress at swadeshi spirit also found expression in the
that time, were not willing to go that far. establishment of swadeshi textile mills, soap
ˆ In the Congress session held at Calcutta (1906) and match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance
under the presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji, it companies, shops etc.
was declared that the goal of the Indian Congress ƒ This implied reassertion of national dignity,
was ‘self-government or swaraj like the United honour and confidence and social and
Kingdom or the colonies’ (For the First time economic regeneration of the village.
Swaraj explicitly stated)
y Acharya PC Ray set up the famous Bengal
ˆ Four Resolution were passed in 1906 - on Swaraj, Chemicals Factory
Swadeshi, Boycott and National Education.

www.sleepyclasses.com 391 1800-890-3043

PROGRAMME OF SWADESHI OR NATIONAL councils and similar associations.
EDUCATION ˆ They advocated strictly constitutional methods
ƒ Bengal National College was set up with to protest against the partition of Bengal
Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. ˆ At the Calcutta session of the Congress in
ƒ Soon national schools and colleges sprang up December 1906, the Moderate enthusiasm had
in various parts of the country. cooled a bit because of the popularity of the
ˆ Education was to be imparted through the Extremists and the revolutionaries.
medium of vernaculars. ƒ Dadabhai Naoroji was elected as the president
ˆ A Bengal Institute of Technology was set up for and as a concession to the extremists, the goal
technical education and funds were raised to of the Indian National Congress was defined
send students to Japan for advanced learning. as swarajya or self-government like the United
Kingdom or the colonies.
ƒ Charly’s Circular - The Chief Secretary of
Bengal Government threatening the students ˆ Extremists, emboldened by the proceedings at
activists with Disciplinary action. the Calcutta session, gave a call for wide passive
resistance and boycott of schools, colleges,
MUSLIMS legislative councils, municipalities, law courts,
ˆ They were unable to gain support of the Muslims etc.
as well, which proved to be its main weakness. ˆ The Moderates, encouraged by the news that
ˆ In 1906, All India Muslim League under the council reforms were on the anvil, decided to
leadership of Nawab Sallimullah of Dacca tone down the Calcutta programme.
with the Government Patronage as a political ˆ The Moderates did not realise that the council
Organisation dedicated to advance Muslim reforms were meant by the Government more
political interests. to isolate the Extremists than to reward the
ƒ At the peak of the Swadeshi Movement, Moderates.
Eastern Bengal saw a series of Communal ˆ The Extremists wanted the 1907 session to be
Riots. held in Nagpur (Central Provinces) with Tilak
or Lajpat Rai as the president and reiteration of
THE SURAT SPLIT the swadeshi, boycott and national education
ˆ In December 1905, at the Benaras session of resolutions.
the Indian National Congress presided over by ƒ The Moderates wanted the session at Surat in
Gokhale, the Moderate-Extremist differences order to exclude Tilak from the presidency
came to the fore.
ƒ Instead, they wanted Rashbehari Ghosh as the
ƒ The Extremists wanted to extend the Boycott president and sought to drop the resolutions
and Swadeshi Movement to regions outside on swadeshi, boycott and national education.
Bengal and also to include all forms of
ˆ Government Strategy: It may be described
associations (such as government service,
as a three-pronged approach of repression,
law courts, legislative councils, etc.) within
conciliation, suppression.
the boycott programme and thus start a
nationwide mass movement. ƒ In the first stage, the Extremists were to
be repressed mildly, mainly to frighten the
ˆ The Moderates, on the other hand, were not
Moderate
in favour of extending the movement beyond
Bengal and were totally opposed to boycott of ƒ In the second stage, the Moderates were to

www.sleepyclasses.com 392 1800-890-3043

 be placated through some concessions, and
hints were to be dropped that more reforms
PYQ
would be forthcoming if the distance from the Q. In the context of the Indian freedom struggle,
Extremists was maintained. This was aimed at 16th October 1905 is well known for .........?
isolating the Extremists. (a) The formal proclamation of Swadeshi
Movement was made in Calcutta town hall
POST SWADESHI
(b) Partition of Bengal took effect
ˆ Now, with the Moderates on its side, the
Government could suppress the Extremists (c) Dadabhai Naoroji declared that the goal of
with its full might. The Moderates could then be Indian National Congress was Swaraj
ignored. (d) Lokmanya Tilak started Swadeshi Movement
in Poona
ˆ Between 1907 and 1911, several new laws were
enforced to check anti-government activity. Answer: B

ˆ These legislations included the Seditious

Meetings Act, 1907; Indian Newspapers
(Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908; Criminal Law
Amendment Act, 1908; and the Indian Press Act,
1910.
ˆ Tilak, the main Extremist leader, was sent to
Mandalay (Burma) jail for six years.
ˆ Aurobindo and B.C. Pal retired from active
politics.
ˆ Lajpat Rai left for abroad Q. Assertion (A): Partition of Bengal in 1905
brought to an end the moderates’ role in the
Indian freedom movement.
Reason (R): The Surat session of Indian
National Congress separated the Extremists
from the Moderates.
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Answer: D

www.sleepyclasses.com 393 1800-890-3043

www.sleepyclasses.com 394 1800-890-3043
 REVOLUTIONARY EXTREMISM PHASE OF
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT
movement found it impossible to disappear into
INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905 - 1918) the background.
ˆ By late-1910, The Swadeshi Movement had died ˆ They looked for avenues to give expression to
down and the next major attempt for a nationwide their patriotic energies, but were disillusioned
mass movement came only after the First World by the failure of the leadership, even from the
War. The intervening years saw the emergence Extremists, to find new forms of struggle to bring
of three major political trends – Revolutionary into practice the new extremist trends.
Extremist Movement, The Ghadar Movement, ˆ The youth, finding all avenues of peaceful
and the Home Rule Movement. political protest closed to them under government
ˆ The beginning of the first trend, i.e Revolutionary repression, thought that if nationalist goals of
Extremism got merged with the end of the mass independence were to be met, the British must
phase of the Swadeshi Movement. The other be expelled physically.
two, Ghadar and the Home Rule Movements, ˆ At that stage, it was not practical to try to bring
synchronised with the years of the First World about a revolution in the country or subvert the
War. loyalties of the army.
Reasons for the Rise of Revolutionary Extremist ˆ Instead they opted to follow in the footsteps of
Movement : Russian nihilists or the Irish nationalists.
1. Failure of Moderate Methods ˆ This methodology involved individual heroic
2. Failure of Extremists to give a positive lead to actions, such as organizing assassinations of
the Youth unpopular British officials and of traitors and
informers among the revolutionaries themselves;
3. Violent Suppression of the Swadeshi
conducting swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for
Movement
revolutionary activities; and (during the First
METHODS OF REVOLUTIONARIES World War) organizing military conspiracies
with expectation of help from the enemies of
ˆ They believed that Western methods could
Britain.
be countered by ‘Violence’ alone, hence they
resolved to the cult of revolver and the bomb. ˆ The revolutionaries intended to inspire the
people by appealing to their patriotism,
ˆ They formed secret societies, recruiting young
especially the idealist youth who would finally
persons and trained them in values of Actions
drive the British out.
and Sacrifice for the freedom of the country.
A SURVEY OF REVOLUTIONARY EXTREMIST
REVOLUTIONARY EXTREMISM
ACTIVITIES IN BENGAL
ˆ Revolutionary Extremism was a by product of
ˆ In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose
growth of militant nationalism in India.
threw a bomb at a carriage supposed to be
ˆ It acquired a more activist form as fallout of the carrying a particularly sadistic white judge,
Swadeshi and Boycott Movement. Kingsford, in Muzaffarpur. Two ladies, instead,
ˆ After the decline of the said movements, the got killed. Prafulla Chaki shot himself dead
younger nationalists who had participated in the while Khudiram Bose was tried and hanged.

www.sleepyclasses.com 395 1800-890-3043

ˆ The whole gang was arrested including the
Ghosh brothers, Aurobindo and Barindra, who
were tried in the Alipore conspiracy case.

ALIPORE CONSPIRACY(1908)
ˆ The government’s search for illegal arms in
Calcutta led to the arrest of thirty-four persons
including the Ghosh brothers and their trial came
to be known as Alipore conspiracy case.
ˆ Of the accused in the Alipore conspiracy
case, fifteen were found guilty and some of
them including Barindra kumar Ghosh were
transported to life.

www.sleepyclasses.com 396 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Indo German Plot - This was a plan led by
Bagha Jatin and Rash Behari Bose, planned
a revolt against the British with the help of
the Germans known as the Indo-German Plot.
Importation of German arms and ammunition
was arranged via some Indian revolutionaries
residing in Germany. However the post leaked
and the Bagha was shot dead while waiting for
the delivery of the consignment.

MAHARASHTRA
ˆ The first of the revolutionary activities here was
the organisation of the Ramosi Peasant Force by
Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1879, which aimed
to rid the country of the British by instigating an
armed revolt by disrupting communication lines.
ˆ He held the British government to be responsible
for the sufferings of the people during the famine
in the Deccan in 1876-77.
ˆ Phadke denounced the British policy of ruthless
exploitation of India & started guerilla warfare
against the British.
ˆ He was ultimately captured and was sentenced
to transportation for life. He was deported to
Aden where he died in 1883 in jail.

ˆ Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal staged a

spectacular bomb attack on Viceroy Hardinge ˆ During the 1890s, Tilak propagated a spirit
while he was making his official entry into the of nationalism through Ganapati and Shivaji
new capital in a procession through Chandni festivals and his journals Kesari and Maharatta.
Chowk in Delhi in December 1912. ƒ Two of his disciples—the Chapekar brothers,
Damodar and Balkrishna—murdered the
ANUSHILAN SAMITI (1902) Plague Commissioner of Poona, Rand, and
one Lt. Ayerst in 1897.

www.sleepyclasses.com 397 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Savarkar and his brother organized Mitra ˆ Among those active here were Lala Lajpat Rai
Mela, a secret society, in 1899 which merged who brought out Punjabee (with its motto of self-
with Abhinav Bharat in 1904. help at any cost) and Ajit Singh (Bhagat Singh’s
uncle) who organized the extremist Anjuman-
i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore with its journal,
Bharat Mata.

INTERNATIONAL
Shyamji Krishnavarma
ˆ He left Bombay in 1897 and went to London.
Later, started a monthly journal, the Indian
sociologist.
ˆ Shyamji established the Indian Home Rule
society and a hostel for Indian students living in
London, popularly known as the India House
that existed between 1905 and 1910.
ˆ The most important revolutionaries associated
with him were V.D. Savarkar, Madanlal Dhingra,
Madame Cama, and Lala Hardayal.

SOME IMPORTANT REVOLUTIONARIES ˆ India House ceased to be potent organisation

after its liquidation in the wake of assassination
ˆ Savarkar Brothers - Mitra Mela (1899) and
of Britsh official Wyllie by a member of India
Abhinav Bharata Mandal (1904)
House, Madan Lal Dhingra.
ƒ Savarkar renamed Mitra Mela as Abhinav
ˆ Resultant crackdown led to Shyamji moving to
Bharat, on the lines of Mazzini’s Young Italy.
Europe, from where they carried on works in
ƒ In 1906, VD Savarakr wrote Mazzini Charitra support of Indian nationalism.
which was a translation of Mazzini’s writings.
ˆ Some Indian students, including Har Dayal,
PUNJAB moved to United States.
ˆ The Punjab extremism was fuelled by issues such
as frequent famines coupled with rise in land
revenue and irrigation tax, and by the events in
Bengal.

www.sleepyclasses.com 398 1800-890-3043

ˆ Madame Cama had been popularly described as
the Mother of Indian Revolution. She left India
in 1902.
ˆ She took active part in editing the Indian
sociologist and represented India at the Stuttgart
conference of socialists in 1907.
ˆ At the conference, Madame Cama unfurled for
the first time Indian national flag on the foreign
soil.
ˆ Due to her anti-British activities, she was forced
to shift her residence from London to Paris.
ˆ After thirty years of patriotic service in London,
Paris and other cities of Europe, her friends
succeeded in repatriating her to India in
November 1936.

OUTSIDE INDIA - USA

ˆ Ghadar Party was an Indian revolutionary
organisation, with the aim to liberate India
from British rule. The party was formed in the
United States in 1913, by migrant Indians, mostly
Punjabis. However, the party also included
Indians from all parts of India.
ˆ The party was established as the Hindi
Association of Pacific Coast under the leadership
of Lala Har Dayal with Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna
as its president.

www.sleepyclasses.com 399 1800-890-3043

ˆ However, it became popularly known as the
Ghadar Party after it launched its journal Ghadar
OUTSIDE INDIA – GERMANY
in November, 1913, from its headquarters the
Yugantar Ashram in San Francisco. ˆ Berlin Committee - Indian Independence
Committee at Berlin in 1915 - Virendranath
ˆ The party took its name Gadar to consciously
Chattopadhayaya - with the full backing of the
identify itself with the first war of Independence
German Foreign Office under ‘Zimmerman Plan’.
in 1857, which the British termed the
“Gadar”(revolt). ˆ These revolutionaries aimed to mobilize Indian
settlers abroad to send volunteers and arms to
ˆ The Komagata Maru incident in 1914 inspired
India to incite rebellion among Indian troops
several thousand Indians residing in USA to sell
there and to even organise an armed invasion of
their business and rush home to participate in
British India to liberate the country.
anti-British activities in India.
ˆ The party had active members in India, Mexico,
Japan, China, Singapore, Thailand etc.

ˆ The Indian revolutionaries in Europe sent

missions to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey and Kabul
to work among Indian troops and the Indian
prisoners of war (POWs) and to incite anti- British
feelings among the people of these countries.
ˆ The committee planned to bring about a general
insurrection in India and for this purpose foreign
arms were to be sent to India from abroad;
expatriated Indians were to return to mother
country, where they were to be joined by Indian

www.sleepyclasses.com 400 1800-890-3043

 soldiers and by the waiting revolutionaries.
ˆ The policy and activities of the Berlin committee
and the Ghadar party had greatly influenced the
revolutionaries of Bengal.

ˆ Komagata Maru sailed from British Hong

Kong,via Shanghai, China, and Yokohama, Japan,
to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, in 1914,
carrying 376 passengers from Punjab province in
British India.
GOVERNMENT’S RESPONSE ˆ The passengers comprised 337 Sikhs,
1. Prevention of Sedition Meetings Act of 1907 27 Muslims and 12 Hindus, all Punjabis and British
subjects. Of these 376 passengers, 24 were
2. Explosive Substance Act of 1908
admitted to Canada, but the other 352 were not
3. Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act of allowed to disembark in Canada, and the ship
1908 was forced to leave Canadian waters.
4. The Newspaper Act of 1908 ˆ This was one of several incidents in the early
5. The Press Act of 1910 20th century in which exclusion laws in Canada
6. The Defence of India Rules of 1915 and the United States were used to exclude
ˆ For the time being the Revolutionaries will go immigrants of Asian origin.
underground and revolutionary activities will
take a breather, only to take the centre-stage
again after the failure of the Non Cooperation
Movement with the formation of Hindustan
Republican Association.

KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT

ˆ Involved the Japanese steamship Komagata
Maru, on which a group of people from British
India attempted to immigrate to Canada in 1914,
but most were denied entry and forced to return
to Calcutta (present-day Kolkata), India.
ˆ There, the Indian Imperial Police attempted to
arrest the group leaders. A riot ensued, and they
were fired upon by the police, resulting in the
deaths of 20 Sikhs.

www.sleepyclasses.com 401 1800-890-3043

 Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
A. Chittagong Armoury 1. Kalpana Dutt
Raid
B. Abhinav Bharat 2. Guru Ram Singh
C. Anushilan Samiti 3. Vikram Damodar
Savarkar
D. Kuka Movement 4. Aurobindo Ghosh
Codes:
(a) A – 1; B – 3; C – 4; D – 2
(b) A – 1; B – 3; C – 2; D – 4
(c) A – 3; B – 1; C – 2; D – 4
(d) A – 3; B – 1; C – 4; D – 2
Answer: A

PYQ
Q. Where were the Ghadar revolutionaries, who
became active during the outbreak of the World
War I based?
(a) Central America (b) North America
(c) West America (d) South America.
Answer: B Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I (Books) List-II (Authors)
A. The First Indian 1. Rabindranath Tagore
War of Independence
B. Anand Math 2. Sri Aurobindo
C. Life Divine 3. Bankim Chandra
Chatterji
D. Sadhana 4. Vinayak Damodar
Savarkar
Codes:
(a) A – 4; B – 3; C – 2; D – 1
(b) A – 3; B – 4; C – 1; D – 2
(c) A – 4; B – 3; C – 1; D – 2
(d) A – 3; B – 4; C – 2; D – 1
Answer: A

www.sleepyclasses.com 402 1800-890-3043

ˆ Life Divine is Sri Aurobindo’s major philosophical
opus. It combines a synthesis of western thought
and eastern spirituality with Sri Aurobindo’s
own original insights, covering topics such as the
nature of the Divine (the Absolute, Brahman),
how the creation came about, the evolution of
consciousness and the cosmos, the spiritual path,
and human evolutionary-spiritual destiny.
Q. Consider
the following statements about
Madam Bhikaji Cama:
1. Madam Cama unfurled the National Flag
at the International Socialist Conference in
Paris in the year 1907.
2. Madam Cama served as private secretary to
Dadabhai Naoroji.
3. Madam Cama was born to a Parsi.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 3 only
Answer: B

www.sleepyclasses.com 403 1800-890-3043

Q. The Barrah dacoity was the first major venture
of the revolutionary terrorists of the freedom
movement in:
(a) Bombay–Karnataka (b) Punjab
(c) East Bengal (d) The Madras
Presidency
Answer: C
ˆ Pulin Behari Das(24 January 1877 – 17 August
1949) was an Indian revolutionary and the founder-
president of the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti.
ˆ In early 1908, Pulin organized the sensational
Barrah Dacoity. The audacious dacoity was
committed in broad daylight by a group of
revolutionaries at the residence of the zamindar
of Barrah, under the Nawabganj police station
in the district of Dhaka. The fund was used for
buying arms and ammunition.

www.sleepyclasses.com 404 1800-890-3043

 FIRST WORLD WAR AND NATIONALIST
RESPONSE IN INDIA
A SURVEY OF REVOLUTIONARY EXTREMIST
HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT ACTIVITIES IN BENGAL
ˆ In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose
threw a bomb at a carriage supposed to be
carrying a particularly sadistic white judge,
Kingsford, in Muzaffarpur. Two ladies, instead,
got killed. Prafulla Chaki shot himself dead
while Khudiram Bose was tried and hanged.
ˆ The whole gang was arrested including the
Ghosh brothers, Aurobindo and Barindra, who
were tried in the Alipore conspiracy case.

GOVERNMENT’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS

EXTREMISTS
ˆ The government attacked the extremist leaders
vigorously.
ˆ Laws were passed to check their activities and
influence. The following laws were passed
between 1907 and 1911: Seditious Meetings
Act, 1907; Indian Newspapers (Incitement to
Offences) Act, 1908; Criminal Law Amendment
Act, 1908; and the Indian Press Act, 1910.
ˆ Tilak was sentenced and served in prison in
Mandalay (Burma) for writing in support of
revolutionaries who were involved in the killing
of two British women (their original target was a
British magistrate)-???.

www.sleepyclasses.com 405 1800-890-3043

www.sleepyclasses.com 406 1800-890-3043
 PYQ-1
Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer:
List-I List-II
A. Abhinav Bharat 1. Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
B. Anushilan Samiti 2. Lala Hardayal
C. Gadar Party 3. C.R. Das
D. Swaraj Party 4. V.D. Savarkar
Codes: HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT
(a) A – 4; B – 1; C – 3; D – 2 ˆ The Home Rule Movement was the Indian
(b) A – 1; B – 4; C – 3; D – 2 response to the First World War.
(c) A – 1; B – 4; C – 2; D – 3 ˆ The Indian Home Rule Leagues were organised
(d) A – 4; B – 1; C – 2; D – 3 on the lines of the Irish Home Rule Leagues and
they represented the emergence of a new trend
Answer: D
of aggressive politics.
ˆ From 1907-1915/1916, the Indian National
Congress (INC) was dominated by the moderates.
Dominated by the politics of Annie Besant, and
some moderate leaders like G.K. Gokhale and
Pheroze Shah Mehta.
ˆ Tilak was released from jail in 1914. But the
release of Tilak was in no way an automatic
reentry of Tilak into the INC, because of the firm
opposition from Pheroze Shah Mehta and Gopal
Krishna Gokhale.
ˆ But, the death of G.K. Gokhale, and Pheroze Shah
Mehta in 1915, gave a possibility of the entry of Tilak
into the INC. With Annie Besant’s help, Tilak was
able to reenter the INC.

www.sleepyclasses.com 407 1800-890-3043

 HOME RULE LEAGUES,
LUCKNOW PACT & GANDHI
HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT
ˆ The Home Rule Movement was the Indian
response to the First World War.
ˆ The Indian Home Rule Leagues were organised
on the lines of the Irish Home Rule Leagues and
they represented the emergence of a new trend
of aggressive politics.
ˆ From 1907-1915/1916, the Indian National
Congress (INC) was dominated by the moderates.
Dominated by the politics of Annie Besant, and
some moderate leaders like G.K. Gokhale and
Pheroze Shah Mehta. ˆ Besant had also recognised the need for Congress
ˆ Tilak was released from jail in 1914. But the approval and the active participation of the
release of Tilak was in no way an automatic extremists in the national struggle.
reentry of Tilak into the INC, because of the firm ˆ However, Besant and Tilak were not able to
opposition from Pheroze Shah Mehta and Gopal convince Congress to support their decision to
Krishna Gokhale. set up home rule leagues.
ˆ But, the death of G.K. Gokhale, and Pheroze ˆ Besant managed to convince the Congress
Shah Mehta in 1915, gave a possibility of the entry to pledge to educative propaganda and the
of Tilak into the INC. With Annie Besant’s help, Tilak establishing of local-level committees. It was also
was able to reenter the INC. agreed upon that if these conditions were not
Events leading to formation of Home Rule League satisfied by September 1916, she would be free to
set up a home rule league.
ˆ In the Congress session of December 1915, it was
decided to let the extremists re-join the party ˆ Accordingly, she set up her Home Rule League
largely due to Annie Besant’s persuasion. in September 1916.
ˆ Tilak, however, was not bound by any such
condition and so had set up his league in April 1916.

www.sleepyclasses.com 408 1800-890-3043

ANNIE BESANT ˆ Mohammed Ali Jinnah also had the first
experience of participating in politics in India by
taking part in the Home Rule League of Annie
Besant.
ˆ Annie Besant tried to mobilize participation
through the publication of her two newspapers:
a) New India b) Commonweal.
ˆ At the same time, Tilak continued writing
in ‘Kesari’, ‘Mahratta’ to spread the message of the
Home Rule League.

2 FORMS OF HOME RULE LEAGUE

ˆ Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule
League in April 1916 at Belgaum whereas Annie
Besant launched the Home Rule League in
September 1916 at Madras.
ˆ Tilak’s movement was confined to Maharashtra
and Karnataka. And Annie Besant movement
spread to other parts of India.
ˆ But as far as organization skill is concerned,
Tilak’s Home Rule League movement was more PUBLICATIONS
organized.

ACTIVITIES OF HOME RULE LEAGUE

ˆ The leagues organised demonstrations and
agitations.There were public meetings in which
the leaders gave fiery speeches.

www.sleepyclasses.com 409 1800-890-3043

ˆ They were able to create a stir within the country Declaration) implied that the demand for home rule
and alarm the British to such an extent that Annie would no longer be considered seditious. This
Besant was arrested in June 1917. was the biggest significance of the movement.

DECLINE OF HOME RULE MOVEMENT

ˆ This move by the British created a nation-wide
protest and now even moderate leaders joined ˆ The movement was not a mass movement. It
the league. Besant was released in September was restricted to educated people and college
1917. students.
ˆ The leagues did not find a lot of support among
IMPORTANCE OF HOME RULE MOVEMENT Muslims, Anglo-Indians and non-Brahmins from
ˆ The Home Rule League functioned throughout Southern India as they thought home rule would
the year as opposed to the Congress Party whose mean a rule of the upper caste Hindu majority.
activities were confined to once a year. ˆ Many of the moderates were satisfied with the
ˆ The movement was able to garner huge support government’s assurance of reforms (as preluded
from a lot of educated Indians. In 1917, the two in the Montague Declaration). They did not take
leagues combined had around 40,000 members. the movement further.
ˆ Many members of the Congress and the Muslim
League joined the league. Many prominent
leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph
Baptista, G S Kharpade and Sir S Subramanya
Iyer were among its members.
ˆ The moderates, extremists and the Muslim
League were briefly united through this
movement and the movement was able to spread
political consciousness to more regions in the
country. ˆ Annie Besant kept oscillating between being
satisfied with the government talk of reforms
ˆ This movement led to the Montague Declaration and pushing the home rule movement forward.
of 1917 in which it was declared that there would She was not able to provide firm leadership to
be more Indians in the government leading to her followers. (Although ultimately she did call
the development of self-governing institutions the reforms ‘unworthy of Indian acceptance’).
ultimately realising responsible governments in
India. This Declaration (also known as August

www.sleepyclasses.com 410 1800-890-3043

ˆ In September 1918, Tilak went to England to
pursue a libel case against Sir Ignatius Valentine
Chirol, British journalist and author of the book
‘Indian Unrest’. The book contained deprecatory
comments and had called Tilak the ‘Father of
Indian Unrest.’ (Tilak lost the case).

ˆ Tilak’s absence and Besant’s inability to lead the

people led to the movement’s fizzing out.
ˆ After the war, Mahatma Gandhi gained
prominence as a leader of the masses and the
Home Rule Leagues merged with the Congress PYQ
Party in 1920.
Q. Match and select the correct answer using the
ˆ In 1921 All India Home Rule League changed its
codes given below the lists:
name to Swarajya Sabha.
A. Shyamji Krishna 1. Bande Mataram
Varma
B. Madame Bhikaji 2. Indian Sociologist
Cama
C. Annie Besant 3. The Talwar
D. Aurobindo Gosh 4. Commonweal
Codes:
(a) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1
(b) A – 3; B – 2; C – 1; D – 4
(c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 1; D – 4
(d) A – 3; B – 2; C – 4; D – 1
Answer: A

www.sleepyclasses.com 411 1800-890-3043

PUBLICATIONS

FIRST WORLD WAR (1914 - 1918)

Q. What is the correct sequence of the following Opinion of Industrialists

events? ˆ For the Rich Industrialists, the war was an
1. The Lucknow Pact opportunity to make fortunes - War created
2. The Introduction on Dyarchy economic crisis and shortage of industrial goods
3. The Rowlatt Act in Britain, for which it had to depend on the
Indian Industries.
4. The Partition of Bengal
Codes: ˆ In this way, the war promoted the advancement
of the Indian Industries, the momentum of which
(a) 1, 3, 2, 4 (b) 4, 1, 3, 2
the Indian Industrialists wanted to preserve even
(c) 1, 2, 3, 4 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1 after the war and therefore they were eager to
Answer: B organise themselves and support any nationalist
movement.
CHRONOLOGY
ˆ Lucknow Pact – 1916 HRLM - WHY?
ˆ Introduction of Dyarchy under Montford ˆ A section of nationalists felt that popular pressure
Reforms (GIA 1919) was required to attain concessions from the
Government.
ˆ Rowlatt Act - March 1919
ˆ The Moderates were disillusioned with the
ˆ Partition of Bengal - 1905
Morley-Minto reforms.
ˆ People were feeling the burden of wartime
miseries caused by high taxation and a rise
in prices and were ready to participate in any
aggressive movement of protest.
ˆ Annie Besant (president of the Theosophical
Society), the Irish theosophist based in India
since 1896, had decided to enlarge the sphere
of her activities to include the building of a
movement for Home Rule on the lines of the Irish
Home Rule Leagues. (President of INC 1917)
ˆ Theosophical Society - HP Blavatsky and
Colonel Olcott in 1875 in New York, then first

www.sleepyclasses.com 412 1800-890-3043

 Headquarters in Adyar, near Madras in 1882. GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
What ? ˆ The government came down with severe
repression, especially in Madras where the
ˆ The League campaign aimed to convey to the
students were prohibited from attending
common man the message of home rule as self-
political meetings.
government.
ˆ In June 1917, Annie Besant and her associates,
How ? B.P. Wadia and George Arundale, were arrested.
ˆ The aim was to be achieved by promoting ƒ As a mark of protest, Sir S. Subramaniya
political education and discussion through Aiyar renounced his knighthood while Tilak
public meetings, organising libraries and reading advocated a programme of passive resistance .
rooms containing books on national politics,
ˆ Annie Besant was released in September 1917.
holding conferences, organising classes for
students on politics, carrying out propaganda SHORTCOMINGS AND FADE OUT
through newspapers, pamphlets, posters,
ˆ Lack of effective organization.
illustrated post-cards, plays, religious songs, etc.,
collecting funds, organising social work, and ˆ Communal riots were witnessed during 1917-18
participating in local government activities. ˆ Moderates were pacified by talk of reforms
(Monatgu’s Statement 1917) and Mrs. Besant’s
TILAK’S LEAGUE
release.
ˆ It was during this agitation that Tilak gave the ˆ Talk of passive resistance by the Extremists
Slogan - “Swaraj is my birth Right and I Shall kept the Moderates away from activity from
have it”. September 1918 onwards.
ˆ During the Speech - There was no trace of any ˆ The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms which
religious appeal. Further his ideas were free of became known in July 1918 further divided the
any linguistic basis and education in vernacular. nationalist ranks.
He frontally opposed untouchability and urged
Brahmins to be tolerant to non-Brahmins. He ˆ Leadership vacuum: Tilak had to go abroad
declared - “If God were to tolerate untouchability, (September 1918) in connection with a case while
I would not recognise him as God at all”. Annie Besant vacillated over her response to the
reforms and the techniques of passive resistance.
ˆ By 1917, Tilak’s league had 14,000 registered
members. CONTRIBUTIONS

BESANT’S LEAGUE ˆ Since the League was only implementing more

vigorously the one advocated Moderate program
ˆ Besant’s League was set up in September 1916 in of political education, they enlisted the support
Madras and covered the rest of India (including of many Moderates.
Bombay city).
ˆ The movement shifted the emphasis from the
ƒ It had 200 branches, was loosely organised as educated elite to the masses and permanently
compared to Tilak’s League and had George deflected the movement from the course
Arundale as the organising secretary and mapped by the Moderates.
Sir S Subramaniam Aiyer as the honorary
president (Grand Old Man of South India) ˆ It created an organisational link between the
town and the country.
ˆ It created a generation of ardent nationalists.

www.sleepyclasses.com 413 1800-890-3043

ˆ It prepared the masses for politics of the JOINT DEMANDS
Gandhian style.
ˆ The representative assemblies at the central
ƒ The efforts of Tilak and Annie Besant towards as well as provincial level should be further
the Moderate-Extremist reunion at Lucknow expanded with an elected majority and more
(1916) revived the Congress as an effective powers given to them
instrument of Indian nationalism.
ˆ 5-year term for the Legislative Council
ƒ After the Congress session ended in 1916,
a joint meeting of the two leagues was held ˆ Half the members of the viceroy’s and
under the same canopy, addressing more than provincial governors’ executive councils should
1000 delegates. be Indians.
ˆ Montague’s Statement – August 1917 – The
LUCKNOW SESSION OF THE INDIAN government policy is of an increasing participation
NATIONAL CONGRESS, 1916 of Indians in every branch of administration and
Readmission of the Extremists to Congress gradual development institutions with a view
to the progressive ‘realisation of responsible
ˆ The Lucknow session of the Indian National government’.
Congress, presided over by a Moderate, Ambika
Charan Majumdar, finally readmitted the NATIONALIST RESURGENCE AFTER THE
Extremists led by Tilak to the Congress fold. WAR
ˆ This was also made possible partly with the Post Economic Hardships
passing of the Moderate leaders Gopal Krishna
Gokhale and Pherozshah Mehta in 1915 who ˆ Industry: A recession coupled with increased
were most strongly opposed to the Extremist’s foreign investment brought many industries to
return. the brink of closure and loss. They now demanded
protection against imports besides government
ˆ Tilak’s League started a special train known aid.
as the Congress Special or the “Home Rule
Special” to carry delegates from Western India ˆ Peasantry: Faced with high taxation and poverty,
to Lucknow, thus establishing a new Congress the peasants waited for a lead to protest.
tradition. ˆ Soldiers: who returned from battlefields abroad
gave an idea of their experience to the rural folk.
Lucknow Pact Between Congress and Muslim
They were also surprised to return to a country
League (Madan Mohan Malviya opposed it)
that was impoverished and had less liberty than
ˆ The League agreed to present joint constitutional before.
demands with the Congress to the government, ˆ Educated Urban Classes: unemployment as well
the Congress accepted the Muslim League’s as suffering from an acute awareness of racism in
position on separate electorates which would the attitude of the British.
continue till any one community demanded joint
electorates. EXPECTATION OF POLITICAL GAINS FOR
ƒ The Muslims were also granted a fixed COOPERATION IN THE WAR
proportion of seats in the legislatures at all- ˆ The contribution of Indians to the British war
India and provincial levels. effort was huge. Most nationalists extended
cooperation to the war effort and a huge number
of Indian troops sacrificed their lives on the war
fronts.

www.sleepyclasses.com 414 1800-890-3043

IMPACT OF RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
(NOV 7,1917)
ˆ The Bolshevik Party of workers overthrew the
Czarist regime and founded the first socialist
state, the Soviet Union, under the leadership of
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov or Lenin.

Emergence of Gandhiji

WRITINGS OF GANDHIJI
Literary Works:
ˆ Hind Swaraj (1909)
ˆ My Experiments with Truth (Autobiography,
1927)—reveals events of Gandhi’s life upto 1922.
As an Editor:
M K GANDHI ˆ Indian Opinion: 1903–15 (in English & Gujarati,
ˆ Birth: October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, Gujarat. for a short period in Hindi & Tamil)
[Note: UNO declared October 2 as ‘International ˆ Harijan: 1919–31 (in English, Gujarati and Hindi)
Non-violence Day’ (Antarashtriya Ahimsa ˆ Young India: (in English, gujarati-named
Diwas)] Navjeevan).
ˆ Father: Karamchand Gandhi.
ˆ Mother: Putali Bai.
ˆ Political Guru: Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
ˆ Literary Influence on Gandhi: John Ruskin’s
Unto this Last, Emerson, Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy,
the Bible and the Gita.

TOLSTOY & GANDHI

NAMES GIVEN TO GANDHIJI

ˆ Mahatma (Saint) by Rabindranath Tagore, 1917
ˆ Malang Baba/ Nanga Faqir (Naked Saint) by
Kabalis of North-West Frontier, 1930
ˆ Indian Faqir/Traitor Faqir-by Winston Churchill,
1931

www.sleepyclasses.com 415 1800-890-3043

ˆ Half-naked Saint by Franq Mores, 1931
ˆ Rashtrapita (the Father of the Nation) by Subhash
Chandra Bose, 1944.

PYQ
Q. Mahatma Gandhi said that some of his deepest
convictions were reflected in a book titled,
“Unto this Last’’ and the book transformed his
life. What was the message from the book that
transformed Mahatma Gandhi ?
(a) Uplifting the oppressed and poor is the moral
responsibility of an educated man
(b) The good of individual is contained in the
good of all
(c) The life of celibacy and spiritual pursuit are
essential for a noble life
(d) All the statements (a), (b) and (c) are correct
in this context
Answer: B

www.sleepyclasses.com 416 1800-890-3043

 GANDHIJI BEFORE 1915
GANDHI
ˆ Born in Porbandar, Kathiawar, Gujarat on 2nd
October, 1869.
ˆ He was born in a well to do Vaishya Family
which was closely connected with the Jain sect
with whom ahimsa is a cardinal principle.

ˆ 1906: First Civil Disobedience Movement in

Transvaal.
ˆ 1907: Satyagraha against Compulsory
Registration and Passes for Asians (The Black
Act) in Transvaal.
GANDHIJI IN SOUTH AFRICA
ˆ 1893: Departure of Gandhi to South Africa.
ˆ 1894: Foundation of Natal Indian Congress.
ˆ 1899: Foundation of Indian Ambulance Corps
during Boer Wars.
ˆ 1903: Foundation of Indian Opinion (magazine)
and Phoenix Farm, at Phoenix, near Durban.

www.sleepyclasses.com 417 1800-890-3043

ˆ 1908: Trial and imprisonment- Johanesburg Jail ˆ He went to South Africa (Durban - Natal
(First Jail Term). Province) in connection with a case involving
ˆ 1910: Foundation of Tolstoy Farm (Later-Gandhi his client, Dada Abdullah who faced racism and
Ashrama), near Johannesburg. humiliation. (Age 24 - First Indian Barrister to
arrive in South Africa)
ˆ 1913: Satyagraha against derecognition of non-
Christian marriages in Cape Town. ˆ While he was travelling by train to Pretoria,
Gandhi, despite carrying first class ticket, was
ˆ 1914-15: Awarded Kaisar-i-Hind for raising thrown out of the train by the authorities because
Indian Ambulance Corps during Boer wars. a white man complained of an Indian sharing the
space with him.
ˆ He had gone there for around 1 year contract but
ended up staying for a total of around 20 Years
- Decided to stay in South Africa to organise the
Indian workers to enable them to fight for their
rights .

CONDITIONS OF INDIANS IN SOUTH

AFRICA
ˆ Racial Discrimination with respect to citizenship
rights, freedom to trade and right to property,
etc.
ˆ Indians were denied the right to vote, they could
reside only in prescribed locations.
ˆ They were prohibited from travelling in first
and second class railway compartments. Indians
were addressed as ‘coolie’ meaning labourer.

FIRST PHASE
MODERATE PHASE OF STRUGGLE (1894 - 1906)
ˆ Gandhi’s struggle against Disfranchisement Bill
and Formation of Indian Natal Organisation -
ˆ During this phase, Gandhi relied on sending
petitions and memorials to the authorities in
South Africa and in Britain hoping that once
the authorities were informed of the plight of
Indians, they would take sincere steps to redress
their grievances as the Indians were, after all,
British subjects.
ˆ To unite different sections of Indians, he set up
the Natal Indian Congress and started a paper
Indian Opinion.
ˆ This organisation led non-violent protests
against the oppressive treatment of the white
people towards the native Africans and Indians.

www.sleepyclasses.com 418 1800-890-3043

ˆ Gandhiji exercised `self-restraint’. His formed the Passive Resistance Association to
philosophy of winning the detractors with the conduct the campaign of defying the law and
peaceful restraint had begun. suffering all the penalties resulting from such a
ˆ During the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899, defiance. Thus was born satyagraha or devotion
Gandhi gathered around 1,100 Indians and to truth, the technique of resisting adversaries
organised the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps . without violence.

ˆ Gandhi attends 1901 Calcutta Congress Session ˆ The government jailed Gandhi and others who
(President- Dinshaw Wacha) - This was the first refused to register themselves.
contact with the INC, he even succeeded in getting ˆ Later, the authorities used deceit to make these
a resolution passed on the condition of Indians defiant Indians register themselves. The Indians
in South Africa. under the leadership of Gandhi retaliated by
ˆ Gandhiji was now the recognised leader of South publicly burning their registration certificates.
Africa’s Indian community. By 1903, Gandhiji ˆ It was during this agitation that Gandhi decided
had begun to lead a life of considerable discipline to give up his legal practice.
and self restraint.
CAMPAIGN AGAINST RESTRICTION ON IN-
ˆ Influenced by John Ruskin’s preaching of rustic DIAN MIGRATION
life, Gandhiji organized Phoenix Farm near
Durban. Here he trained disciplined cadres on ˆ The earlier campaign was widened to include
non-violent Satyagraha (peaceful self- restraint), protest against a new legislation imposing
involving peaceful violation of certain laws, mass restrictions on Indian migration. The Indians
courting of arrests, occasional hartal, (suspension defied this law by crossing over from one
of all economic activity for a particular time), province to another and by refusing to produce
spectacular marches and nurtured an indomitable licences.
spirit which would fight repression without fear. ˆ Then a Supreme Court order which invalidated
ˆ This Pheonix Farm - was inspired by John all marriages not conducted according to
Ruskin’s book Unto The Last. Gandhi hit Christian rites and registered by the registrar
upon the idea of starting a farm and leading a of marriages drew the anger of the Indians and
community life. others who were not Christians.
ˆ By implication, Hindu, Muslim and Parsi
SECOND PHASE marriages were illegal and children born out of
PHASE OF PASSIVE RESISTANCE such marriages, illegitimate.
The phase of Civil Disobedience/Satyagraha ˆ The Indians treated this judgement as an insult
(1906 - 1914) to the honour of women and many women
were drawn into the movement because of this
ˆ The second phase, which began in 1906,
indignity.
was characterised by the use of the method
of passive resistance or civil disobedience, ˆ He set up in Tolstoy Farm in 1910 - As the
which Gandhi named satyagraha. Satyagraha Satyagrahis continued to court arrest, funds
against Registration Certificates (1906) . (Asiatic for supporting the families of Satyagrahis started
Registration Bill) running out.
ˆ A new legislation in South Africa always made it ˆ Gandhi then set up the Tolstoy Farm to house
compulsory for Indians there to carry certificates the families of the Satyagrahis.
of registration with their fingerprints. The
Indians under Gandhi’s leadership decided not
to submit to this discriminatory measure. Gandhi

www.sleepyclasses.com 419 1800-890-3043

TRANSVAAL IMMIGRATION ACT ˆ 1916: Abstain from active politics (though he
ˆ The Indians protested the Transvaal Immigration attended Lucknow session of INC held in 26–30
Act, by illegally migrating from Natal into December, 1916, where Raj Kumar Shukla, a
Transvaal. The government held these Indians in cultivator from Bihar, requested him to come to
jails. Miners and plantation workers went on a Champaran.).
strike. ˆ 1917: Gandhi entered active politics with
ˆ Indian Relief Act of 1914 - Eventually, through a Champaran campaign to redress grievances of
series of negotiations, an agreement was reached the cultivators oppressed by Indigo planter of
by which the Government of South Africa Bihar (April 1917). Champaran Satyagraha was
conceded the major Indian demands relating his first Civil Disobedience Movement in India.
to the registration certificates and marriages
solemnised according to Indian rites, and
promised to treat the issue of Indian immigration
in a sympathetic manner. Gandhi returned to
India in January 1915.

GANDHI - EARLY EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA

GANDHIJI IN INDIA
ˆ 1915: Arrived in Bombay (India) on 9 January
1915; Foundation of Satyagraha Ashrama at
Kochrab near Ahmedabad (20 May). In 1917,
Ashrama shifted at the banks of Sabarmati.

PYQ
Q. What is the correct sequence of the following
events?
1. Tilak’s Home Rule League
2. Komagatamaru Incident
3. Mahatma Gandhi’s arrival in India
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:

www.sleepyclasses.com 420 1800-890-3043

Codes: ˆ He was contacted by Annie Besant to join him in
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 3, 2, 1 Home Rule League Movement, but he refused on
the ground that he did not want to embarrass
(c) 2,1, 3 (d) 2, 3, 1
the British Government during their time of
Answer : D
difficulty.
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS ˆ He attended the 1916 Lucknow Session of
ˆ Tilak’s Home Rule League – April, 1916 Congress but took care not to associate himself
with either moderates or extremists.
ˆ Komagatamaru Incident – September, 1914
ˆ During 1917 and 1918, Gandhi was involved in
ˆ Gandhi’s arrival in India from South Africa –1915 three struggles—in Champaran, Ahmedabad
and Kheda—before he launched the Rowlatt
Satyagraha.

GANDHI IN INDIA
9th January 1915
ˆ He had begun to feel that his mission in South
CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA (1917)
Africa was over and he should now return to
India. At that time Gokhale was in London and he ˆ The first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi
wanted that Gandhi should meet him first before in the freedom struggle.
he returned to India. Accordingly, Gandhi sailed ˆ Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo
for England. By the time he reached London, The cultivator, Gandhi went to Champaran in Bihar
First World War had begun. to investigate the conditions of the farmers there.
ˆ Over there during the course of war, the British ˆ The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes
authorities thanked and honoured him with and an exploitative system. They were forced
Kaiser-e-Hind Gold Medal in 1915. to grow indigo by the British planters under the
ˆ He finally returned to India on 9th January,1915 tinkathia system.
at the age of 46. Gokhale was Gandhi’s political
Guru and he eagerly wanted Gandhiji to join his
Servants of India Society, but he could not join
on account of opposition of certain members of
that Organisation.
ˆ He spent the first whole year traveling and
understanding about the Indian issue and setting
up his Asharam at Ahmedabad. (Originally
known as Satyagraha Asharam which was later
shifted to a place on the banks of Sabarmati River
and came to be known as Sabarmati Asharam).

www.sleepyclasses.com 421 1800-890-3043

ˆ Accompanied by Babu Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar- disobedience of an unjust order was a novel
ul-Huq, J.B. Kripalani, Narhari Parekh and method at that time.
Mahadev Desai, Gandhji reached Champaran ˆ Finally, the authorities retreated and permitted
in 1917 and through his method and efforts, Gandhi to make an enquiry.
the disabilities from which the peasantry was
suffering were reduced and Gandhiji won his ˆ Now, the government appointed a committee to
first battle of civil disobedience in India. go into the matter and nominated Gandhi as a
member. (Champaran Agrarian Committee)
ˆ Gandhi arrived in Champaran to investigate
the matter but was not permitted by the British ˆ Gandhi was able to convince the authorities that
authorities to do so. He was asked to leave the the tinkathia system should be abolished and
place but he refused. that the peasants should be compensated for the
illegal dues extracted from them.
ˆ He was able to gather support from the farmers
and masses. When he appeared in court in ˆ As a compromise with the planters, he agreed
response to a summon, almost 2000 locals that only 25 per cent of the money taken should
accompanied him. be compensated. (Champaran Agrarian Act of
1917)
ˆ The case against him was dropped and he was
allowed to conduct the inquiry. ˆ Other leaders who joined him - Rajendra Prasad,
Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari
ˆ After peaceful protests against the planters and Parekh, J.B. Kripalani, Brajkishore Prasad,
landlords led by Gandhi, the government agreed Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad and
to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system. Shambhusharan Varma.
The peasants also received a part of the money
extracted from them as compensation. ˆ Gandhi was requested by Rajkumar Shukla, a
local man, to look into the problems of the farmers
CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA (1917) in context of indigo planters of Champaran in
Bihar.
First Civil Disobedience Movement – I

Issue
ˆ The European planters had been forcing the
peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 part of the total
land (called tinkathia system).
ˆ When towards the end of the nineteenth century
German synthetic dyes replaced indigo, the
European planters demanded high rents and
illegal dues from the peasants in order to
maximise their profits before the peasants could
shift to other crops.
ˆ Besides, the peasants were forced to sell the
produce at prices fixed by the Europeans.
AHMEDABAD MILL STRIKE
ˆ Gandhiji reached Champaran to probe into the
matter, the authorities ordered him to leave the ˆ Gandhi used hunger strike for the first time
area at once. during an industrial dispute between the owners
and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.
ˆ Gandhi defied the order and preferred to face
the punishment. This passive resistance or civil

www.sleepyclasses.com 422 1800-890-3043

ˆ The owners wanted to withdraw the plague ˆ He advised the workers to go on strike and
bonus to the workers while the workers were insisted that the workers should not use violence
demanding a hike in their wages. against the employers during the strike.

ˆ He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the

workers’ resolve to continue the strike.
AHMEDABAD MILL STRIKE -
FIRST HUNGER STRIKE - 1918
II (NOT AGAINST THE BRITISH)
Issue - Plague Bonus
ˆ In March 1918, Gandhi intervened in a dispute
between cotton mill owners of Ahmedabad and
the workers over the issue of discontinuation
of the plague bonus.
ˆ The mill owners wanted to withdraw the bonus.
The workers were demanding a rise of 50(???) per
cent in their wages so that they could manage in
the times of wartime inflation (which doubled
the prices of food-grains, cloth, and other
necessities) caused by Britain’s involvement in
World War I. The mill owners were ready to give
only a 25 per cent wage hike. The workers went
on strike.
ˆ The striking workers were now being arbitrarily
dismissed with the mill owners deciding to bring
in weavers from Bombay.
ˆ Anusuya Sarabhai, sister of Ambalal Sarabhai
– one of the mill owners, went to Gandhi, who
was respected by the mill owners and workers,
and asked him to intervene and help resolve the
ˆ The Ahmedabad Mill strike was successful and impasse between the workers and the employers.
the workers were granted the wage hike they ˆ Gandhi asked the workers to go on a strike and
wanted. demand a 35 per cent increase in wages instead

www.sleepyclasses.com 423 1800-890-3043

 of 50 per cent. Gandhi advised the workers to ˆ In all these 3 movements, Gandhi was able to
remain non-violent while on strike. When involve the masses including farmers, artisans
negotiations with mill owners did not progress, and even the so-called lower castes. This was a
he himself undertook a fast unto death (his first) change from the previous movements when the
to strengthen the workers’ resolve. participation was limited to the upper and the
ˆ The fast also had the effect of putting pressure on middle classes.
the mill owners who finally agreed to submit the
issue to a tribunal. The strike was withdrawn. In
the end, the tribunal awarded the workers a 35
per cent wage hike .

KHEDA SATYAGRAHA (1918)

KHEDA SATYAGRAHA (1918)

FIRST NON COOPERATION – III
Issue
ˆ Because of drought in 1918, the crops failed in
Kheda district of Gujarat.
ˆ According to the Revenue Code, if the yield
ˆ 1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda
was less than one-fourth the normal produce,
district of Gujarat due to droughts.
the farmers were entitled to remission. The
ˆ As per law, the farmers were entitled to remission Gujarat Sabha (GANDHIJI became President)
if the produce was less than a quarter of the consisting of the peasants, submitted petitions to
normal output. But the government refused any the highest Governing authorities of the province
remission from paying land revenue. requesting that the revenue assessment for the
ˆ As part of the experiment, Mahatma Gandhi year 1919 be suspended.
advised the peasants to withhold payment of ˆ The government remained adamant and
revenue till their demand for its remission was threatened to seize the property of the farmers
met. if the taxes were not paid.
ˆ The protest was peaceful and people showed ˆ Gandhi asked the farmers not to pay the taxes.
remarkable courage even in the face of adversities Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and a group of other devoted
like confiscation of personal property and arrest. Gandhians, namely, Narahari Parikh, Mohanlal
ˆ The struggle was withdrawn when it was learnt Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas went around
that the government had issued instructions that the villages, organised the villagers and told
revenue should be recovered only from those them what to do and gave the necessary political
peasants who could afford to pay. leadership.
ˆ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the follower of ˆ Patel along with his colleagues organised the
Gandhiji during the Kheda movement. tax revolt which the different ethnic and caste

www.sleepyclasses.com 424 1800-890-3043

 communities of Kheda supported. The revolt ˆ It gave the government enormous powers to
was remarkable in that discipline and unity were repress political activities and allowed detention
maintained. of political prisoners without trial for two years.
ˆ Within a month, the Satyagrahis reached the
peak with more than 2000 peasants taking an
oath for non payment of revenue. Soon Kheda
saw a good Rabi crop which weakened the case
of remission. Satygrahis also showed the signs
of exhaustion. Moreover, the Government had
also issued instructions that revenue should be
recovered only from those who had the capacity
to pay. In view of these developments, Gandhiji
decided to call off the agitation.
ˆ Also, the Kheda Satyagraha did not involve
the entire Kheda region and only 70 out of 559
villages actually participated.
ˆ It was called off only after a token concession.
Yet, it helped Gandhi in broadening his base in ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA
rural Gujarat.

ROWLATT ACT

ˆ Rowlatt Act enabled the Government to suspend

the right of Habeas Corpus, which had the
ˆ In 1917, a committee was set up under the
foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
presidentship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into
the militant Nationalist activities. ˆ It caused a wave of anger in all sections spreading
a country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and
ˆ On the basis of its report the Rowlatt Act was
marked the foundation of the Non-Cooperation
passed in March 1919 by the Central Legislative
Movement.
Council. This act had been hurriedly passed in the
Imperial Legislative Council despite the united
opposition of the Indian members.
ˆ The Rowlatt Act curtailed the liberty of the
people and was called the Black Act.

www.sleepyclasses.com 425 1800-890-3043

 Court could meet in camera and take into
consideration evidence not permissible under
Indian Evidence Act. Further, no appeal could
be made against the decision of this court.
ƒ Proposed authorisation of the Government
to search and arrest without warrant.
ƒ Detention without trial upto 2 Years.

ˆ Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil GANDHI’S RESPONSE

disobedience against such unjust laws, which ˆ On 24th February, 1919 at Bombay, Gandhi
would start with a hartal on 6 April 1919. formed the Satyagraha Sabha to protest against
ˆ But before it could be launched, there were Rowlatt Bills. Members signed a pledge to
large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations in disobey Rowlatt Act.
Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Ahmedabad, etc. ˆ During this Gandhiji proclaimed that - “It is my
firm belief that we shall obtain salvation only
through suffering and not by reforms dropping
on us by the English - they use brute force, we
use soul force”.

WHO OPPOSED GANDHIJI ?

ˆ A group of liberals led by Surendranath Banerjee,
DE Wacha, TB Sapru, Srinivas Shastri, opposed
the Satygraha on the ground that it would
hamper the upcoming constitution reforms.
ˆ Tilak’s main followers NC Kelkar and GS
Khaparde also opposed the Satyagraha.
ˆ To protest against the ‘Rowlatt Act’, Gandhiji WHO SUPPORTED ?
launched an All India Satyagraha for the first
time. ˆ The younger elements of Besant’s Home Rule
League supported Gandhi and formed his main
ˆ In 1917, The GOI had appointed a committee
cadre in different parts of the country.
under the chairmanship of Justice Sydney
Rowlatt to investigate ‘Revolutionary crime’ ˆ Simultaneously, the issue of Khilafat in Turkey
in the country and recommended measures to had emerged. Ottoman Turkey was defeated in
suppress it. the First World War and Indian Muslims began
to worry about the future of Khilafat in Turkey.
ˆ The publication of this report coincided with the
Montague Chelmsford report. ˆ As a result, Gandhi was also supported by
certain Pan-Islamic leaders, particularly Abdul
ˆ The committee produced evidence of detailed
Bari of Firangi Mahal Ulema group at Lucknow
subversive activities and proposed to strengthen
and some political members of the Muslim
anti revolutionary law. On the basis of these
League such as Dr. M.A Ansari.
recommendations, these new bills provided for -
ƒ Continuation of War time restrictions. ROWLATT ACT
ƒ Trial of offences by a special Court ˆ Despite strong opposition all over the country,
comprising of three high Court Judges. The one of the Rowlatt Bills was rushed through the

www.sleepyclasses.com 426 1800-890-3043

 Council between 6th February and 18th March
1919 and passed, though all the non official
members had voted against it. The bill became
an act after receiving Viceroy’s assent on 21st
March 1919.

GANDHI’S RESPONSE
ˆ Gandhi called upon the countrymen to observe a
day of ‘Hartal’ by striking work and fasting and
praying at home in protest against the Rowlatt
Act. The date for the Hartal was initially fixed at
30 March but later changed to 6th April. Four
Books including Hind Swaraj of Gandhiji, which
were prohibited since 1910, were chosen for sale
as an act of defiance.
ˆ On 8th April, Gandhi left Bombay to promote
the agitation in Delhi and Punjab. He was
arrested during his way to Punjab and his arrest
precipitated the situation and violence broke out
at several places. Martial Law was enforced in
Ahmedabad.
ˆ Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
ˆ Especially in Punjab, the situation became
explosive due to wartime repression, forcible
recruitments, and ravages of disease.
ˆ In towns across North and West India, life came
to a standstill, as shops shut down and schools ˆ This caused resentment among the Indian
closed in response to the bandh call. protestors who came out in thousands on April
10 to show their solidarity with their leaders.
ˆ On April 9, 1919, two nationalist leaders,
Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, were ˆ Soon the protests turned violent because the
arrested by the British officials without any police resorted to firing in which some of the
provocation except that they had addressed protestors were killed. To curb any future protest
protest meetings, and taken to some unknown government put martial law in place and law and
destination. order in Punjab was handed over to Brigadier-
General Dyer.

www.sleepyclasses.com 427 1800-890-3043

 ˆ On 13th April, Baisakhi day, a large crowd
of people mostly from neighboring villages,
unaware of the prohibitory orders in the Amritsar
gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh.
ˆ Brigadier- General Dyer arrived on the scene with
his men. The troops surrounded the gathering
under orders from General Dyer and blocked the
only exit point and opened fire on the unarmed
crowd killing more than 1000 unarmed men,
women, and children.

ƒ Rabindranath Tagore renounced his

knighthood in protest.
ƒ Mahatma Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-
i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work
during the Boer War.
ƒ Gandhi was overwhelmed by the atmosphere
of total violence and withdrew the Rowlatt
Satyagraha movement on April 18, 1919.

www.sleepyclasses.com 428 1800-890-3043

 to General Dyer who issued an order prohibiting
public meetings and assemblies.
ˆ Then happened the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy
- Brigadier General Reginald Dyer - order his
Gurkha troops to open fire on the unarmed
peaceful crowd, without the slightest warning.
ˆ On 18th April, Gandhi called off the Satyagraha in
view of the widespread violence. Rabindranath
Tagore renounced his knighthood on 30th May
1919 to register his protest against the Jallianwala
Bagh massacre.
ˆ Kitchlew was a founding member of the Jamia
Milia Islamia.
ˆ Kitchlew strongly opposed the demand for
Pakistan, shifted to Delhi after his house was
burnt down during the partition riots.
ˆ Sometime after Independence, he left the
Congress party, Moved closer to the Communist
Party of India was recipient of Stalin Peace Prize
in 1952.

ˆ On October 14, 1919, the Government of India

announced the formation of the Disorders Inquiry
Committee.
ˆ The committee was commonly known as Hunter
Commission after the name of chairman, Lord
William Hunter. It also had Indian members.
ˆ In the final report submitted in March 1920, the GANDHIAN IDEOLOGY
committee unanimously condemned Dyer’s
ˆ Gandhiji’s ideology evolved out of several
actions. However, the Hunter Committee did
influences. In his autobiography, My
not impose any penal or disciplinary action
Experiments with Truth, he states that his parents
against General Dyer.
and his family’s socio religious milieu left a deep
During this time Jallianwala Bagh Massacre impact on him.
happened in Amritsar - 13 April 1919
ˆ Teachings of Bhagwad Gita and Jainism
ˆ Punjab Governor Sir Michael O’ Dwyer influenced Gandhi in his early life and the
ˆ 9th April - two Local Congress Leaders - Sr. writings of Tolstoy and Ruskin were significant
Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal were influences in Later life.
arrested - these arrests coincided with the ˆ The fundamental principles of Gandhian
Gandhiji’s arrest. - Violent protests all over - The ideology were Satya (Truth), Ahimsa (Non-
army was called in and the city was handed over

www.sleepyclasses.com 429 1800-890-3043

 Violence), Asteya (Non Stealing), Aparigraha ƒ Views on Ideal State - Gandhi envisioned Ram
(Non - Possession) and Brahmacharaya (Self Rajya as an Ideal society. For him, it implied
Control). a system of ‘cooperative commonwealth and
ˆ Tools used by Gandhiji - Concept of Swaraj, statelessness’.
Swadeshi, Sarvodaya. ƒ He rejected the state because it is rooted in
violence in so far as it is highly centralised
GANDHIAN IDEOLOGY – SWARAJ system and such a system cannot be sustained
ˆ Swaraj - In his book Hind Swaraj - He said that without some measure of force and violence.
the real enemy was not the British rule but the ˆ Gandhi agreedthat that Government is the best
modern western civilisation which was luring which Governs the least. To Gandhi, the prime
India into its stronghold. function of the state was the regulation of social
ƒ He criticised the railways for contributing to behaviour.
plague and famine (by export of food grains). ˆ Gandhi envisioned that an ideal stateless society
ƒ Though criticised as obscurantist, these ideas would consist of villages that would function on
reflected the adverse effects of ‘modernisation’ the basis of voluntary cooperation.
on the masses in the countryside. ˆ Being a practical idealist, he realised that an ideal
ˆ Thus, here he saw Swaraj or self-rule as a state stateless society was not viable due to human
of life which could only exist where Indians weakness, so the next best alternative had to
followed their traditional life uncorrupted by suffice, that is, not a wholly non-violent society
modern ways. but a predominantly non-violent one.
ˆ Later on, Gandhi’s idea of Hind Swaraj GANDHIAN IDEOLOGY – RELIGION
evolved to include his programme of village
reconstruction, promotion of Khadi and Harijan ˆ Views on Religion - According to him, religion
welfare, bringing the need for socio- economic could not be confined to the realm of private
reconstruction to the very vortex of nation’s opinion alone but must influence and permeate
attention. all activities of men.

ˆ Swadeshi - it must be noted that although ˆ His religious outlook, was not narrow but
Gandhiji opposed western influence, he was not universalist. He wanted Indians to be deeply
particularly opposed to the emerging modern rooted in their own culture but at the same time
industries in India. In fact, he had good relations with acquire the good things from other cultures.
industrialists like Ambala Sarabhai and GD Birla. ƒ He would say - “I want the cultures of all
ƒ He believed in the interdependence of capital lands to be blown about by my house as freely
and labour and advocated that the capitalist as possible. But I refuse to be blown of my feet
should consider themselves as ‘trustees’ of by any”.
the workers (Gandhi’s Trusteeship theory).
GANDHIAN IDEOLOGY
ƒ He was not in favour of politicisation of
ˆ On Economic Decentralisation - He proposed
workers along class lines and denounced
man’s pursuit for higher values is possible
militant economic struggles.
only in a system of cottage industries in which
ˆ Sarvodaya - Literally it means upliftment of all. workers own the means of production.
He stated that a believer of Sarvodya will strive
ˆ On Varna System and Non Possession - To him
for the greatest good for all and die in the attempt to
it implies equality of all professions as well as
achieve this deal.
equal earning of all professions. He felt that every
person should follow his hereditary profession

www.sleepyclasses.com 430 1800-890-3043

 as a duty to society and not as way of amassing Q. What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi to
wealth. organize a satyagraha on behalf of the peasants
off Kheda ?
ˆ On Education - Gandhi proposed Wardha Scheme
of Education in 1937 and was published in the Harijan. 1. The administration did not suspend the land
It was a scheme for basic education whose main revenue collection in spite of a drought.
aim was learning by activity. 2. The administration proposed to introduce
ˆ On Women - He criticised all forms of discrimination permanent settlement in Gujarat.
against Women. He stood for perfect equality Which of the statements given above is/are
between men and women. correct?
ˆ On Untouchability - He denounced (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
untouchability as “Crime against Humanity ” (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer : A
PYQ Q. Consider the following statements :
1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad persuaded Mahatma
Q. At which one of the following places did Gandhi to come to Champaran to investigate
Mahatma Gandhi first start his Satyagraha in the problem of the peasants.
India?
2. Acharya J.B. Kriplani was one of Mahatma
(a) Ahmedabad (b) Bardoli Gandhi’s colleagues in his Champaran
(c) Champaran (d) Kheda investigation.
Asnwer : C Which of the statements given above is/are
correct ?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer : B
Q. The Rowlatt Act aimed at
(a) compulsory economic support to war efforts
(b) imprisonment without trial and summary
procedures for trial
(c) suppression of the Khilafat Movement
(d) imposition of restrictions on freedom of the
press
Q. After returning from South Africa, Gandhiji
launched his first successful satyagraha in: Answer : B
(a) Chauri-Chaura (b) Dandi Q. Who was the Viceroy of India when the Rowlatt
Act was passed?
(c) Champaran (d) Bardoli
(a) Lord Irwin (b) Lord Reading
Answer : C
(c) Lord Chelmsford (d) Lord Wavell
Answer : C

www.sleepyclasses.com 431 1800-890-3043

Q. With reference to Rowlatt Satyagraha, which of
the following statements is/ are correct?
1. The Rowlatt Act was based on the
recommendations of the ‘Sedition
Committee’.
2. In Rowlatt Satyagraha, Gandhiji tried to
utilize the Home Rule League.
3. Demonstrations against the arrival of
Simon Commission coincided with Rowlatt
Satyagraha.
Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer : B

www.sleepyclasses.com 432 1800-890-3043

 KHILAFAT, NCM, SIMON COMMISSION
& NEHRU REPORT

Khilafat Movement
ˆ The Muslims in India were upset over the
British attitude against Turkey and launched the
Khilafat Movement which was jointly led by the
Khilafat leaders and the Congress.
ˆ Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari,
Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the
prominent leaders of this movement.
ˆ A Khilafat Committee was formed and on 19th
October 1919, the whole country observed the
Khilafat day.

ˆ Turkey was defeated in the First World War

and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres
(1920) was felt by the Muslims as a great insult
to them.
ˆ The whole movement was based on the Muslim
belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was
the religious head of the Muslims all over the
world.
ˆ The main objective of the Khilafat movement
was to force the British government change its
attitude towards Turkey and restore the Khalifa
to his former position.

www.sleepyclasses.com 433 1800-890-3043

ˆ On 23rd November 1919, a joint conference of DECLINE OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
the Hindus and the Muslims held under the
chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma
Gandhi was particularly interested in bringing
the Hindus and the Muslims together to achieve
the country’s independence.
ˆ In February 1920, Gandhiji suggested to
Khilafat Committee that it adopt a programme
of nonviolent non-cooperation to protest the
Government’s behavior.
ˆ On 9th June, 1920 the Khilafat Committee at NCM (1920-1922)
Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion
of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead
the movement.

ˆ Four stages of non-cooperation were surrender

of titles and honorary positions, resignation from ˆ The movement was launched formally on 1st
civil services under the Government, resignation August, 1920, by Gandhiji.
from Police and Army services and non-payment ˆ He announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation
of taxes. with the government as a sequel to the Rowlatt
ˆ Gandhiji pressed the Congress to adopt a similar Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat
plan of action, although it was initially opposed Movement.
by C.R. Das, but was later accepted by all. ˆ The main resolution on non-cooperation was
ˆ Meanwhile, Khilafat movement lost its relevance moved by C.R. Das and approved by the Indian
because Mustafa Kamal Pasha abolished Khilafat National Congress at the Nagpur session in
and made Turkey a secular state. December, 1920.
ˆ In the course of time, Khilafat Movement also ˆ The programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement
merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920. ˆ Surrender of titles and honors
ˆ Boycott of government affiliated schools and
colleges
ˆ Boycott of law courts
ˆ Boycott of foreign cloth

www.sleepyclasses.com 434 1800-890-3043

ˆ Resignation from government service ˆ The educational boycott was particularly
ˆ Mass civil disobedience successful in Bengal, where the students in
Calcutta triggered off a province-wide strike to
force the managements of their institutions to
disaffiliate themselves from the Governments.
ˆ C.R. Das played a major role in promoting
the movement and Subhash Bose became the
principal of the National College in Calcutta.
ˆ Punjab, too responded to the educational boycott
and was second only to Bengal. Lala Lajpat Rai
playing a leading part here despite his initial
reservations about the movement.
ˆ Non-payment of taxes
ƒ National schools and colleges were to be set PYQ
up
ƒ Panchayats were to be established for settling Q. Consider the following statements:
disputes The Non-Cooperation Movement led to :
ƒ Hand-spinning and weaving was to be 1. Congress becoming a mass movement for the
encouraged first time
ƒ People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim 2. Growth of Hindu-Muslims unity
unity
3. Removal of fear of the British might from the
ƒ Give up untouchability minds of the people
ƒ Observe strict non-violence 4. British government’s willingness to grant
political concessions to Indians Of these
SPREAD OF NCM
statements:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct
(b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct
(d) 3 and 4 are correct
Answer : B
SPREAD OF NCM
ˆ Other areas that were active were Bombay, U.P.,
Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Madras remained
lukewarm.

ˆ The Nagpur session, thus, committed Congress ˆ Many leading lawyers of the country like
to a programme of extra-constitutional mass C.R.Das. Motilal Nehru, M.R. Jayakar,
action.Many groups of revolutionary terriorists, Saifudding Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, C
especially in Bengal, also pledged support to the Rajagophlachari, T.Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave
movement. up their practices.

www.sleepyclasses.com 435 1800-890-3043

ˆ The most successful item of the programme was
the boycott of foreign cloth. Picketing of shops
selling foreign cloth was also a major form of the
boycott.
ˆ Another feature of the movement which acquired
great popularity in many parts of the country,
even though it was not part of the original plan,
was the picketing of toddy shops.

ACTIVITIES OF NCM

PYQ
Q. Who among the following leaders proposed
to adopt Complete Independence as the goal
of the Congress in the Ahmedabad session of
1921?
(a) Abdul Kalam Azad
(b) Hasrat Mohani
(c) Jawahar Lal Nehru
(d) Mohandas Karamachand Gandhi
Answer : B

HASRAT MOHANI

www.sleepyclasses.com 436 1800-890-3043

ˆ Syed Fazl-ul-Hasan (14 October 1875 – 13 May ˆ Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance
1951), known by his pen-name Hasrat Mohani, against the British colonial rule, the prevailing
was an Indian activist, freedom Fighter in feudal system, and in favour of the Khilafat
the Indian independence movement and a noted Movement in South Malabar but ended in
poet of the Urdu language. He coined the notable communal violence between Hindus and
slogan Inquilab Zindabad (translation of “Long live Muslims.
the revolution!”) in 1921. Together with Swami
Kumaranand, he is regarded as the first person ACTIVITIES OF NCM
to demand complete independence for India in
1921 at the Ahmedabad Session of the Indian
National Congress.

MALABAR REBELLION (1921)

ˆ In Assam, laborers on tea plantations went on

strike. There were strikes on the steamer service
and on the Assam-Bengal Railway as well.
ˆ Peasants and tribals in some of the Rajasthan
states began movements for securing better
conditions of life.

ˆ The Prince of Wales visited India during this ˆ In Punjab, the Akali movement for wresting
period but he was greeted with empty streets control of the gurdwaras from the mahants
and downed shutters when he came on 17 was a part of the general movement of Non-
November, 1921. cooperation, based on strict non-violence in the
face of tremendous repression.
ˆ In Malabar in Kerala Non-cooperation and
Khilafat propaganda helped to rouse the Muslims AKALI MOVEMENT
tenants against their landlords.
ˆ The Akali movement, also called the Gurdwara
Reform Movement, was a campaign to bring
reform in the gurdwaras in India during the
early 1920s.
ˆ Goal was to transfer control of
Sikh gurdwaras from traditional clergy
(Udasi mahants) and Government-appointed
managers to elected Sikh bodies.
ˆ The movement led to the introduction of the
Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, which placed all
the historical Sikh shrines in India under the
control of Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak
Committee (SGPC).

www.sleepyclasses.com 437 1800-890-3043

ˆ The Akalis also participated in the Indian
independence movement against the British
Government, and supported the non-cooperation
movement against them.

DECLINING STAGES OF NCM

ˆ By December of 1921, the Government announced

the Congress and the Khilafat Committees as
illegal and arrested all those who participated in
the movement.
ˆ The Congress Session at Ahmedabad in December
1921 decided to launch the Civil Disobedience
Movement. Gandhiji was appointed as its leader.
But before it could be launched a mob of people
at Chauri Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed
with the police and burnt 22 policemen on 5th
February, 1922.

www.sleepyclasses.com 438 1800-890-3043

 PYQ
Assertion (A): Gandhi stopped the Non-
Cooperation Movement in 1922.
Reason (R): Violence at Chauri-Chaura led him
to stop the movement.
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct
explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Answer: A
SWARAJ PARTY

ˆ The suspension of the Non-Cooperation

Movement led to a split within Congress in
ˆ On hearing of the incident, Gandhiji decided the Gaya session of the Congress in December
to withdraw the movement. He also persuaded 1922.
the Congress Working Committee to ratify his ˆ Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan
decision and thus, on 12 February 1922, the Non- Das formed a separate group within the
Cooperation Movement came to an end. Congress known as the Swaraj Party on 1 January
ˆ Gandhiji‘s decision to withdraw the movement 1923.
in response to the violence at Chauri Chaura ˆ The Swarajists wanted to contest the
raised a controversy. council elections and wreck the government
ˆ Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Jawaharlal Nehru, from within.
Subhash Bose, and many other recorded their ˆ Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar (called
utter bewilderment on hearing the news. Pro-changers) demanded that the Nationalists
should end the boycott of the legislative councils,
enter them and expose them.

www.sleepyclasses.com 439 1800-890-3043

 WORKS OF SWARAJ PARTY

ˆ No-changers like Rajendra Prasad and

Rajagopalachari adhered to the Gandhian
programme of Boycott of legislatures.
ˆ Elections to Legislative Councils were held
in November 1923 in which, the Swaraj Party
gained impressive successes.
ˆ In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru
became the leader of the party whereas in Bengal
the party was headed by C.R. Das.
ˆ The Swaraj Party demanded the setting up ˆ When a Committee chaired by the Home
of responsible government in India with the Member, Alexander Muddiman considered
necessary changes in the Government of India the system of Dyarchy as proper, a resolution
Act of 1919. The party could pass important was passed against it in the Central Legislative
resolutions against the repressive laws of the Council.
government. ˆ Vithalbhai Patel speaker of Central Legislative
Assembly in 1925
ˆ Defeat of the Public Safety Bill(1928) aimed
at empowering the Government to deport
undesirable and subversive foreigners

Decline of Swaraj Party

www.sleepyclasses.com 440 1800-890-3043

ˆ After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, SIMON COMMISSION (1927)
the Swaraj Party started weakening.
ˆ The Swarajists were also split by communalism.
The ‘responsivist’ group including Madan
Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and N.C.
Kelkar offered cooperation to the government to
safeguard Hindu interests.
ˆ The Swarajists finally walked out of legislature in
1930 as a result of the Lahore congress resolution
and the beginning of the civil disobedience
movement. The two sections were reunited in
1930 after the Lahore session.

IMPORTANCE OF SWARAJ PARTY

ˆ Great achievement of Swaraj Party lay in their
filling the political void at a time when the
National Movement was recouping its strength
and this they did without getting co-opted by the
colonial regime. ˆ In 1927, the British government appointed
Simon Commission to look into the working of
ˆ They worked in the legislatures in an orderly
the Government of India Act, 1919. All its seven
disciplined manner and withdrew from them
members were Englishmen.
whenever the call came.
ˆ Almost all the political parties including the
ˆ Above all, they showed that it was possible to
Congress opposed the Commission because
use the legislatures in a creative manner even
there was no Indian member in the commission.
as they promoted the politics of self-reliant anti-
imperialism. ˆ On 3 February 1928 when the Commission
reached Bombay, a general hartal was observed
ˆ They also successfully exposed the hollowness of
all over the country and were greeted with black
the Reforms Act of 1919 and showed the people
flags and the cries of ‘Simon go back’.
that India was being ruled by ‘Lawless Laws’.

PYQ
Q. The people of India agitated against the arrival
of Simon Commission because
(a) Indians never wanted the review of the
working of the Act of 1919
(b) Simon Commission recommended the
ˆ The time when the No-Changers were busy in
abolition of Dyarchy (Diarchy) in the
the constructive programme and Gandhi was
Provinces
leading an isolated life, the Swarajists took over
the command of the National Movement. (c) there was no Indian member in the Simon
Commission
ˆ Even the Simon Commission, accepted that, at
that time it was only the Swaraj Party which was (d) the Simon Commission suggested the
an organised and disciplined party having well partition of the country.
defined objectives and programmes. Answer : C

www.sleepyclasses.com 441 1800-890-3043

 Q. With reference to Simon Commission’s
recommendations, which one of the following
statements is correct ?
(a) It recommended the replacement of diarchy
with responsible government in the provinces
(b) It proposed the setting up of interprovincial
council under the home department
(c) It suggested the abolition of bicameral
legislature at the centre
(d) It recommended the creation of Indian
Police Service with a provision for increased
pay and allowances for British recruits as
SIMON COMMISSION (1927) compared to Indian recruits
Answer : A
Q. The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crime Act
(1919) was popularly known as the:
(a) Rowlatt Act (b) Pitt’s India Act
(c) Indian Arms Act (d) Ilbert Bill
Answer : A

ˆ At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-

Simon Commission demonstration on 30 October
1928 under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. In
this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously
injured in the police lathi charge and he passed
away after one month.
ˆ The report of the Simon Commission was
published in May 1930.
Q. Who among the following Gandhian followers
ˆ It was stated that the constitutional experiment
was a teacher by profession?
with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in its place
the report recommended the establishment of (a) AN Sinha
autonomous government. (b) Braj Kishore Prasad
ˆ The Simon Commission Report became the basis (c) J B Kriplani
for enactment of the Government of India Act of (d) Rajendra Prasad
1935. Answer : C

www.sleepyclasses.com 442 1800-890-3043

J B KRIPLANI
ˆ The report had a different chapter on minority
rights apart from the Fundamental Rights.

ˆ Following his education at Fergusson College

in Pune, Kriplani worked as a schoolteacher
ˆ During the presentation of the report before the
before joining the freedom movement following
All Parties Convention in Calcutta, a violent
Gandhi’s return from South Africa.
clash took place between Jinnah (representing
ˆ He was a professor of English and History. the Muslim League) and M.R. Jayakar (who put
Kriplani came in contact with Gandhi in 1917 forth the Hindu Mahasabha viewpoint) on the
during Champaran Satyagraha. former’s demand of one-third of the total seats in
the central legislatures for Muslims.
NEHRU REPORT (1928)
ˆ Consequently, Jinnah’s proposed amendments
ˆ The Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead,
were overwhelmingly out-voted and the Report
challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution
proved to be a non-starter and became a mere
that would be acceptable to all.
historical document.
ˆ The challenge was accepted by the Congress,
Q. With reference to the period of Indian freedom
which convened an all party meeting on 28
struggle, which of the following was/were
February 1928.
recommended by the Nehru report ?
ˆ A committee consisting of eight was constituted 1. Complete Independence for India.
to draw up a blueprint for the future Constitution
2. Joint electorates for reservation of seats for
of India. It was headed by Motilal Nehru.
minorities.
ˆ The committee comprised of Tej Bahadur Sapru,
3. Provision of fundamental rights for the
Ali Imam, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Shoaib
people of India in the Constitution.
Querishi, G.R. Pradhan and Subhash Chandra
Bose. Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
ˆ The Report favoured:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
ƒ Dominion Status as the next immediate step.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
ƒ Full responsible government at the centre. Answer : B
ƒ Autonomy to the provinces.
ƒ Clear cut division of power between the centre
and the provinces.
ƒ A bicameral legislature at the centre.

www.sleepyclasses.com 443 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Rejecting the Nehru Report, he maintained that
no scheme for the future Government of India
would be acceptable to the Muslims until and
unless following basic principle were given
effect to:
1. India required a federal system and
Constitution in which the Provinces would
have complete autonomy and residuary
powers.
2. All legislatures and other elected bodies
should be constituted on the principle of
JINNAH’S FOURTEEN POINTS adequate representation of minorities in
every Province.
3. A uniform measure of autonomy should be
granted to all Provinces.
4. In the Central legislature, Muslim
representation should not be less than one-
third.
5. The Representation of groups through the
system of separate electorate should continue.
6. Any future territorial redistribution should
not affect the Muslim majority in Punjab,
Bengal and the North-West Frontier Province.
ˆ The leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad 7. Full religious liberty should be granted to all
Ali Jinnah regarded some aspects of Nehru communities.
Report as detrimental to the interests of the 8. No bill should be passed in any elected
Muslims. body if three-fourth of the members of any
ˆ Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the community in that particular body were to
Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen oppose such a bill.
Points as Muslim League demand. 9. Sindh should be separated from the Bombay
ˆ At a meeting of the Muslim league in Delhi in Presidency.
March 28, 1929, M. A. Jinnah announced his 10. Reforms should be introduced in the North-
‘fourteen Points.’ West Frontier Provinces and Baluchistan as
in other Provinces.
11. Muslims should be given an adequate share
in all the services.
12. Adequate safeguards should be provided for
the protection of Muslim culture.
13. No Cabinet should be formed without at
least one-third Muslim ministers.
14. No change should be made in the
Constitution except without the concurrence
of the federation States.

www.sleepyclasses.com 444 1800-890-3043

COMPARISON INDEPENDENCE FOR INDIA LEAGUE

ˆ When the Nehru Report came before the annual

session of the Congress in Calcutta in December
CONCLUSION OF NEHRU REPORT 1928, the left lashed it out on the fact that it did
not want the complete Independence and wanted
only a dominion status.
ˆ Meanwhile, the “Independence for India
League” was formed with Jawahar Lal Nehru
and Subhash Chandra Bose as Secretaries and S.
Srinivasa Iyengar as President.

THE NON COOPERATION KHILAFAT

MOVEMENT
ˆ Gandhi declared that if the non-cooperation
ˆ Not only were the Muslim League, the Hindu programme was implemented completely,
Mahasabha and the Sikh communalists unhappy swaraj would be ushered in within a year.
about the Nehru Report, but the younger section ˆ Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant and B.C.
of the Congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Pal left the Congress as they believed in a
Subhash Bose were also angered. constitutional and lawful struggle while some
ˆ They expressed their dissatisfaction with the others like Surendranath Banerjee founded the
dominion status as the goal of Congress. Indian National Liberal Federation.
ˆ Instead, they demanded that the Congress adopt REACTION
purna swaraj or complete independence as its
ˆ Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the NCM
goal.
movement came as a shock to many Congressman
Q. The radical wing of the Congress Party with who even protested against the withdrawal.
Jawaharlal Nehru as one of its main leaders,
ˆ Most of the senior leaders like Motilal Nehru,
founded the Independence for India League in
CR Das, Subhash Chandra Bose could not
opposition to :
understand why the entire country has to pay
(a) the Finance Commission the price for erroneous behaviour of some people
(b) the National Development Council in a remote village.
(c) Nehru Report ˆ Feeling betrayed, a section of leaders had stated
(d) the Constitution of India to question the very efficacy of the Gandhian
Answer : C methods.

www.sleepyclasses.com 445 1800-890-3043

 ƒ Subash Chandra Bose, in his autobiography FORMATION OF SWARAJ PARTY
“The Indian Struggle” called it a ‘National (1ST JANUARY 1923)
Calamity’. ˆ No Changers - They denounced the idea of
council entry and wanted the congress to focus
on constructive programs alone.
ƒ They were effectively led by Gandhi (in jail
now) and included C.Rajagopalacharia,
Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel,
Jawaharlal Nehru and MA Ansari.
FORMATION OF SWARAJ PARTY

www.sleepyclasses.com 446 1800-890-3043

 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

DELHI MANIFESTO
ˆ On November 2, 1929, a conference of prominent
national leaders issued a “Delhi Manifesto”
which demanded:
ˆ that the purpose of the Round Table Conferences
(RTC), promised by Lord Irwin, should be to
formulate a scheme for implementation of the
dominion status
ˆ that the Congress should have majority
representation at the conference

LAHORE SESSION (1929)

ˆ Jawaharlal Nehru was nominated the president
for the Lahore session of the Congress (December
1929).
ˆ The following major decisions were taken at the
Lahore session-
ˆ the Round Table Conferences to be boycotted
ˆ Complete independence declared as the aim of
the Congress
ˆ CWC authorised to launch a programme of civil
ˆ Viceroy Irwin rejected these demands on disobedience including non-payment of taxes
December 23, 1929, which led to the demand of and all members of legislatures asked to resign
Purna swaraj in Lahore session of INC. from their seats
ˆ January 26, 1930 fixed as the first Independence
Day, to be celebrated everywhere.

www.sleepyclasses.com 447 1800-890-3043

 ˆ Release political prisoners
ˆ Change Arms Act
ˆ Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent
ˆ Abolish salt tax and government’s salt monopoly
ˆ Ultimatum of January 31, 1930 to accept or reject
these demands

POINTS OF PROMINENCE
ˆ December 31, 1929, at midnight on the banks of
River Ravi, the newly adopted tricolour flag of
freedom was hoisted amidst slogans of Inquilab
Zindabad.
ˆ On January 26, 1930, the declaration of purna PYQ
swaraj was publicly issued.
Q. During the Indian freedom struggle, who
ˆ Nehru made an appeal to volunteers across the among the following proposed that Swaraj
country to join the civil disobedience movement should be defined as complete independence
in which his 12 year old daughter, Indira was the free from all foreign control?
first to volunteer.
(a) Mazharul Haque
(b) Maulana Hasrat Mohani
(c) Hakim Ajmal Khan
(d) Abul Kalam Azad
Answer: B

HASRAT MOHANI
ˆ Maulana Hasrat Mohani proposed that Swaraj
should be defined as complete independence
free from all foreign control in 1921 when he was
presiding over the session of All India Muslim
League in Lucknow.
Q. When Congress leaders condemned the
Montagu-Chelmsford Report, many moderates
left the party to form the:
(a) Swarajya Party
SOME IMPORTANT DEMANDS FOLLOWING (b) Indian Freedom Party
LAHORE SESSION
(c) Independence Federation of India
ˆ Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services
(d) Indian Liberal Federation
by 50 per cent

www.sleepyclasses.com 448 1800-890-3043

Answer: D

INDIAN LIBERAL FEDERATION

ˆ When Congress leaders condemned the
Montagu-Chelmsford Report (July, 1918),
many moderates led by Surendra Nath Banerjee
left the party to form Indian Liberal Federation
in 1919.
ˆ Some of its prominent leaders were Tej
Bahadur Sapru, V. S. Srinivasa Sastri and M. R.
Jayakar.
Q. Assertion (A): In 1916, Maulana Mohammad
Ali and Abul Kalam Azad resigned from the
Legislative Council.
Reason (R): The Rowlatt Act was passed by
the Government in spite of being opposed
by all Indian members of the Legislative
Council.
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Answer: D
AL-HILAL
Explanation
ˆ Rowlatt Act was passed in March, 1919. The ˆ Al-Hilal was a newspaper established by Indian
act authorized the government to imprison any leader Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and used as a
person without trial and conviction in a court medium for criticism of the British Raj in India.
of law. Maulana Mohd. Ali and Abul Kalam ˆ The newspaper also espoused the cause of the
Azad resigned from the legislative council in Indian independence movement and exhorted
1919 during the Khilafat Movement and not in Indian Muslims to join the movement. The
1916. newspaper was shut down under the Press Act
of 1914.
Journal & Publication (PYQ)
Q. Which one of the following was a journal
brought out by Abul Kalam Azad?
(a) Al-Hilal
(b) Comrade
(c) The Indian Sociologist
(d) Zamindar
Answer: A

www.sleepyclasses.com 449 1800-890-3043

BACK TO CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT WHY SALT SO CRUCIAL IN “CDM”?
ˆ The government did not give any positive ˆ It was a commodity required by all and the poor
response to Gandhi’s 11 demands. people were hurt because of the salt tax.
ˆ In February 1930, the Congress working ˆ Indians had been making salt from seawater free
Committee gave full powers to Mahatma Gandhi of cost until the passing of the 1882 Salt Act that
to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement at a gave the British monopoly over the production
place and time of his choice. of salt and authority to impose a salt tax. It was a
ˆ By end of February 1930, Gandhiji began to talk criminal offence to violate the salt act.
about the salt tax and made it the main issue to ˆ As Gandhi said, “There is no other article
launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. like salt, outside water, by taxing which the
Government can reach the starving millions, the
sick, the maimed and the utterly helpless. It is
the most inhuman poll tax the ingenuity of man
can devise.“
ˆ Salt in a flash linked the ideal of swaraj with a
most concrete and universal grievance of the
rural poor.
ˆ Salt afforded a paltry but psychologically
important income, like khadi, for the poor
through self-help.
Q. At which Congress session was the working ˆ Like khadi, again, it offered to the urban adherents
committee authorised to launch a programme the opportunity of a symbolic identification with
of Civil Disobedience? mass suffering.
(a) Bombay (b) Lahore ˆ Gandhiji also hoped to unite Hindus and Muslims
(c) Lucknow (d) Tripuri as the cause was common to both groups.
Answer: A ˆ The salt tax accounted for 8.2% of the British Raj
revenue from tax and Gandhiji knew that the
LAHORE
government could not ignore this.
ˆ At Lahore session (1929, President - J.L. Nehru)
the working committee was authorised to launch DANDI MARCH
a programme of Civil Disobedience. ˆ On 2nd March 1930 Gandhi wrote his historic
letter to Lord Irwin, firstly, he explained why he
regarded the British raj in India as the reason for
the misery of people of India. Then he informed
Lord Irwin of his plans about breaking the salt
law.

www.sleepyclasses.com 450 1800-890-3043

ˆ He wrote in his letter that the government can
arrest him, but after his arrest thousands of his
followers will follow him in the act of disobeying
the salt law.
ˆ Gandhiji launched his Dandi march on March
12, and he reached Dandi on 6th April. He broke
the salt law by picking up a handful of salt and
SPREAD OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
with this the civil disobedience movement began
which saw countrywide mass participation. ˆ Around 60,000 people including Gandhiji himself
were arrested by the government.
ˆ The progress of his march and his speeches were
covered by the newspapers all over the country. ˆ There was widespread civil disobedience carried
In answer to his appeal 300 government officials on by the people. Apart from the salt tax, other
resigned in Gujarat. The Congress workers looked unpopular tax laws were being defied like the
after the organisational work and broadcasted forest laws, chowkidar tax, land tax, etc.
the speeches of Gandhi, throughout the country. ˆ The government tried to suppress the movement
with more laws and censorship.
ˆ The Congress Party was declared illegal. But this
did not deter the satyagrahis who continued the
movement.
ˆ There were some incidents of violence in
Calcutta and Karachi but Gandhiji did not call
off the movement, unlike the previous time with
the non-cooperation movement.

www.sleepyclasses.com 451 1800-890-3043

 PYQ
Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists :
[1997]
List-I (Events) List-II (Results)
A. Morley Minto 1. Country-wise
agitation Reforms
B. Simon Commission 2. Withdrawal of a
movement ˆ In Assam, A powerful agitation was organised
C. Chauri-Chaura 3. Communal against the infamous ‘Cunningham circular’
electorates incident which forced parents, guardians and students to
furnish assurances of good behaviour.
D. Dandi March 4. Communal
outbreaks ˆ In Peshawar, the Satyagraha was organised and
5. Illegal led by Gandhiji’s disciple, Ghaffar Khan. In April
manufactures of salt 1930 he was arrested. Khan’s followers (called
Khudai Khidmatgars) whom he had trained in
Codes:
Satyagraha had gathered in a marketplace called
(a) A – 3; B – 4; C – 5; D – 2 the Qissa Khwani Bazaar. There they were fired
(b) A – 4; B – 1; C – 2; D – 3 at by the British Indian Army despite being
(c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 5 unarmed.
(d) A – 3; B – 1; C – 2; D – 5
Answer: D

PROMINENT REGIONS OF CIVIL DISOBEDI-

ENCE
ˆ C Rajagopalachari led a Salt march on the
southeast coast from Trichy to Vedaranyam in
Tamil Nadu. He too was arrested for making salt.
ˆ K Kelappan led a march in the Malabar region
from Calicut to Payyanur.
ˆ There were similar marches and salt was
produced illegally in Andhra Pradesh.

ˆ Thousands of women also took part in the

Satyagraha.
ˆ Foreign clothes were boycotted. Liquour shops
were picketed. There were strikes all over.
ˆ On May 21, 1930, there was a protest against the
Dharasana Salt Works by peaceful non-violent
protestors led by Sarojini Naidu. The police lathi-
charged the protestors brutally and it resulted in
the deaths of 2 people with several others being

www.sleepyclasses.com 452 1800-890-3043

 injured. This event was reported in the international media and there was a condemnation of British
policies followed in India.

These campaigns faced severe repression and

confiscation of property.
ˆ Manipur and Nagaland also saw the effect of civil
disobedience movement. In Manipur, Rani Gaidinliu
at the young age of 13 years led the Revolt against
the British. She was arrested in 1932 and given the
sentence of life imprisonment.

SPREAD OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

ˆ Bihar is a landlocked area, so Salt Satyagraha was
not possible here. Here, the people organised a
different kind of movement by refusing to pay
the chowkidari tax. The demand was made for
the resignation of chowkidars and members of
panchayats who had the responsibility to appoint
these chowkidars.
ˆ The anti chowkidari tax campaign was successful
in areas of Bhagalpur, Monghyr and Saran. The METHODS OF MOBILISATION IN “CDM”
government responded by confiscating the ˆ The mass mobilization was done with the help of
properties of worth hundreds and thousands for Prabhat ferries, Vanar senas, secret patrikas, and
just few rupees of tax and the people also faced Manjari senas which had girls as their members.
beatings and tortures by the police.
ˆ Magic Lantern shows were organised to create
awareness among the masses against the British.

GOV.’S REACTION TO “CDM”

ˆ The anti Chowkidari tax campaign was also
ˆ The government response was ambivalent as
adopted by the people of Bengal after the onset
it did unnecessary delay in arresting Gandhi.
of monsoon, as it became difficult to make salt.
It played the card that nonintervention of

www.sleepyclasses.com 453 1800-890-3043

 government would make Gandhi’s plan a failure,
but the opposite happened.
ˆ Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested on 14th April
for breaking the salt law. This lead to huge
demonstrations and protests in Madras, Calcutta
and Karachi. On May 4, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi
was arrested after his announcement about his
intentions to lead a raid to Dharasana Salt works.
ˆ The government faced the dilemma that if it
applied force then its image suffered and the DRAWBACKS OF “CDM”
Congress cried repression and if it did not
ˆ The participation of Muslims was less due to
do much, the Congress cried victory. Thus in
the advice of the communal leaders and the
both ways, the hegemony of British Indian
government’s efforts to push communalism as
government was getting eroded.
response to nationalism.
ˆ But once British gov. began repression, the
ˆ Industrial workers didn’t participate in large
ordinances were used to acquire draconian
number except in Nagpur.
powers to repress civil liberties, press and for
banning civil disobedience organisations. ˆ The movement did not procure any major
concessions from the government.
ˆ The police did Lathi charge and firings on the
peaceful and nonviolent crowd. Several people ˆ Inspite of all these drawbacks, The civil
were killed and injured, while more than 60000 disobedience movement was recognised to
people were arrested during the movement. be the most popular and organized mass
movement of the freedom struggle.
ˆ In simple words, British government was
shaken by the movement. Also, its non-violent
nature made it difficult for them to suppress the PYQ
movement violently.
Q. In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi started Civil
IMPACTS OF “CDM” Disobedience Movement from:
ˆ It pushed Indian freedom struggle into the (a) Sevagram (b) Dandi
limelight in western media. (c) Sabarmati (d) Wardha
ˆ It brought a lot of people including women and Answer: C
the depressed classes directly in touch with the
freedom movement. ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES (RTCS)

ˆ It showed the power of the non-violent ˆ The Simon commission submitted the report but
Satyagraha as a tool in fighting imperialism. no mention was made in it of dominion status.
This infuriated the moderates.
ˆ Import of foreign cloth, liquor fell
ˆ First Round Table Conference (November
ˆ Government revenue from cigarettes and rent
1930-January 1931): Congress and most business
was affected.
leaders‘ boycotted the First RTC and continued
with CDM
ˆ Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the
Liberals and princes attended.
ˆ Gandhiji was released from prison in Jan. 1931
and he met with Lord Irwin who was keen to put

www.sleepyclasses.com 454 1800-890-3043

 an end to the civil disobedience movement and
the media attention it had caught.

RTCS & GANDHI-IRWIN PACT

ˆ Meeting between the Viceroy and Gandhi @
Delhi (5 March 1931)
ˆ Under this pact all political prisoners not arrested
for violence were released.
ˆ The confiscated lands not yet sold were returned,
government employees who had resigned were
given leniency, the making of salt was allowed
on coastal villages and non violent picketing was
allowed. PYQ
ˆ Congress also agreed to withdraw the civil
Q. With reference to the Indian freedom struggle,
disobedience. They would also participate in
which one of the following statements is not
the second round table conference.
correct?
(a) The Rowlatt Act aroused a wave of popular
indignation and led to the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre
(b) Subhas Chandra Bose formed the Forward
Bloc
(c) Bhagat Singh was one of the founders of
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
ˆ Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table (d) In 1931, the Congress Session at Karachi
Conference in London as an ‘equal’. opposed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact
ˆ However, the decision of not returning land Answer: D
of those who had lost it to third party and no
decision on commutation of death penalty of
Bhagat Singh and others was criticized.
ˆ The congress met in Karachi after the pact was
signed to endorse it and let Gandhiji participate
in the second round table conference.
ˆ Gandhiji went to attend the second round table
conference in London. The British political
opinion was against giving any concessions to
India.
RESULT OF RTCS
ˆ The government had handpicked communalists,
careerist, landlord, bureaucrats for the round
table conference. It wanted to show that congress
didn’t represent majority.
ˆ At the conference the British refused to concede

www.sleepyclasses.com 455 1800-890-3043

 the demand for freedom. Hence Gandhiji OVERVIEW OF RTCS
returned empty handed. ˆ The Round Table Conferences were a series
ˆ The British policy meanwhile had changed and of three conferences conducted by the Labour
their stance hardened. The new policy discarded Party-led British government to deliberate upon
all truce provisions and declared Gandhiji and bring about constitutional reforms in British
couldn’t be treated as equal with the government. India during 1930-32.
ˆ Also it had prepared for a showdown with ˆ There were three such conferences. The First
the nationalists to prevent any revival of the Round Table Conference was held between
movement. The government had armed itself November 1930 and January 1931 in London.
with draconian ordinances and martial law. It
had unleashed brutality on peaceful picketers.
Thousands were arrested and put in jails.
Q. During the Indian freedom struggle, the Khudai
Khidmatgars, also known as Red Shirts called
for:
(a) the Union of Pakhtun tribal areas in north-
west with the Afghanistan
(b) the adoption of terrorist tactics and methods
for terrorising and finally ousting the colonial
rulers
(c) the adoption of communist revolution
ideology for political and social reform FIRST RTC (NOV. 1930-JAN. 1931)
(d) the Pathan regional nationalist unity and a
ˆ The conferences were based on the
struggle against colonialism.
recommendations of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to
Answer: D Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India and James
KHUDAI KHIDMATGARS Ramsay MacDonald, the then British Prime
Minister, and the Simon Commission report.
ˆ Khudai Khidmatgars were organized by Khan
ˆ It was for the first time that the Indians and
Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi). Khudai
the British were meeting as ‘equals’. The first
Khidmatgar literally translates as the servants of
conference started on November 12th, 1930.
God, represented a non-violent freedom struggle
ˆ Participants in the First Round Table
against the British Empire by the Pashtuns (also
Conference
known as Pathans, Pakhtuns or Afghans) of the
North-West Frontier Province. ƒ 58 political leaders from British India.
ƒ 16 delegates from the native princely states.

www.sleepyclasses.com 456 1800-890-3043

ˆ The Indian National Congress decided not to EFFECTS OF THE FIRST ROUND TABLE CON-
participate in the conference. Many of the INC FERENCE
leaders were imprisoned due to their involvement ˆ The First Round Table Conference lasted till 19th
in the civil disobedience movement. January 1931.
ˆ Among the British-Indians, the following ˆ Although many principles on reforms were
representatives attended the conference: Muslim agreed upon, not much was implemented and the
League, Hindus, Justice Party, Sikhs, liberals, Congress Party carried on its civil disobedience.
Parsis, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, The Conference was regarded as a failure.
landlords, labour, women, universities, Sindh,
ˆ The British government understood the
Burma, other provinces, and the representatives
importance and the need for the Congress Party
from the Government of India.
to make any decision on India’s political future.

SECOND RTC (SEP. 1931-DEC. 1931)

Participants of the Second Round table conference
ˆ British delegates belonging to various political
parties including the British Prime Minister,
James Ramsay Macdonald.
ˆ Indian princely states represented by Maharajas,
princes and divans.
ˆ Indian National Congress (INC) – Mahatma
Gandhi, Rangaswami Iyengar, Madan Mohan
Malaviya
ˆ Muslims – Md. Ali Jinnah, Aga Khan III,
Muhammad Iqbal, etc.
ˆ Depressed classes – Dr B R Ambedkar
ˆ Women – Sarojini Naidu, etc.
ˆ Liberals, Justice Party, Sikhs, Indian Christians,
Parsis, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, industry,
labour, landlords, Burma, Sindh and other
provinces.

OUTCOME
ˆ The session started on 7 September 1931. The
MAJOR ISSUES DISCUSSED IN THE FIRST
major difference between the first and the second
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
conference was that the INC was participating
ˆ Dr B R Ambedkar demanded separate electorates in the second one. This was one of the results of
for the ‘untouchables’. the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
ˆ Tej Bahadur Sapru moved the idea of an All-India ˆ Another difference was that unlike the previous
Federation. This was supported by the Muslim time, British PM Macdonald was heading not a
League. The princely states also supported this
on the condition that their internal sovereignty
is maintained.

www.sleepyclasses.com 457 1800-890-3043

 Labour government, but a National government.
The Labour Party had been toppled two weeks
before in Britain.
ˆ In this conference, Gandhi and Ambedkar
differed on the issue of separate electorates
for the depressed classes. Gandhi was against
treating depressed classes as separate from the
Hindu community. This issue was resolved
through the Poona Pact of 1932.
ˆ The British decided to grant a communal ˆ Poona Pact was signed by B.R. Ambedkar in
award for representing minorities in India by September, 1932. The pact abandoned separate
providing for separate electorates for minority electorates for the depressed classes. But the seats
communities. Gandhi was against this. reserved for the depressed classes were increased
in provincial as well as Central legislatures.
POONA PACT (SEP. 1932 ˆ Contrary to popular belief, Gandhi was not
involved in signing the pact.
ˆ It was made on 24 September 1932 at Yerwada
Central Jail in Poona, India. It was signed by
Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes
and Madan Mohan Malviya on behalf of upper
caste Hindus and Gandhi.
ˆ Pact intended to end the fast that Gandhi was
undertaking in jail as a protest against the decision
by British prime minister Ramsay MacDonald to
give separate electorates to depressed classes for
the election of members of provincial legislative
) assemblies in British India.

IMPORTANT PROVISIONS
ˆ There shall be electoral seats reserved for the
Depressed Classes out of general electorate.
ˆ Election to these seats shall be by joint electorate.
ˆ In the Central Legislature, 18% of the seats
allotted to the general electorate for British India
in the said legislature shall be reserved for the
Depressed Classes.
ˆ The system of representation of Depressed
Classes by reserved seats in the Provincial
and Central Legislatures shall continue until
determined otherwise by mutual agreement
between the communities concerned in this
settlement.

www.sleepyclasses.com 458 1800-890-3043

ˆ Franchise for the Central and Provincial Legislatures THIRD RTC (NOV. 1932-DEC. 1932)
of the Depressed Classes shall be as indicated, in ˆ The third Round Table Conference took place
the Lothian Committee Report. between 17 November 1932 and 24 December
1932.

PARTICIPANTS OF THE THIRD ROUND TA-

BLE CONFERENCE
ˆ Only 46 delegates in total took part in this
conference.
ˆ The INC and the Labour Party decided not to
attend it. (The INC wasn’t invited).
ˆ Indian princely states were represented by
princes and divans.
PYQ OUTCOME
Q. Mahatma Gandhi undertook fast unto death in ˆ Not much was achieved in this conference also.
1932, mainly because
ˆ The recommendations of this conference
(a) Round Table Conference failed to satisfy
were published in a White Paper in 1933
Indian political aspirations
and later discussed in the British Parliament.
(b) Congress and Muslim League had differences
The recommendations were analysed and
of opinion
the Government of India Act of 1935 was passed
(c) Ramsay Macdonald announced the on its basis.
Communal Award
(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given
above is correct in this context
Answer: C

SECOND RTC (SEP. 1931-DEC. 1931)

ˆ The second round table conference was deemed
a failure because of the many disagreements
among the participants.
ˆ While the INC claimed to speak for the whole
of the country, other participants and leaders of
other parties contested this claim.

PYQ
Q. The meeting of Indian and British political
leaders during 1930–32 in London has often
been referred to as the First, Second and Third
Round Table Conferences. It would be incorrect
to refer to them as such because:
(a) the Indian National Congress did not take
part in two of them
(b) Indian parties other than the Indian National

www.sleepyclasses.com 459 1800-890-3043

 Congress, participating in the conference congress to be reorganized with new leader.
represented sectional interests and not the But the decision was due to the fact that people
whole of India needed to rest and regroup for the next fight.
(c) the British Labour Party had withdrawn They had not lost their faith in congress yet.
from the conference thereby making the
PHASES OF “CDM”
proceeding of the conference partisan
(d) It was an instance of a conference held in ˆ First Phase: March 12, 1930– March 5, 1931
three session and not that of three separate ˆ Gandhi-Irwin Pact: March 5, 1931; Gandhi
conference attends the Second Round Table Conference in
Answer: D London as sole representative of the Congress
(September 7-December 1, 1931)
2ND PHASE OF “CDM”
ˆ Second Phase: January 3, 1932– April 17, 1934
ˆ When Gandhiji landed back, the congress
working committee had called for a meeting
to discuss the revival of civil disobedience.
ˆ On December 29, 1931, CWC decided to resume
the civil disobedience movement.
ˆ But government arrested all top leaders of the
congress. The draconian ordinances passed were
to establish martial law.

Q. With reference to colonial period of Indian

history, match List-I (Person) with List-II
ˆ On January 4, 1932, Gandhiji was arrested (Event) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the lists: [2002]
ˆ Non violent protestors were brutally oppressed.
List-I (Person) List-II (Events)
No tax and no rent campaigns were treated with
harshness. A. Macdonald 1. Doctrine of Lapse
ˆ Though the people fought back the leaders B. Linlithgow 2. Communal Award
couldn’t build a tempo and the movement was C. Dalhousie 3. August Offer
crushed. In all the second phase of the civil D. Chelmsford 4. Dyarchy
disobedience movement lingered till April 1934 Codes:
and then was withdrawn by Gandhiji.
(a) A – 3; B – 2; C – 1; D – 4
ˆ Many leader like SC Bose and Vithalbhai Patel (b) A – 3; B – 2; C – 4; D – 1
criticized Gandhiji’s decision. They wanted the

www.sleepyclasses.com 460 1800-890-3043

 (c) A – 2; B – 3; C – 1; D – 4
(d) A – 2; B – 3; C – 4; D – 1
Answer: C

ˆ At the session, Congress passed resolution

dissociating itself and disapproving the policy
of political violence in any form. The resolution
was drafted by Mahatma Gandhi which admired
Q. The Poona Pact which was signed between the the bravery and sacrifice of the 3 Martyrs- Bhagat
British Government and Mahatma Gandhi in Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru.
1934 provided for:
ˆ The Congress also endorsed the Gandhi Irwin
(a) creation of dominion status for India
pact and also reiterated its goal of Purna Swaraj
(b) separate electorates for the Muslims or complete Independence from the British.
(c) separate electorate for the Harijans ˆ In the Karachi Session 1931, Indian National
(d) joint electorate with reservation for Harijans Congress adopted two resolutions, one on
Answer: D fundamental rights and other on the national
economic programme which made the Karachi
KARACHI CONGRESS SESSION (1931) resolution memorable.
ˆ The Karachi Congress Session 1931 was presided ˆ The Karachi Congress Session 1931 spelled out
over by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. It was a special for the first time what Swaraj would mean for the
session of Indian National Congress held at masses. Session remained an important aspect of
Karachi from March 26 to 31 in 1931 to endorse the basic political and economic programme of
the Gandhi Irwin Pact. Indian National Congress in the later years.
ˆ Just few days before the Karachi session of Q. For the Karachi session of Indian National
congress 1931, the British had executed Bhagat Congress in 1931 presided over by Sardar Patel,
Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru. So there was who drafted the Resolution on Fundamental
widespread anger among the masses for the Rights and Economic Programme?
failure of Gandhi to secure commutation of the (a) Mahatma Gandhi
death sentence for Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and
(b) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
Rajguru.
(c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(d) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Answer: B

www.sleepyclasses.com 461 1800-890-3043

 SATYAGRAHA AT DIFFERENT PLACE IN IN-
DIA(CDM)
ˆ Bengal - Midnapur, Arambagh and several
rural pockets witnessed powerful movements
developed around salt satyagraha and chaukidari
tax.
ƒ During the same period, Surya Sen’s
Chittagong revolt group carried out a raid on
two armouries and declared the establishment
of a provisional government.

EXTENT OF MASS PARTICIPATION(CDM)

ˆ Women - They became a familiar sight, picketing
outside liquor shops, opium dens and shops
selling foreign cloth. For Indian women, the
movement was the most liberating experience.
ƒ The participation of women in revolutionary
activities in Bengal met with sharp criticism.
Rabindranath Tagore, wrote a novel Char
Adhyaya in which he condemned the
unfeminine role of women.
ˆ Students - Along with women, students and
youth played the most prominent part in the
boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.
ˆ Muslims - The Muslim participation was
nowhere near the 1920-22 level because of
RECAP & ADDITIONAL POINTS appeals by Muslim leaders to stay away from
RESPONSE OF OTHERS TO GANDHI’S ELEV- the movement and because of active government
EN POINTS encouragement to communal dissension.
ˆ Many Nationalist Leaders looked at the Eleven
Points as a climb down from the demand of
Purna Swaraj.
ˆ Further, Government response was out rightly
negative and Lord Irwin made no assurance for
acceptance of Gandhi’s Eleven Points -
ƒ Gandhi wrote “On bended knees I asked
for bread and received a stone instead. The
English nation responds only to force and I
am not surprised by the viceregal reply”.

www.sleepyclasses.com 462 1800-890-3043

 MODERN HISTORY

Indian National Movement -

section favoured resumption and continuation
Post CDM of non-constitutionalist mass struggle, because
the situation was still revolutionary owing to
STRATEGIC DEBATES FOLLOWING WITH- continued economic crisis and the readiness of
DRAWAL OF “CDM” the masses to fight.
There was a two-stage debate on the future strategy
of the nationalists—
1. Firstly, what course the national movement
should take in the immediate future, i.e., during
the phase of non mass struggle (1934-35), and
2. Secondly, in 1937, over the question of office
acceptance in the context of provincial elections
held under the autonomy provisions of the
Government of India Act, 1935.
FIRST STAGE DEBATE
ˆ One group of the Congress suggested that there
should be constructive work on Gandhian lines.
ˆ The second line of thought suggested that there
should be a constitutional struggle and Congress
should participate in elections to the Central
Legislative, which were due in 1934. This was
advocated by M.A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Bhulabhai
Desai, S. Satyamurti and B.C. Roy among others.
ˆ They pointed out that in a period when
Congressmen are impassive, participation in
elections and work in the council could be utilised
At this stage two major perspectives were put to keep up the political interest and morale of the
forward : people.

1. There should be constructive work on Gandhian

lines. There should be constitutional struggle
and participation in elections to the Central
Legislature (due in 1934).
2. A strong leftist trend within the Congress
represented by Nehru was critical of both
constructive work and council entry in place
of the suspended civil disobedience movement
as that would sidetrack political mass action ˆ The third perspective was represented by a
and divert attention from the main issue of strong leftist trend within the Congress, which
struggle against colonialism. Instead, this was represented by Nehru and was critical of

www.sleepyclasses.com 463 1800-890-3043

 both constructive work and council entry in place wheel as the “second lung of the nation”. The
of the suspended Civil Disobedience Movement. socialists led by Nehru also had differences with
ˆ Instead, this section favoured redemption Gandhi. In October, 1934, Gandhi announced his
and continuation of non-constitutionalist resignation from the Congress to serve it better
mass struggle because the situation was still in thought, word and deed.
revolutionary owing to continued economic ˆ Meanwhile, In the elections to the Central
crisis and the readiness of the masses to fight. Legislative Assembly held in November 1934,
the Congress captured 45 out of 75 seats reserved
for Indians.

SECOND STAGE DEBATE

ˆ In early 1937, elections to the provincial
assemblies were announced and once again
the debate on the future strategy to be adopted
began.
ˆ Everyone agreed that the Government of India
Act, 1935 was to be opposed root and branch but
it was not clear how it was to be done in a period
when a mass movement was not yet possible.
ˆ There was agreement that the Congress should
fight these elections on the basis of a detailed
political and economical programme, thus
ˆ Criticising the S-T-S strategy, Nehru argued that
deepening the anti-imperialist consciousness of
the Indian National Movement had reached a
the people. But what to do after the elections was
stage, after the Lahore Congress call for Purna
not yet clear. If the Congress got majority in a
Swaraj programme, in which there should be
province, was it to agree to form a government?
a continuous confrontation and conflict with
imperialism till it was overthrown. ˆ Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose
and other Congress socialists and communists
ˆ Real power, he said, cannot be won by two annas
were opposed to the idea of office acceptance
and four annas. Nehru suggested a Struggle-
and thereby in the working of the Government
Victory strategy.
of India Act, 1935 because they argued that
ˆ Final decision: Council Entry it would negate the rejection of the Act by the
ƒ In May 1934, the All India Congress Committee nationalists. They felt that it would be like
met at Patna to set up a Parliamentary Board to assuming responsibility without power.
fight elections under the aegis of the Congress ˆ The proponents of office acceptance argued
itself. that they were equally committed to combating
the Government of India Act, 1935. Capture
GANDHIJI RESIGNED FROM THE CONGRESS
or rejection of office was not a danger of being
ˆ Gandhi was aware of that he was out of tune with sucked in by wrong tendencies, but the answer
powerful trends in the Congress. A large section was to fight these tendencies and not to abandon
of the intelligentsia favoured parliamentary offices.
politics with which he was in fundamental
ˆ The administrative field should not be left open
disagreement.
to pro-government reactionary forces. Despite
ˆ Another section was estranged from the Congress limited powers, provincial ministries could be
because of Gandhi’s emphasis on the spinning

www.sleepyclasses.com 464 1800-890-3043

 used to promote constructive work.
SOME COMPARISON

WHAT WAS BAPU THINKING?

ˆ Gandhiji opposed office acceptance in the
Congress Working Committee meetings but by
the beginning of 1936, he was also willing to give
a trial to the formation of Congress ministries.
ˆ In its session held at Faizpur(MH) in Dec. 1936,
the Congress decided to fight elections and
postpone the decision on office acceptance to the
post-election phase.
ˆ In February 1937, elections to the provincial
assemblies were held.

www.sleepyclasses.com 465 1800-890-3043

 PYQ
Q. In which one of the following provinces was a
Congress ministry not formed under the Act of
1935?
(a) Bihar (b) Madras
(c) Orissa (d) Punjab
Answer: D

Q. Which one of the following events, was

characterised by Montague as ‘Preventive
Murder’?
(a) Killing of INA activities
(b) Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh
(c) Shooting of the Mahatma
(d) Shooting of Curzon-Wylie
Answer: B

Q. While delivering the presidential address, PROVINCIAL ELECTIONS OF 1937

the Congress President who advocated the ˆ Congress had majority in most of the provinces.
introduction of Roman script for Hindi Out of the total 11 provinces, Congress formed
language was: ministries in 8 provinces- Madras, UP, Bombay,
(a) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Jawaharlal Nehru Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and
(c) Abul Kalam Azad (d) Subhash Chandra NWFP.
Bose ˆ The All-India Muslim League failed to form
Answer: D government in any province.

www.sleepyclasses.com 466 1800-890-3043

www.sleepyclasses.com 467 1800-890-3043
MUSLIM LEAGUE & 1937 ELECTIONS
ˆ The Muslim League fared relatively badly at the
elections. And, this probably marked the turning
point in its attitude.
ˆ The Muslim League then started complaining of
the maladministration. As a false propaganda,
to malign the image of the Congress, the League
indicted the Congress in the ‘Pirpur Report’ and
the ‘Shareef Report’.

www.sleepyclasses.com 468 1800-890-3043

 PYQ
Q. The most short-lived of all of the Britain’s
constitutional experiments in India was the:
DAY OF DELIVERANCE & PROPAGANDA (a) Indian Council Act of 1861
(b) Indian Council Act of 1892
ˆ When in 1939, the Congress ministers resigned,
(c) Indian Council Act of 1909
Jinnah, leader of the Muslim League proclaimed
a Day of Deliverance. (d) Government of India Act of 1919
Answer: C
ˆ Day of Deliverance- 22nd Dec. 1939

www.sleepyclasses.com 469 1800-890-3043

PYQ In protest, Congress ministries resigned in
(CONSTITUTIONAL EXPERIMENTS) October, 1939.

TIME SPAN OF GIVEN ACTS: 28 MONTHS OF CONGRESS RULE IN

ˆ Indian Councils Act of 1861 – 31 years PROVINCES
ˆ Indian Councils Act of 1892 – 17 years ˆ The Governors in these provinces assumed
ˆ Indian Councils Act of 1909 – 10 years powers by issuing a Proclamation of Emergency.
ˆ Government of India Act 1919 – 16 years
This lasted till the year 1946 when fresh elections
were held.
28 MONTHS OF CONGRESS RULE IN PROV-
INCES ACHIEVEMENTS OF CONGRESS RULE
Why only 28 months? ˆ The Congress ministers in the provinces of UP and
ˆ When World War II broke out in September, Bihar decided to release the political prisoners.
1939, the Government of India declared India to They also lifted the ban on newspapers.
be at war with Germany without consulting the ˆ The ministers tried to give economic relief to the
Congress or the elected members of the Central peasants and the workers.
Legislature. ˆ Legislated a number of laws relating to land
ˆ The Congress Working Committee had decided reforms, debt relief, arrears of rent, land tenure
not to support the War, and called upon the etc.
Congress ministers to resign from their offices as ˆ The ministers paid a lot of attention to primary,
a protest. technical and higher education, public health
ˆ In October, 1939, the Congress ministries and sanitation.
resigned on the war-issue. So, it was only 28 ˆ The ministers worked for the upliftment of
months of Congress rule in provinces. Harijans, children of God as Mahatma Gandhiji
called them.
PYQ ˆ Encouragement was given to khadi and
indigenous enterprises.
Q. The Congress ministries resigned in the seven
ˆ In 1938 National Planning Committee set up
provinces in 1939, because
under congress president Subhash Chandra
(a) the Congress could not form ministries in the Bose.
other four provinces
ˆ Goodwill sought to be created between labour
(b) emergence of a ‘left wing’ in the Congress and capital with mediation of ministries. Efforts
made the working of the ministries impossible were made to improve workers ‘condition and
(c) there were widespread communal secure wage increase for them.
disturbances in their provinces ˆ The short period in which Congress ruled gave a
(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given taste of self-government to the people.
above is correct ˆ Indians exercising power shattered another
Answer: D myth by which the British had held Indians in
subjection: that Indians were not fit to rule.
WHY NO PERMISSION BEFORE ASKING FOR
OUR PARTICIPATION? ˆ One of the major achievement of the Congress
governments was their firm handling of
ˆ In September, 1939, the Viceroy unilaterally the communal riots. They asked the district
declared that India was at war with Germany magistrates and police officials to take strong
without bothering to consult any Indian leader. action to deal with a communal outbreak.

www.sleepyclasses.com 470 1800-890-3043

 PYQ PYQ
Q. Who among the following was a prominent Q. With reference to Congress Socialist Party,
leader of the Congress Socialist Party? consider the following statements:
(a) M.N. Roy 1. It advocated the boycott of British goods and
evasion of taxes.
(b) Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
2. It wanted to establish the dictatorship of
(c) Pattam Thanu Pillai
proletariat.
(d) Acharya Narendra Dev 3. It advocated separate electorate for minorities
Answer: D and oppressed classes.
Which of the statements given above is / are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
Answer: D
Q. In October 1920, who headed a group of Indians
gathered at Tashkent to set up a communist
party of India?
(a) H.K. Sarkar (b) P.C. Joshi
(c) M.C. Chagla (d) M.N. Roy
CONGRESS SOCIALIST PARTY Answer: D
ˆ CSP was formed in 1934 by JP Narayan, Acharya
Narendra Dev, Basawon Singh, Yogendra Shukla
among others.

COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA

ˆ Communist Party of India has officially stated
that it was formed on 26 December 1925 at the
first Party Conference in Kanpur. S.V. Ghate was
the first General Secretary of CPI.
ˆ But as per the version of CPI (M), the Communist
Party of India was founded in Tashkent on 17
October 1920, soon after the Second Congress of

www.sleepyclasses.com 471 1800-890-3043

 the Communist International.
ˆ The founding members of the party were M.N.
Roy, Evelyn Trent Roy (Roy’s wife), Abani
Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani’s wife),
Mohammad Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad
Shafiq Siddiqui, Hasrat Mohani, Rafiq Ahmed of
Bhopal, M.P.T. Acharya, and Sultan Ahmed
Khan Tarin of North-West Frontier Province.

WORLD WAR II & INC

Congress Position before War:
ˆ The Congress’ hostility to Fascism, Nazism,
militarism and imperialism had been much more
consistent than the British record.
ˆ But the Indian offer to cooperate in the war effort
had two basic conditions:
ˆ The CPI says that there were many communist 1. After the war, a constituent assembly should
groups formed by Indians with the help of be convened to determine political structure
foreigners in different parts of the world and the of a free India.
Tashkent group was only one of them. 2. Immediately, some form of a genuinely
responsible government should be
established at the centre.
ˆ The offer was rejected by Linlithgow, the
viceroy.
CWC Meeting at Wardha (September 10-14, 1939)
ˆ Gandhi advocated an unconditional support to
the Allied powers as he made a clear distinction
between the democratic states of Western Europe
and the totalitarian Nazis.

CWC MEETING AT WARDHA (1939)

ˆ Subhash Bose and the socialists argued that
the war was an imperialist one since both sides
were fighting for gaining or defending colonial
territories. Therefore, the question of supporting
either of the two sides did not arise. Instead,
advantage should be taken of the situation to
wrest freedom by immediately starting a civil
disobedience movement.
ˆ Nehru- No Indian participation in War till India

www.sleepyclasses.com 472 1800-890-3043

 itself was free. However, at the same time, no
advantage was to be taken of Britain’s difficulty
by starting an immediate struggle.

ˆ CWC resolution condemned Fascist aggression.

ˆ However, it said that if Britain was fighting
for democracy and freedom, it should prove BOSE & P. SITARAMMAYA
it by ending imperialism in its colonies and
establishing full democracy in India.

PYQ
Q. Which Indian nationalist leader looked upon
a war between Germany and Britain as a God-
sent opportunity which would enable Indians
to exploit the situation to their advantage?
(a) C. Rajagopalachari
(b) M.A. Jinnah
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
Answer: C

www.sleepyclasses.com 473 1800-890-3043

 RAMGARH SESSION OF CONGRESS
(MAR. 1940)

GOVERNMENT’S RESPONSE TO WARDHA

RESOLUTION
Indifferent
ˆ Linlithgow, in his statement (October 17, 1939),
tried to use the Muslim League and the princes
against the Congress. ˆ The views of the dominant leadership were
ˆ Said it would, as part of future arrangement, reflected in the Congress resolution at the session.
consult “representatives of several communities, ˆ Official statement said-”Congress would resort
parties and interests in India, and the Indian to civil disobedience as soon as the Congress
princes” as to how the Act of 1935 might be organisation is considered fit enough or if
modified. circumstances precipitate a crisis.”
ˆ British Indian reactionary policies received full ˆ Haripura- Gujarat
support from Prime Minister Winston Churchill
ƒ Tripuri- MP
and the Secretary of State, Zetland, who branded
the Congress as a purely Hindu organisation. ƒ Ramgarh- Jharkhand

“LET’S RESIGN, MINISTERS” PAKISTAN RESOLUTION-LAHORE

(MAR. 1940)
ˆ On October 23, 1939, the CWC meeting:
ˆ Muslim League passed a resolution calling for
i. Decided not to support the war, and
“grouping of geographically contiguous areas
ii. Called upon the Congress ministries to resign where Muslims are in majority (North-West,
in the provinces. East) into independent states in which constituent
ˆ In January 1940, Linlithgow stated, “Dominion units shall be autonomous and sovereign and
status of Westminster variety, after the war, is adequate safeguards to Muslims where they are
the goal of British policy in India.” in minority”.

www.sleepyclasses.com 474 1800-890-3043

 REACTIONS TO AUGUST OFFER
ˆ The Congress Working Committee meeting in
Wardha on 21 August 1940 rejected this offer
and affirmed its demand for complete freedom
from imperial power.
ˆ It was also rejected by the Muslim League. The
Muslim League argued that nothing short of
India’s partition would satisfy it.
ˆ Nehru said, “The Dominion Status concept is as
dead as a doornail.”
ˆ Gandhiji said that the declaration had widened
AUGUST OFFER (1940) the gulf between nationalists and British rulers.
ˆ The astounding success of Hitler and the fall of AUGUST OFFER & DOORNAIL
Belgium, Holland, and France put England in a
conciliatory mood.
ˆ In order to win over the sympathy of the Indian
masses and political parties during the war,
the Viceroy announced the August offer which
proposed:
1. Dominion status as the objective for India.
2. Expansion of Viceroy’s executive council

3. Setting up of a Constituent Assembly after

the war consisting of Indians to
i. Decide their constitution according to their
social, economic and political conceptions
ii. Subject to fulfilment of the obligation of the
Government regarding defence, minority
rights, treaties with states & all India services
4. No future constitution to be adopted without
the consent of minorities.

www.sleepyclasses.com 475 1800-890-3043

 POINTS OF PROMINENCE
INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA (OCT. 1940)
ˆ Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the 1st to offer
ˆ Gandhi launched Individual Satyagraha against Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three months
involving Indians in second world war. imprisonment.
ˆ It was limited, symbolic and non-violent in ˆ Jawaharlal Nehru was the 2nd Satyagrahi and
nature. imprisoned for four months.
ˆ It was left to Mahatma Gandhi to choose the ˆ 3rd- Brahma Dutt
Satyagrahis.
ˆ By May 1941, 25,000 people had been convicted
ˆ The aims of launching individual satyagraha for individual civil disobedience.
were -
ˆ The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly
ˆ to show that nationalist patience was not due to 15 months.
weakness
ˆ to express people’s feeling that they were
not interested in the war and they made no
distinction between Nazism and the autocracy
that ruled India and
ˆ to give another opportunity to the Government
to accept Congress demands peacefully.
ˆ Demand of the satyagrahi would be the freedom
of speech against the war through an anti-war
declaration
ˆ Satyagraha also called for march towards Delhi,
which came to be known as the “Delhi Chalo
Movement”.

AFTERMATH OF INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA

ˆ Congress leaders, released in Dec. 1941, were
anxious to defend Indian territory and go to the
aid of the Allies.
ˆ CWC passed a resolution offering to cooperate
with the Government in the defence of India, if

www.sleepyclasses.com 476 1800-890-3043

 1. Full Independence was given after the war ˆ Major Proposals of Commission
2. Substance of power was transferred ˆ An Indian Union with a dominion status would
immediately. be set up; It would be free to decide its relations
with the Commonwealth and free to participate
in International Organisations.
ˆ After the end of the war, a constituent
assembly would be convened to frame a new
constitution. Members of this assembly would
be partly elected by the provincial assemblies
through proportional representation and partly
nominated by the princes.

CRIPPS MISSION
ˆ In March 1942, a mission headed by Stafford
Cripps was sent to India with constitutional
proposals to seek Indian support for the war.
ˆ Purpose of Mission
ƒ Following the World War-II, the Cripps
Mission had several reasons to come to India.
The reasons are given below:
1. Britain suffered many losses in Southeast
Asia and Japan’s threat to invade India
ˆ The British Government would accept the new
seemed real for them. Hence, Britain wanted
constitution subject to two conditions -
India’s support.
1. Any province not willing to join the Union
2. Britain was pressurised by the allies (USA,
could have a separate constitution and form
USSR & China) to seek India’s cooperation.
a separate Union, and
2. The new constitution making body and
the British Government would negotiate a
treaty to effect the transfer of power and to
safeguard racial and religious minorities.
ˆ In the meantime, Defence of India would remain
in British hands and the Governor-General’s
powers would remain intact.

3. Indian nationalists had agreed to support

the Allied as they hoped for immediate
transfer of substantial power and complete
independence after the war.

www.sleepyclasses.com 477 1800-890-3043

 objected because they thought any partition
PYQ would take away Punjab from them.
ˆ The Depressed Classes objected because they
Q. Who among the following were official
were apprehensive about their status in a country
Congress negotiators with Cripps Mission ?
where they will be in a minority.
(a) Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel
ˆ It is also believed that the mission failed because
(b) Acharya J.B. Kripalani and C. Rajagopalachari
of a clear lack of support for it by the Viceroy
(c) Pandit Nehru and Maulana Azad Linlithgow, British PM Winston Churchill and
(d) Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery.
Answer: C Q. Who of the following Prime Ministers sent
Cripps Mission to India?
(a) James Ramsay MacDonald
(b) Stanley Baldwin
(c) Neville Chamberlain
(d) Winston Churchill
Answer: D
REASONS FOR FAILURE OF CRIPPS MISSION
The Congress objected to:
ˆ The offer of dominion status instead of a
provision for complete independence
ˆ Representation of the states by nominees and not
by elected representatives
ˆ Right to provinces to secede as this went against
the principle of national unity
ˆ Absence of any plan for immediate transfer of
power and absence of any real share in defence
ˆ The governor general’s supremacy had been
retained, and the demand for governor-general
being only the constitutional head had not been
accepted
The Muslim League objection:
ˆ Criticized the idea of a single Indian Union
ˆ Did not like the machinery for the creation of
a constituent assembly and the procedure to
REASONS FOR FAILURE OF CRIPPS MISSION
decide on the accession of provinces to the Union
ˆ The proposals were seen as too radical by the ˆ Thought that the proposals denied to the
British and as too conservative by the INC who Muslims the right to self-determination and the
wanted complete independence. creation of Pakistan
ˆ The Mission was rejected by the INC, the Q. Consider the following statements:
Muslim League and other Indian groups.
The Cripps Proposals include the provision for
ˆ The Hindu Mahasabha and the Liberals were 1. Full independence for India.
against the right of states to secede. The Sikhs

www.sleepyclasses.com 478 1800-890-3043

 2. Creation of constitution-making body. Q. During the colonial period in India, what was
Which of the statements given above is/are the purpose of the Whitley Commission?
correct? (a) To review the fitness of India for further
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only political reforms
(b) To report on existing conditions of labour
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
and to make recommendations
Answer: B
(c) To draw up a plan for financial reforms for
Q. An important aspect of the Cripps Mission of India
1942 was: [2003] (d) To develop a comprehensive scheme for
(a) that all Indian States should join the Indian Civil Services in India
Union as a condition to consider any degree
Answer: B
of autonomy for India
(b) the creation of an Indian Union with Whitley Commission
Dominion status very soon after the end of ˆ Royal Commission on Labour or the Whitley
Second World War Commission on Labour was set up in 1929 to
(c) the active participation and cooperation inquire into the existing conditions of labour in
of the Indian people, communities and industrial undertakings and plantations in India.
political parties in the British war efforts as The Commission was chaired by John Henry
a condition for granting independence with Whitley.
full sovereign status to India after the war ˆ The commission submitted its report in 1931. The
(d) the framing of a constitution for the entire report surprised many by concurring with the
Indian Union, with no separate constitution criticisms of Mahatma Gandhi and others that
for any province, and a Union Constitution poverty was the cause of India’s social and
to be accepted by all provinces industrial problems.
Answer: B ˆ The Royal Commission on Labour in 1931
Explanation pointed out the need for systematic collection of
ˆ Statement d is incorrect as any province not labour statistics. It observed that the policy must
willing to join the Union could have a separate be built on facts as the uncertainty of facts would
constitution and form a separate union. lead to confusion and conflict regarding its aim.
ˆ Cripps Mission provided for an Indian Union ˆ It was also critical of British employers’ role in
with a dominion status after the second world perpetuating the problems. Whitley was offered
war; which would be free to decide its relations a knighthood for his work on this report, but he
with the Commonwealth and free to participate declined.
in other international bodies. Q. Assertion (A): The Congress rejected the Cripps
proposals.
TIME FOR “QUIT INDIA”? Reason (R): The Cripps Mission consisted solely
of whites.
(a) Both A and R are true but R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Answer: B

www.sleepyclasses.com 479 1800-890-3043

 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
CAUSES
ˆ The Second World War had started in 1939 and CAUSES OF QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
Japan, which was part of the Axis Powers that ˆ Apart from hearing news about British setbacks
were opposed to the British in the war were in the war, the war-time difficulties such as
gaining onto the north-eastern frontiers of India. high prices of essential commodities fostered
ˆ The British had abandoned their territories in resentment against the British government.
South-East Asia and had left their population ˆ The failure of the Cripps Mission to guarantee
in the lurch. This act did not garner much faith any kind of a constitutional remedy to India’s
among the Indian population who had doubts problems also led to the INC calling for a mass
about the British ability to defend India against civil disobedience movement.
Axis aggression.
EVENTS LEADING TO QIM
ˆ Quit India Resolution was passed by the
Congress Working Committee on 8 August 1942
in Bombay. Gandhi was named the movement’s
leader.
ˆ Also known as the India August Movement or
August Kranti.

WORLD WAR II

PROVISIONS OF QUIT INDIA RESOLUTION

ˆ The resolution stated the provisions of the
movement as:
1. An immediate end to British rule over India.
2. Declaration of the commitment of free India to
defend itself against all kinds of imperialism
and fascism.
3. Formation of a provisional government of
India after British withdrawal.

www.sleepyclasses.com 480 1800-890-3043

 4. Sanctioning a civil disobedience movement RESPONSE TO QIM
against British rule. ˆ The British government responded to the call of
ˆ The movement gave the slogans ‘Quit India’ or Gandhi by arresting all major Congress leaders
‘Bharat Chodo’. Gandhi gave the slogan to the the very next day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, etc.
people – ‘Do or die’. were all arrested.
ˆ This left the movement in the hands of the
younger leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan
and Ram Manohar Lohia. New leaders like
Aruna Asaf Ali emerged out of the vacuum of
leadership.
ˆ The INC was banned. Its leaders were jailed for
almost the whole of the war. Gandhi was released
on health grounds in 1944.

QIM & WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

EVENTS LEADING TO QIM

Gandhi’s instructions to various sections of the
public:
1. Government servants: do not resign your job
but proclaim loyalty to the INC.
2. Soldiers: be with the army but refrain from
firing on compatriots.
3. Peasants: pay the agreed-upon rent if the
landlords/Zamindars are anti-government;
if they are pro-government, do not pay the
rent.
4. Students: can leave studies if they are
confident enough.
5. Princes: support the people and accept the
sovereignty of them.
6. People of the princely states: support the
ruler only if he is anti-government; declare
themselves as part of the Indian nation.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT STARTS

ˆ In line with the Congress ideology, it was
supposed to be a peaceful non-violent movement
aimed at urging the British to grant India QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT AT ITS PEAK
independence. ˆ Over 100000 people were arrested in connection
with this movement. The government resorted
to violence in order to quell the agitation. They

www.sleepyclasses.com 481 1800-890-3043

 were mass floggings and lathi charges. Even
women and children were not spared. About
10000 people died in police firing in total.
ˆ The people responded to Gandhi’s call in a
major way. However, in the absence of major
leadership, there were stray incidences of
violence and damage to government property.
Many buildings were set on fire, electricity lines
were cut and communication and transport lines
were broken.

VARIOUS ASPECTS OF QIM

ˆ The movement lasted till 1944.
ˆ There were strikes and demonstrations all over
the country. Despite the communist group’s lack
of support to the movement, workers provided
support by not working in the factories.
ˆ In some places, parallel governments were also
set up. Example: Ballia, Tamluk, Satara.

PYQ
Q. During the freedom struggle, Aruna Asaf Ali
was a major woman organizer of underground
activity in:
(a) Civil Disobedience Movement
(b) Non-Cooperation Movement
(c) Quit India Movement
(d) Swadeshi Movement PARALLEL GOVERNMENTS DURING QIM
Answer: C
Q. Consider the following statements:
On the eve of launch of Quit India Movement,
Mahatma Gandhi:
1. asked the government servants to resign.
2. asked the soldiers to leave their posts.
3. asked the Princes of the Princely states to
accept the sovereignty of their own people.
Which of the statement given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C

www.sleepyclasses.com 482 1800-890-3043

Q. Quit India Movement was launched in response CR FORMULA (1944)
to ˆ During the Second World War, the British
(a) Cabinet Mission Plan government, under the viceroyalty of Lord
(b) Cripps Proposals Linlithgow had said that any move towards an
Indian statehood would be possible only if the
(d) Simon Commission Report
Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim
(d) Wavell Plan League resolve their differences.
Answer: B
ˆ The League was increasingly demanding a
POLITICAL PARTIES’ REACTION TO QUIT separate nation of Pakistan for the Muslims
INDIA whereas the INC was against the partitioning of
the country.
ˆ The League was not in favour of the British
leaving India without partitioning the country ˆ To break this deadlock between the two major
first. In fact, Jinnah asked more Muslims to enlist political parties in India, C Rajagopalachari, INC
in the army to fight the war. member who was close to Mahatma Gandhi,
proposed a set of plans called the C R Formula
ˆ The Communist party supported the war waged
or Rajaji Formula.
by the British since they were allied with the
Soviet Union. ˆ This was the first acknowledgement by a
Congressman about the inevitability of the
ˆ Subhash Chandra Bose, was by this time,
partition of the country and a tacit acceptance of
organizing the Indian National Army and
Pakistan.
the Azad Hind government from outside the
country. Major Provisions

SIGNIFICANCE OF QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT ˆ The Muslim League would join hands with the
INC to demand independence from the British.
ˆ Despite heavy-handed suppression by the
government, the people were unfazed and ˆ Both parties would cooperate and form a
continued their struggle. provisional government at the centre.

ˆ Even though the government said that ˆ After the end of the war, the entire population
independence could be granted only after the of Muslim majority areas in the North-West
end of the war, the movement drove home the and North-East India to decide by plebiscite,
point that India could not be governed without whether or not to form a separate sovereign state.
the support of the Indians.
ˆ The movement placed the demand for complete
independence at the top agenda of the freedom
movement.
ˆ Public morale and anti-British sentiment were
enhanced.

www.sleepyclasses.com 483 1800-890-3043

 2. He did not want the entire population of
ˆ In case of partition, joint agreements to be made
the Muslim majority areas to vote on the
for the safeguarding of defence, communications
plebiscite, but only the Muslim population in
and commerce.
those areas.
ˆ The above terms to come to fruition only if Britain
3. He was also against the idea of a common
transfers full powers to India.
centre. Also, Jinnah wanted separate
Events dominions be created before the English left
ˆ In 1944, Gandhi and M A Jinnah held talks on the India.
basis of the Rajaji Formula. 4. The Sikhs also looked upon the formula
ˆ The talks were a failure as Jinnah had objections unfavourably because the formula meant
to the proposal. a division of Punjab and although the
Sikhs were a big chunk of the population,
OBJECTIONS TO CR FORMULA
there were not in a majority in any of the
ˆ Jinnah’s objections: district.
1. He wanted the INC to accept the Two-Nation
Theory.

Q. After Quit India Movement, C. Rajagopalachari (c) Fresh elections to the Central and Provincial
issued a pamphlet entitled “The Way Out”. Legislatures to be held at the end of 1945 and
Which one of the following was proposed in a Constitution making body to be convened
this pamphlet ? [2010] as soon as possible.
(a) The establishment of a “War Advisory (d) A solution for the constitutional deadlock
Council“ composed of representatives of
Answer: D
British India and the Indian States.
(b) Reconstitution of the Central Executive DESAI-LIAQUAT PACT (1945)
Council in such a way that all its members, ˆ M.K Gandhi was convinced that the British rulers
except the Governor General and the would not grant independence to India unless
Commander-in-Chief should be Indian and until the Congress and Muslim League reach
leaders. some conclusion on the future of the Country or

www.sleepyclasses.com 484 1800-890-3043

 the immediate formation of the Interim National
Government.
ˆ Hence, Gandhi directed Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai
to make another attempt to appease the league
leaders and find a way out of the 1942-45 political
deadlocks.
ˆ Desai being the leader of the Congress in the
Central Assembly and a friend of Liaquat
Ali (Deputy Leader of League in Assembly),
met him in January 1945 and gave him proposals
for the formation of Interim Government at
centre.
ˆ Both of them came up with the draft proposal for
the formation of an interim government at the
Centre, consisting of:
1. An equal number of persons nominated by
the Congress and the League in the central
legislature.
2. 20% of the seats reserved for minorities. ˆ Although the Second World War in Europe
3. The Government would function within the came to an end in May, 1945, the Japanese threat
framework of the existing Government of still remained. The Conservative Government
India Act, 1935. in Britain led by Churchill was keen to reach a
solution on the constitutional question in India.
ˆ Still no compromise, failure of talks; Proposal
not formally endorsed either by the Congress or Provisions of the Plan
the League. ˆ Executive Council will be of all Indian members
WAVELL PLAN & SIMLA CONFERENCE except the Governor General and the Commander
in Chief.
ˆ At the end of Second World War, and after the
ˆ Equal representation will be given to the Muslims
failure of Gandhi-Jinnah talks based on the C.R.
and Hindus.
Formula, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy released
Congress leaders from jail and invited them to ˆ The reconstructed Council was to function as an
interim government within the framework of the
Shimla in 1945 to work out an interim political
Government of India Act, 1935.
agreement.
ˆ The Governor General was to exercise his veto
ˆ The conference called by Lord Wavell at
on the advice of ministers.
Shimla for negotiations is called the Simla
ˆ Representatives of different parties were to
Conference and the proposals of Lord Wavell
submit a joint list to the Viceroy for nominations
are popularly known as the Wavell Plan.
to the Executive Council. If a joint list was not
possible, then separate lists were to be submitted.
ˆ This was to be an interim arrangement till a new
constitution was drafted for India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 485 1800-890-3043

Reaction to the plan
ˆ Wavell Plan ended in a failure due to Jinnah’s
demand of veto power, that is, Muslim League
alone would chose the Muslim members of the
Executive Council. Also, the League claimed
some kind of veto in the Council with decisions
opposed to Muslims needing a two-thirds
majority for approval.
ˆ Congress objected to the plan as an attempt to
reduce the Congress to the status of a purely
caste Hindu party and insisted on its right to
include members of all communities among its AFTERMATH OF THE PLAN
nominees. ˆ Sometime after the Plan, the war ended and a
ˆ Lord Wavell announced a breakdown of talks new Labour government was elected in Britain.
thus giving the Muslim League a virtual veto. This new government was intent on giving
This strengthened the Muslim League’s position, independence to India without much delay and
as was evident from the elections in 1945-46, and sent the Cabinet Mission with that purpose.
boosted Jinnah’s position; and exposed the real ˆ The failure of the Wavell Plan and the Shimla
character of the Conservative Government of Conference was a watershed moment for
Churchill. the Indian Independence struggle. All steps
taken to prevent partition had been met with
failure, meaning that it was inevitable.

www.sleepyclasses.com 486 1800-890-3043

 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
ˆ Born in Cuttack, then in Bengal Province into an
ˆ Bose’s ideology tilted towards socialism and
affluent family. Educated in Calcutta acquiring
leftist authoritarianism. He formed the All India
a degree in philosophy. Selected for the Indian
Forward Bloc in 1939 as a faction within the
Civil Services (ICS) but refused to take up
Congress.
service since he did not want to serve the British
government. ˆ At the start of the Second World War, Bose
protested against the government for not
ˆ Bose joined the Indian National Congress in 1921.
consulting Indians before dragging them into the
He also started a newspaper called ‘Swaraj’.
war. He was arrested when he organised protests
ˆ He was the President of the All India Youth in Calcutta for the removal of the monument
Congress and also the Secretary of the Bengal memorialising the Black Hole of Calcutta.
State Congress. In 1924, he became the CEO of
ˆ He was released after a few days but was kept
the Calcutta Municipal Corporation. In 1930, he
under surveillance. He then made his escape from
became the Mayor of Calcutta.
the country in 1941 to Germany via Afghanistan
ˆ Bose authored the book ‘The Indian Struggle’ and the Soviet Union.
which covers the Indian independence movement
ˆ He had previously travelled to Europe and met
from 1920 to 1942. The book was banned by the
with Indian students and European political
British government.
leaders.
ˆ He coined the term ‘Jai Hind’ and was called
ˆ In Germany, he met with the Nazi leaders and
Netaji.
hoped to stage an armed struggle against the
ˆ Bose was sent to prison in Mandalay for British to gain independence. He hoped to
nationalist activities in 1925. He was released in befriend the Axis powers since they were against
1927 and became the INC’s general secretary. his ‘enemy’ the British.
ˆ He had differences with Gandhi and he wasn’t ˆ He founded the Indian Legion out of about 4500
keen on non-violence as a tool for independence. Indian soldiers who were in the British army and
Bose stood for and was elected the party’s had been taken prisoners by the Germans from
president in 1939 but was forced to resign due to North Africa.
differences with Gandhi’s supporters.
ˆ In 1943, he left Germany for Japan disillusioned
with German support for Azad Hind.

www.sleepyclasses.com 487 1800-890-3043

 PYQ
Q. Who suggested the reconstitution of the Viceroy INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA)
Executive Council in which all the Portfolios ˆ Bose’s arrival in Japan revived the Indian National
including that of War Members were to be held Army (Azad Hind Fauj) which had been formed
by the Indian leaders? earlier with Japanese help by Mohan Singh.
(a) Simon Commission ˆ Azad Hind or the Provisional Government of
(b) Simla Conference Free India was established as a government-in-
(c) Cripps Proposal exile with Bose as the head. Its headquarters was
(d) Cabinet Mission in Singapore. The INA was its military.
Answer: B ˆ Bose motivated the troops with his fiery speeches.
Q. During the Indian Freedom Struggle, who of His famous quote is, “Give me blood, and I shall
the following raised an army called ‘Free Indian give you freedom!”
Legion’?
(a) Lala Hardayal
(b) Rashbehari Bose
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose
(d) V D Savarkar
Answer: C

FREE INDIAN LEGION

ˆ At the end of July 1942, three hundred volunteers
were issued German Army uniforms bearing a
badge on the right arm which showed a leaping
tiger superimposed on an Indian tricolour,
surrounded by the legend “Freies Indien”. The ˆ The INA supported the Japanese army in its
men were then officially designated the “Free invasion of northeast India and also took control
Indian Legion”. of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However,
they were forced to retreat by the British forces

www.sleepyclasses.com 488 1800-890-3043

 following the Battles of Kohima and Imphal in Sahgal, Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon, and
1944. Major General Shah Nawaz Khan.

INA TRIALS
ˆ The Indian National Army trials (INA trials),
which are also called the Red Fort trials, were
the British Indian trial by courts-martial of a
number of officers of the INA between November
1945 and May 1946, for charges variously
for treason, torture, murder and abetment to
murder during World War II.
ˆ The first of the approximately ten trials, was held
in the Red Fort in Delhi. In total, approximately
ten courts-martial were held.
ˆ The first of these, and the most celebrated one,
was the joint court-martial of Colonel Prem

www.sleepyclasses.com 489 1800-890-3043

ˆ The three had been officers in the British Indian Chief Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck to
Army and were taken as prisoners of war commute the sentences of the three defendants
in Malaya, Singapore and Burma. in the first trial.
ˆ They had, like a large number of other troops
and officers of the British Indian Army, joined
the Indian National Army and later fought
in Imphal and Burma alongside the Japanese
forces in allegiance to Azad Hind.
ˆ They were charged of “Waging War against the
King Emperor” as well as Murder and abetment
of Murder.

REACTIONS TO INA TRIALS

ˆ These trials attracted much publicity, and
public sympathy for the defendants who were
considered by some to be patriots of India and
fought for the freedom of India from the British
Empire.
ˆ The Indian National Congress made the release
of the three defendants an important political
issue during the agitation for independence of
1945-46.
ˆ The committee declared the formation of the THREE UPSURGES- WINTER OF 1945-46
Congress’ defence team for the INA and included
ˆ In the winter of 1945-46, there were three
famous lawyers of the time, including Bhulabhai
upsurges
Desai, Asaf Ali, Jawaharlal Nehru, Tej Bahadur
Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju. 1. One on 21 November 1945 in Calcutta over
the INA trials
ˆ This movement marked the last major campaign
2. The second on 11 February 1946 in Calcutta
in which the forces of the Congress and the
to protest against the seven year sentence
Muslim League aligned together.
given to an INA officer, Rashid Ali
ˆ The Congress tricolor and the green flag of the
3. The third in Bombay of 18 February 1946
League were flown together at protests.
when the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy
ˆ Outcry over the grounds of the trial, as well as a (RIN) went on strike.
general emerging unease and unrest within the
troops of the Raj, ultimately forced the then Army

www.sleepyclasses.com 490 1800-890-3043

 SIGNIFICANCE OF UPSURGES
ˆ Gave expression to the militancy in the popular
mind. Action, however reckless, was fearless
and the crowds which faced police firing by
temporarily retreating, only to return to their
posts, won the Bengal Governor’s grudging
admiration.
ˆ RIN revolt remains a legend to this day. When it
ˆ Upsurges followed a fairly similar pattern an took place, it had a dramatic impact on popular
initial stage when a group (such as students or Consciousness. A revolt in the armed forces,
ratings) defied authority and was repressed, a even if soon suppressed, had a great liberating
second stage when people in the city joined in, effect on the minds of people.
and finally a third stage when people in other
ˆ RIN revolt was seen as an event which marked
parts of the country expressed sympathy and
the end of British rule almost as finally as
solidarity.
Independence Day, 1947.
ˆ RIN revolt started on 18 February when 1100
naval ratings of HMIS Talwar refused to work ELECTIONS OF 1945-46
at Bombay to protest against the treatment ˆ The Labour Party, which had come to power
meted out to them-flagrant racial discrimination, in Britain after the War, was in a hurry to settle
unpalatable food and abuses,etc. The arrest of the Indian problem. As a result the ban on the
B.C. Dutt, a rating, for scrawling ‘Quit India’ on Congress was lifted and congress leaders were
the HMIS Talwar, was sorely resented. released.
ˆ The news reached Karachi on 19 February, upon ˆ After the war elections seemed inevitable as the
which the HMIS Hindustan along with one more last elections had been held in 1934 for the centre
ship and three shore establishments, went on a and in 1937 for the provinces.
lightning strike.

www.sleepyclasses.com 491 1800-890-3043

ˆ These elections were also important as the ˆ ML also secured 442 out of 509 reserve seats in
provincial assemblies thus formed were to the provincial elections.
then elect a new Constituent Assembly for an ˆ In the provincial elections, Muslim League got
independent India. majority & formed its ministries in Bengal and
ˆ In August 1945, elections to central and provincial Sind.
assemblies were announced. ˆ Unionist-Congress-Akali coalition under Khizr
ˆ The news of announcement of election met with Hyat Khan had assumed power in Punjab.
great enthusiasm among people. ˆ Only as late as 1946, therefore, did the League
ˆ When Congress leaders emerged from jail in mid- establish itself as the dominant party among
June 1945, they expected to find demoralized Muslim voters, seeking to vindicate its claim to
people. To their surprise they found a politically be the “sole spokesman” of India’s Muslims.
charged atmosphere and people filled with ˆ Elections of 1945-46 had a significant role in
political energy and impatient to do something. partition of India and creation of “Pakistan”.
ˆ This political atmosphere was channelized by Results gave the Muslim League the authoritative
the Congress in the upcoming elections, towards position to represent Indian Muslims that Jinnah
nationalistic aims. The Congress’ aim was to win had long wanted. The supporters of the two-
a majority in most provinces so it could press nation theory regarded the verdict of 1946 as a
its claim to form a government of united (post- vindication of their stand.
colonial) India.
ˆ Jinnah declared that the General Election of 1946
would be taken as plebiscite of the Muslims of
India on ‘Pakistan’. The League claimed to be
the only organisation of the 10 crores of Muslims
of India. The General Election of 1946 had been
called ‘a pitched battle with the Congress’.
ˆ General elections were held in December 1945
to elect members of the Central Legislature
while provincial elections were held in 1946.
The franchise was extremely limited. The voter
turnout was high on the day of the polls.
ˆ Congress swept the general constituencies,
capturing 91.3 per cent of the non-Muslim vote.
It captured 57 out of 102 seats in the central
assembly.
ˆ In the provincial elections, it got majority in most
provinces except in Bengal, Sindh and Punjab.
The congress majority provinces included
NWFP and Assam which were being claimed for
Pakistan.
ˆ The League’s success in the seats reserved for
Muslims was spectacular: it won all 30 reserved
constituencies in the Centre with 86.6 per cent of
the Muslim vote.

www.sleepyclasses.com 492 1800-890-3043

 ˆ The mission was sent to India to negotiate with
PYQ the political leaders for setting up of a national
government and to set into motion a machinery
Q. Consider the following statements: for transfer of power.
1. Lord Mountbatten was the Viceroy when the ˆ Mission reached Delhi on March 24th, 1946.
Shimla conference took place. The Mission held talks with the leaders of all
2. Indian Navy Revolt, 1946 took place when prominent political parties. The Congress and
the Indian sailors in the Royal Indian Navy the Muslim League were, however, given main
at Bombay and Karachi rose against the considerations.
Government. ˆ As the Congress and League remained divided
Which of the statements given above is/are on the issue of the unity or partition of India, the
correct? mission put forward its own plan for the solution
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only of the constitutional problem in May 1946.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B

ˆ Cabinet Mission was convinced that Pakistan

was not viable and that the minorities autonomy
must somehow be safeguarded within the
CABINET MISSION framework of a united India. Hence, Rejection
of the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan
ˆ On 19 February 1946, British Prime Minister,
Clement Attlee in the House of Commons Grouping of Provincial Assembly
announced the decision to dispatch the Cabinet
ˆ The existing provincial assemblies were proposed
mission.
to be grouped into three sections, which would
ˆ The Cabinet Mission to India consisted of three
meet separately to decide on group constitutions.
British Cabinet member-Lord Pethick Lawrence,
the Secretary of State for India; Sir Stafford
Cripps, President of the Board of Trade and A. V.
Alexander, First Lord of the Admiralty. Mission
was headed by Lord Pethick Lawrence.

www.sleepyclasses.com 493 1800-890-3043

Grouping of Provincial Assembly possible, for the groups also. Then the whole
constituent assembly (all three sections A, B and
ˆ Sections A comprising Madras, Bombay, Uttar
C combined) would sit together to formulate the
Pradesh, Bihar, C.P. and Orissa (Hindu Majority
union constitution.
Provinces)
ˆ Section B consisting of Punjab, NWFP and Sind Federation
(Muslim Majority Provinces) ˆ The cabinet mission plan envisaged a federal
ˆ Section C comprising Bengal and Assam structure for India. Three tier executive and
(Muslim Majority Provinces) legislature was proposed at provincial, section
and union levels.
ˆ The mission proposed a common centre which
would control defence, communication and
external affairs.

Grouping of Provincial Assembly

ˆ After the first general elections a province could
come out of a group. After ten years a province
could call for a reconsideration of the group or
union constitution.
Constituent Assembly
Federation
ˆ The constituent assembly was to be a 389 member
body with provincial assemblies sending 292, ˆ Provinces were to have full autonomy and all
chief commissioner provinces sending 4 and residuary powers should vest in the Provinces.
princely states sending 93 members. Princely states
ˆ The representatives of British Indian Provinces ˆ Princely states were no longer to be under
were to be elected by each Provincial Legislative paramountcy of the British crown. They would
Assembly community wise, through proportional be free to enter into an agreement with successor
representation. governments or the British government.
Constituent Assembly ˆ Pending the completion of the work of
ˆ In the constituent assembly, members from constitution-making, the Cabinet Mission
groups A, B and C were to sit separately to proposed to set up an Interim Government of 14
decide the constitution for provinces and if members representing major political parties.

www.sleepyclasses.com 494 1800-890-3043

 AFTERMATH OF CABINET MISSION PLAN

REACTIONS TO CABINET MISSION PLAN

ˆ The Congress and League interpreted the
Mission Plan in their own way, both seeing it as
a confirmation of their stand.
ˆ The Mission Plan was ambivalent on whether
grouping was compulsory or optional.
ˆ To Congress, the Mission’s Plan was against
Pakistan (as grouping optional); that the
League’s veto was gone and that one Constituent ˆ League announced its acceptance of the Plan on 6
Assembly was envisaged. The League believed June in so far as the basis of Pakistan was implied
that the basis of Pakistan was implied in the in the Mission’s plan by virtue of the compulsory
Mission’s plan by virtue of the compulsory grouping.
grouping. ˆ After much deliberation, the Congress Working
ˆ Congress also wanted that a province need not Committee accepted the Plan on June 24, 1946.
wait till the first elections to leave a group, it ˆ July 1946- Elections held in provincial assemblies
should have the option not to join it in the first for the Constituent Assembly
place. ˆ On 10th July 1946 Nehru was quoted as saying
ˆ Congress was also critical of the absence of “We are not bound by a single thing except
any provision for the elected members from that we have decided to go into the Constituent
the princely states in the proposed Constituent Assembly”.
Assembly. ˆ Jinnah seized the opportunity provided by
ˆ League wanted provinces to have the right to Nehru’s speech to withdraw the League’s
question the union constitution now, not wait for acceptance of the Mission Plan on 29th July, 1946,
ten years. and gave a call for “direct action” from August
ˆ The League also wanted the grouping to be 16 to achieve Pakistan.
compulsory, with Sections B and C developing ˆ August 16, 1946- Communal holocaust, 5000
into strong entities with the right to secede from dead
the Union in the future. ˆ Interim Government was formed on 2nd

www.sleepyclasses.com 495 1800-890-3043

 September 1946 with Congress members alone
with Nehru as de facto head.

ˆ British were frightened by Jinnah’s ability to

REASONS BEHIND ATTLEE’S STATEMENT
unleash civil war. Wavell quietly brought the
League into the Interim Government on 26 ˆ British had hoped that the date would shock the
October 1946. The league was allowed to join parties into agreement on the main question
though ˆ The British government was keen on averting
1. It had not accepted either the short or long the looming constitutional crisis. British also
term provisions of the Cabinet Mission Plan hoped that Indians would be finally convinced
2. It had not given up its policy of Direct Action. that the British were sincere about conceding
independence
ˆ The basic reason why the Attlee Government
accepted the need for a final date was because
they could not deny the truth of Wavell’s
assessment that an irreversible decline of
Government authority had taken place.
ˆ Congress responded with a gesture of cooperation
to the League. But Jinnah’s reaction to Attlee’s
statement was entirely different.

REASONS TOWARDS ATTLEE’S STATEMENT

ATTLEE’S STATEMENT
ˆ League was on the war path and Jinnah was
ˆ Made on 20th February, 1947 in British Parliament obdurate that he would accept nothing less than
ˆ Date for British withdrawal from India was fixed a sovereign Pakistan.
as 30 June 1948 and the appointment of a new ˆ He was confident that now he only needed to
Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, was announced. stick firmly to his position in order to achieve his
ˆ British would relinquish power either to some goal of Pakistan.
form of central government or in some areas to ˆ After all, the declaration made it clear that power
the existing provincial governments would be transferred to more than one authority
ˆ Paramountcy over the princely states would if the Constituent Assembly did not become
lapse with transfer of power. a fully representative body, i.e. if the Muslim
majority provinces did not join it.

www.sleepyclasses.com 496 1800-890-3043

 ˆ It sought to effect an immediate transfer of
power. This transfer of power was to be done on
the basis of Dominion Status to two successor
states, India and Pakistan.
Partition
ˆ The members of the Legislative Assemblies of
Bengal and the Punjab would meet separately
in two groups i.e. representatives of the
predominantly Hindu areas, and representatives
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
of the predominantly Muslim areas, to vote for
ˆ He was charged with the task of winding up the partition Sindh would take its own decision
Raj by 30th June 1948
ˆ Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet district of
ˆ Mountbatten was given more powers than his
Bengal would de cide the fate of these areas
predecessors to settle the matters on the spot so
he was quick in decision making. Boundary Commission
ˆ He was directed to explore the options of unity ˆ In case of partition, the viceroy would set up
and division till October, 1947 after which he a Boundary Commission to demarcate the
was to advise His Majesty’s Government on the boundaries of the province on the basis of
form transfer of power should take. ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of
ˆ He soon discovered that the broad contours of Muslims and non-Muslims.
the scenario that was to emerge were discernible ˆ Thus a boundary commission was set up
even before he came to India. under the chairmanship of Sir Cyril Redcliff for
ˆ Cabinet Mission Plan was a dead horse. Jinnah demarcating the boundaries of new parts of the
was obdurate that the Muslims would settle for Punjab and Bengal.
nothing less than a sovereign state.
ˆ A serious attempt at retaining unity would have
involved identifying with the forces that wanted
a unified India and countering those who
opposed it.
ˆ Rather than doing that, Mountbatten preferred
to woo both sides.

TRANSFER OF POWER
ˆ Mountbatten announced at a press conference
that the British would soon leave India for good
on 15 August 1947.
ˆ Thus an early date was decided by the British
to leave India as compared to 30th June 1948 as
decided earlier.
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN
Dominion Status CONCLUSION
ˆ The 3rd June, 1947 Plan, famously came to be ˆ Thus, the League’s demand for creation of
known as the Mountbatten Plan.

www.sleepyclasses.com 497 1800-890-3043

 Pakistan was conceded to the extent that it would hence it held that until a new Constitution
be created, but taking Congress’ position on came into force, the 1935 Act would work as the
unity into account that Pakistan would be made Constitutional Law of India.
as small as possible. Mountbatten’s formula was ˆ No Act of the British Parliament passed after
to divide India but retain maximum unity. August 15, 1947 was to extend to either of the
new dominions unless it was extended thereto
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947
by a law of the legislature of the dominion.
ˆ Marked the end of the British rule in India.
ˆ The office of the secretary of state for India
The British were to officially leave India on
was also abolished by the act and his functions
15th August, 1947
were transferred to the secretary of state for
ˆ The act declared India as an independent and Commonwealth Affairs.
sovereign state from August 15, 1947. It dropped
ˆ The act also provided for continuation of all
the title of Emperor of India from the royal titles
the benefits of the civil servants appointed
of the king of England.
on or before 15th August, 1947. However, it
ˆ It proclaimed the lapse of British paramountcy discontinued the appointment to civil services
over the Indian princely states and treaty and reservation of posts by the secretary of state
relations with tribal areas from August 15, 1947 for India.
ˆ Indian Independence Act provided for partition IMPLEMENTATION
of the country and creation of two independent ˆ As per the provisions on the act two dominions –
dominions – India and Pakistan. This was to India and Pakistan were created.
take effect from 15th August, 1947, with the
ˆ While Pakistan got its freedom on August 14,
implementation of the act.
India became independent on August 15, 1947.
ˆ It granted freedom to the Indian princely states
ˆ Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the Governor
either to join the Dominion of India or Dominion
General of Pakistan
of Pakistan or to remain independent.
ˆ India decided to request Lord Mountbatten to
ˆ Office of viceroy was abolished by the act. Each
wield the post of the Governor general of India.
dominion was to have a Governor General, to be
appointed by the British crown on the advice of ˆ He swore in Jawaharlal Nehru as the first prime
responsible government in each dominion. minister of independent India.
ˆ It designated the Governor-General of India ˆ The Constituent Assembly of India formed
and the provincial governors as constitutional in 1946 became the Parliament of the Indian
(nominal) heads of the states. They were made Dominion.
to act on the advice of the respective council of
ministers in all matters.
ˆ His Majesty’s Government in Britain was to have
no responsibility with respect to the Government
of India or Pakistan.
ˆ The constituent assembly of these two dominions
were to also act as the legislature of the respective
dominion.
ˆ The two dominions were also to be free to repeal
any act of the British Parliament, including the
Independence act itself.
ˆ The Indian Independence Act, 1947 was not a
constitutional document in any manner and

www.sleepyclasses.com 498 1800-890-3043

 BHIMBETKA CAVES
AUDITORIUM CAVE

BHIMBETKA ROCK SHELTERS

ˆ Archeological site in Central India that spans the
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic period as well as
the Historic Period.
ˆ Why such a Name ?
ƒ Bhimbetka meaning “Bhima’s resting
place” or “Bhima’s lounge”, is compound
word made of Bhima (second brother
among the five Pandavas of Mahabharata)
and Baithaka (seat or lounge). According to
the native belief, Bhima during his exile used Painting in the caves showing a man being attacked
to rest here to interact with the locals. by a horned bovine.
ˆ Location - Raisen District in the Indian State of
MP.
ƒ It is inside the Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary.
ˆ Tag - UNESCO World Heritage Site - Consists
of 7 Hills and 750 rock shelters distributed over
an area of 10 Kms. (Only around 15 are open to
Visitors.)
ˆ Significance - Provide us a “rare glimpse” into
human settlement and cultural evolution from
hunter-gatherers, to agriculture, and expressions
of prehistoric spirituality.

Mesolithic dancers at Bhimbetka

www.sleepyclasses.com 499 1800-890-3043

 ˆ These caves are situated in 2 adjacent hills -
Udaygiri and Khandagiri Udaygiri and Khandagiri - mentioned as Kumari
Parvata in the Hathigumpha Inscription.
Caves Compared to Khandagiri, Udayagiri offers more
beautiful and better maintained cave shrines.

UDAYGIRI AND KHANDAGIRI CAVES

ˆ Religion Associated - Jainism
HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION
ˆ Time Period – 1st century BCE(???)
ˆ The Hathigumpha cave (“Elephant Cave”)
ˆ Relevance - It is believed that most of these caves
has the Hathigumpha inscription, written by
were carved out as residential blocks for Jaina
Raja Kharavela, the king of Kalinga in India,
monks during the reign of King Kharavela.
during the 2nd century BCE.
ˆ No. of Caves - 18 caves in Udaygiri while
ˆ The Hathigumpha inscription consists
Khandagiri has 15 caves.
of seventeen lines incised in deep
ˆ Also known as Kattaka caves or Cuttack Caves cut Brahmi letters on the overhanging brow of a
- Partly Natural and partly artificial caves of natural cavern Hathigumpha in the south side
archeological, historical and religious importance of the Udayagiri hill.
near the city of Bhubaneshwar in Odisha, India.
ˆ It faces the rock edicts of Asoka at Dhauli,
situated about six miles away.

www.sleepyclasses.com 500 1800-890-3043

 AJANTA CAVES
ˆ Important Designation -
ƒ UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983) and
Protected Monument under care of ASI.
ˆ What all is depicted in these caves ?
ƒ Ancient monasteries and worship-halls of
different Buddhist traditions carved into a
75-metre (246 ft) wall of rock.
ƒ The caves also present paintings depicting the
past lives.
y Rebirths of the Buddha and rock-cut
sculptures of Buddhist deities.
ˆ Important Point -
ƒ Caves 16, 17, 1 and 2 of Ajanta form the largest
AJANTA CAVES corpus of surviving ancient Indian wall-
painting.
ˆ Discovery -
ƒ Mixture of Chaityas - Viharas and Stupas.
ƒ They were covered by jungle until accidentally
ˆ Purpose ?
“discovered” and brought to Western
attention in 1819 by a colonial British officer ƒ Textual records suggest that these caves
Captain John Smith on a tiger-hunting party. served as a monsoon retreat for monks,
as well as a resting site for merchants and
ˆ Geography -
pilgrims in ancient India.
ƒ The caves are in the rocky northern wall of
ƒ Numbering of Caves is just for reference and
the U-shaped gorge of the river Waghur, in
does not reflect the chronological order of
the Deccan plateau.
their constructions.
ˆ Location -
ˆ References in other Important Texts -
ƒ Aurangabad District, Maharashtra.
ƒ Travel accounts of Chinese Buddhist travellers
ˆ Prominent Religion reflected - Fa Hien (during the reign of Chandragupta II;
ƒ Buddhism. 380- 415 CE) and Hieun Tsang (during the
ˆ Time Period - reign of emperor Harshavardhana; 606 - 647
CE). .
ƒ 2nd century BCE to about 650 CE.
ƒ The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th-
ƒ Approx. 29 rock cut Buddhist cave century text Ain-i-Akbari by Abu al-Fazl.
Monasteries. (25 - Viharas and 4 Chaityas)
ƒ They were built in 2 phases -
y Phase I - 2nd cen BCE
y Phase II - 400 CE till 650 CE.

www.sleepyclasses.com 501 1800-890-3043

MAP OF AJANTA CAVES
Ellora Caves

ˆ Tag - UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983)

ˆ Location - Aurangabad district of Maharashtra -
Charanandri Hills
ƒ One of the largest rock-cut Hindu temple
cave complexes in the world, featuring
Hinduism in particular and few Buddhist and
ˆ Caves of the first Period -
Jain monuments.
ƒ Earliest Caves
ˆ Over 100 caves are there at this site, out of which
y Consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15 A. only 34 are open for public.
ƒ Time Period - ˆ Breakdown of these 34 caves -
y Roughly around 100 BCE to 100 CE. ƒ 17 Hindu Caves
ƒ Patronage - ƒ 12 Buddhist Caves
y Satvahana Dynasty ƒ 5 Jaina Caves.
y The first Satavahana period caves lacked ˆ All these caves were built close to each other
figurative sculpture, emphasising the which depicts the communal harmony present
stupa instead. at that time.
ˆ Caves of the Second Period - ˆ Patronage -
ƒ Time Period - ƒ The patronage of Ellora monuments includes
y Around 5th century (4th till 7th CE) Rashtrakutas, Kalachuris(6th-7th cent. AD),
Chalukyas and the Yadavas(12th-14th cen.
ƒ Patronage -
AD).
y Vakataka Dynasty (Emperor Harishena).
ƒ The Rashtrakuta dynasty and Kalachuris
y The second phase is attributed to the constructed part of the Hindu and Buddhist
theistic Mahāyāna, or Greater Vehicle caves of Ellora and the Yadava dynasty
tradition of Buddhism. constructed a number of the Jain caves. They
ˆ Important Point - Ajanta Caves encompass both were built close to one another and illustrated
Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana Buddhist the religious harmony that existed in ancient
traditions. India.

www.sleepyclasses.com 502 1800-890-3043

ˆ Important Points - ˆ Kailashnath Temple, Ellora
ƒ The rock-cut activity was carried out in three ƒ Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic
phases from the 6th century to the 12th rock excavation in the world, the Kailash
century. temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
y The earliest caves (caves 1–12), excavated ƒ Kailash temple excavation also features
between the 6th and 8th centuries, reflect sculptures depicting the gods, goddesses
the Mahayana philosophy of Buddhism found in Hinduism as well as relief panels
then prevalent in this region. summarising the two major Epics.
y The Brahmanical group of caves (caves ƒ It was built in the 8th century by the
13–29), including the renowned Kailasa Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
temple (cave 16), was excavated between ƒ Carved via the vertical excavation in which
the 7th and 10th centuries. the carvers started at the top of the original
y The last phase, between the 9th and 12th rock, and excavated downward.
centuries, saw the excavation of a group
of caves (caves 30–34) reflecting Jaina KAILASHNATH TEMPLE
philosophy.
ˆ The Carpenter’s Cave / Vishwakarma Cave /
Sutar - ki - jhopri at Ellora
ƒ All except one of the Buddhist Caves at Ellora
are Viharas.
ƒ The Cave number 10 also known
as Vishwakarma Cave is the only chaitya.
ƒ Cave 10 or the Vishvakarma cave or Carpenter’s
Cave is the most famous Buddhist Cave at
Ellora. The ceilings of this Chaitya hall has
been sculpted in such a way that it appears
having wooden ribs.

CARPENTER’S CAVE

ˆ Indra Sabha (Jaina)

ƒ The five Jain caves at Ellora belong to the
Digambara sect.
ƒ These caves show dimensions of Jain
philosophy and tradition and reflect a strict
sense of asceticism and known for detailed
work in sculpture.
ƒ Out of them, the Indra Sabha is a two storeyed
cave. It has a very fine carving of the lotus
flower on the ceiling. It possesses an imposing
image of Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath,
seated on her lion under a mango tree, laden
with fruits.

www.sleepyclasses.com 503 1800-890-3043

INDRA SABHA are not natural, but instead examples of Indian
rock-cut architecture.

Elephanta Caves

BAGH CAVES
ˆ Location - Southern Slopes of Vindhyas in Bagh
town of Dhar District in Madhya Pradesh.
ˆ Time Period - 5th - 7th century AD.
ˆ Religion - Buddhist. 7-meter-high masterpiece “Sadashiva” dominates
ˆ Important Points - the entrance of the cave. It represents the three
aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the
ƒ Group of nine rock-cut Buddhist monuments, Destroyer,
All of them are ‘viharas’.
ƒ Most significant is the Cave 4, commonly
known as the Rang Mahal (Palace of Colors).

ELEPHANTA CAVES
ˆ Tag - Designated as UNESCO World Heritage
ˆ Special Point - Site (1987) - currently managed by ASI.
ƒ The Bagh caves are located on the far bank of ˆ Description - The ‘City of Caves’, on an island
a seasonal stream, the Baghani/Bagheshwari. close to Bombay, contains a collection of rock art
ƒ These are renowned for mural paintings by linked to the cult of Shiva.
master painters of ancient India. The use of the ˆ Location - They are on Elephanta Island or
word «cave» is a bit of a misnomer, since these GHARAPURI (literally city of caves).

www.sleepyclasses.com 504 1800-890-3043

ˆ Why such a name ? - Called Elephanta by in Badami, a town in the Bagalkot district in
Portuguese because they found Elephant statues northern part of Karnataka, India.
on the caves. ˆ Tag -
ˆ Time Period - Time Period - 5th to 9th Cen. CE. ƒ The Badami Caves complex is part of
ˆ Patronage - Not clear a UNESCO-designated World Heritage
Site candidate under the title “Evolution
ˆ Recent Development - Why in News ?
of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami-
ƒ India’s first and longest sea ropeway project Pattadakal” in the Malaprabha river valley,
will connect Mumbai with the Elephanta considered a cradle of temple architecture that
Caves. formed the model for later Hindu temples in
ƒ It is to be executed by the Mumbai Port Trust, the region.
under the Ministry of Shipping. ƒ Very much famous for its Mural Paintings
ƒ It is Rs. 700 crore PPP (Public-Private - The earliest Brahmanical paintings so
Partnership) project . far known, are the fragments found
ˆ About the Caves - in Badami caves, in cave No.III belonging to
circa 6th century A.D.
ƒ There are two groups of caves on Elephanta
Island (two hillocks separated by a narrow
valley).
ƒ To the east, there is a Stupa Hill (thus named
because of ancient Buddhist stupa mounds at
the top) contains two caves, one of which is
unfinished, and several cisterns.
ƒ The larger group, to the west, consists of five
rock-cut Hindu shrines.

Badami Caves

BADAMI CAVES
ˆ Introduction -
ƒ The Badami cave temples are a complex
of Hindu and Jain cave temples located

www.sleepyclasses.com 505 1800-890-3043

 ˆ The earliest pre-historic paintings were
Indian Painting discovered in the Bhimbetka Caves in Madhya
Pradesh in 1957.

BHIMBETKA CAVE PAINTINGS

ˆ The Bhimbetka Cave site is located in the south
of Bhopal in the Vindhya Range of Madhya
Pradesh.
ˆ The rock paintings are present in more than
500 caves. It was declared a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 2003.
ˆ These caves were discovered by archaeologist
V.S. Wakankar.
ˆ The oldest paintings are estimated to be 30,000
years old and have survived because of their
PRINCIPLES OF PAINTING location deep inside the caves.
ˆ The history of paintings in India can be traced ˆ There is a marked continuity in the occupancy of
back to primitive rock paintings of Bhimbetka, caves from 100,000 BC to 1000 AD, with many
Mirzapur and Pachmarhi. paintings having been painted one on top of
ˆ Next came the painted pottery of the Indus another.
Valley civilisation, but the real birth of the art
LAKHUDIYAR CAVE PAINTINGS
of painting began in the Gupta Age.
ˆ Lakhudiyar meaning ‘one lakh caves’ is a group
ˆ Vatsyayana –”Kamasutra”
of pre-historic caves located on the banks of the
ˆ There are numerous references to the craft Suyal River, in Almora district of Uttarakhand.
of painting in the Brahmanical and Buddhist
ˆ The paintings are mostly drawings of humans,
literature, for example, the representation of the
animals and the weapons used by early humans.
myths and lore on textiles is known as Lepya
These paintings are created with the fingers in
Chitra.
the colours red, white and black.
ˆ There are also references to the art of Lekhya
ˆ Recently in January 2020, two new paintings
Chitra which incorporates line drawings
bearing a similarity with the Lakhudiyar
and sketches. Other types are Dhuli Chitra
paintings were discovered near Almora.
(painting or drawing executed on the floor) and
Pata Chitra (painting executed on cloth or palm CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN PAINTINGS
leaves).
ˆ The play Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta
mentions the names of various paintings or
patas, thereby facilitating an understanding of
the different styles of painting and the various
principles of painting.

PRE-HISTORIC PAINTINGS
ˆ Pre-historic paintings were generally executed
on rocks and these rock engravings are called
Petroglyphs.

www.sleepyclasses.com 506 1800-890-3043

MURAL PAINTINGS IN INDIA Ellora Cave Paintings
ˆ Artworks on the walls or a solid structure is ˆ The mural paintings at Ellora Caves are found
referred to as Murals. in five caves, mostly limited to Cave 16, i.e.,
ˆ These have existed in India since ancient times. Kailasha Temple.
ˆ Evidence of such paintings can be found at ˆ The are related to all three religions (Buddhism,
several locations in India. Jainism and Hinduism).
ˆ The beauty and the exquisiteness of mural ˆ Ellora Cave paintings are newer than the Ajanta
paintings can be seen in places like Ajanta Cave paintings.
(Maharashtra), Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), Jogimara Cave Paintings
Bagh Caves, Tirumalaipuram Caves and
Sittannavasal Cave patronised by the Pandyas, ˆ It is an artificially carved-out cave located in
Badami Cave Temples and Kailasha Temple in the Surguja district of Chhattisgarh. It is dated
Ellora (Maharashtra). to around 1000-300 BC and has a few paintings
and inscriptions of a love story in Brahmi script.
AJANTA CAVE PAINTINGS Paintings are of dancing couples and of animals
ˆ The Ajanta Caves, having one of the oldest like elephants and fish. The paintings have a
surviving murals of the Indian sub-continent, distinct red outline. Other colours like white,
were carved between the 2nd century BC and the yellow and black were also used.
7th century AD out of volcanic rocks. TECHNIQUES OF MINIATURE PAINTING
ˆ The Ajanta Caves consists of a set of approximately
There are several preconditions that are necessary
29 caves, set out in a horse-shoe shape.
to be fulfilled for making a miniature painting.
ˆ These caves were inscribed by Buddhist monks
patronised by the Vakataka kings, especially ˆ The painting should not be larger than 25 square
King Harishena. inches.
ˆ The subject of the painting would be painted in
Some important paintings at Ajanta are as follows:
not more than one-sixth of the actual size.
ˆ Scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha’s
ˆ In most of the Indian miniature paintings, the
former lives as a Bodhisattva, the life of Gautama
human figurines are depicted in profile.
Buddha, etc.
ˆ They usually have bulging eyes, a pointed nose
ˆ Paintings of various Bodhisattvas : Vajrapani
and slim waist.
(protector and guide, a symbol of Buddha’s
power), Manjusri (manifestation of Buddha’s EARLY MINIATURES
wisdom) and Padmapani (Avalokiteshvara)
ˆ As discussed earlier, miniature paintings were
(symbol of Buddha’s compassion).
small paintings with minute details.
ˆ The Dying Princess in Cave 16.
ˆ They were often painted for either books or
Some important images or sculptures at Ajanta are albums, on perishable material including paper,
as follows: palm leaves and cloth.
ˆ Mahaparinirvana of Buddha ˆ The art of miniature painting developed between
the 8th and 12th centuries. This kind of painting
ˆ The assault of Mara during Buddha’s penance
can be attributed to the eastern and western
ˆ Seated in Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra regions.

www.sleepyclasses.com 507 1800-890-3043

ˆ Two prominent schools are the following:
from this period is the Nimatnama (a book on
ƒ Pala School of Art cookery) during the reign of Nasir Shah who
ƒ Apabhramsa School of Art ruled over Mandu (Malwa Sultanate).
Pala School of Art ˆ This manuscript shows the synthesis of the
indigenous and Persian styles.
ˆ This school flourished during 750-1150 AD.
These paintings are generally found as a part MINIATURE ART
of illustrated manuscripts and were generally
ˆ Later, three major styles emerged that dominated
executed on palm leaf. They were mostly
the medieval landscape:
executed by Buddhist monks, and as their
religion practised non-violence against all living ƒ Mughal
beings, there was a stipulation that only banana ƒ Rajput
or coconut tree leaves be used. ƒ Deccan
ˆ There are lonely single figures in the paintings ˆ The artists borrowed elements from the Sultanate
and one rarely finds group depictions. They art but also developed their own individual
have simple compositions and were patronised styles.
by some of those rulers who promoted
Buddhism. The proponents of the Vajrayana MUGHAL ERA MINIATURE PAINTING
School of Buddhism also used and patronised
ˆ The paintings made in the Mughal period had
these paintings. The prominent painters were
a distinctive style as they were inspired by
Dhimman and Vitapala.
earlier Persian drawings. The focus shifted from
Apabhramsa School of Art depicting the gods to glorifying the ruler and
portraying his life. The artists focused on hunting
ˆ This school traces its origin to Gujarat and the
scenes, historical events and other court-related
Mewar region in Rajasthan.
themes. The Mughal paintings mostly offered
ˆ It was the predominant school of painting in a secular outlook, and they brought together
Western India during the 11th to 15th centuries. Persian naturalistic style and the opulence of a
ˆ Jain themes were the most common; later the great dynasty.
Vaishanava School also used these themes. ˆ During this period, the technique of
ˆ The artists brought in the concept of Gita Govinda “foreshortening” was added to the Indian
and secular love into these paintings that were painter’s repertoire. Under this technique,
otherwise dominated by the Jain iconography. ‘objects were drawn in a way that they look
closer and smaller than they really are.
ˆ In the early Jain phase, the paintings were made
on Palm leaf but in the later period they were
executed on paper.

MINIATURE ART DURING DELHI

SULTANATE
ˆ These paintings tried to create a synthesis of the
Persian elements borrowed from the artists’
origins and indigenous Indian traditional
elements.
ˆ There was a preference for illustrating
manuscripts and one of the finest examples

www.sleepyclasses.com 508 1800-890-3043

EARLY MUGHAL PAINTING: PATRONS AND ˆ Jahangir was a naturalist by nature and preferred
ARTISTS paintings of flora and fauna, i.e., birds, animals,
ˆ Babar established the Mughal dynasty after trees and flowers.
fighting a series of wars. ˆ Jahangir was himself considered to be a good
ˆ He did not have much time to commission artist and he had his own private workshop.
paintings, but he is said to have patronised ˆ His atelier mostly created miniature paintings
the Persian artist Bihzad who made some and the most famous amongst them were the
illustrations of the Mughal family tree. naturalistic paintings of the zebra, the turkey
and the cock.
ˆ Humayun who was a great patron of arts came
to the throne at a young age. ˆ One of the most famous artists from his period
was Ustad Mansur (who was given the title
ˆ He was interested in paintings and building
Nadir al Asr by Jahangir).
beautiful monuments, but his atelier was
disrupted when he lost the throne to Sher Shah SHAH JAHAN
Suri and was exiled to Persia.While he was at ˆ The tenor of the Mughal paintings changed
Shah Tahmasp’s court in Persia, he acquired rapidly in the period of Shah Jahan. Unlike his
the services of two main painters called Abdus father and grandfather who liked naturalistic
Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali who came back with depictions, Shah Jahan liked creating artificial
him after he won his throne back and established elements in the paintings.
the Mughal dynasty in India.
ˆ It is said that he tried to reduce the liveliness of
ˆ These artists were responsible for bringing the paintings and bring in unnatural stillness as
Persian influence into the Mughal paintings and he was inspired by the European style.
created many beautifully illustrated albums. ˆ He also ordered artists to increase the use of
During Akbar’s reign, they created an illustrated gold and silver in the paintings. He also liked
manuscript called Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot). brighter colour palettes as compared to his
predecessors.
AKBAR
ˆ Akbar was responsible for the establishment of AURANGZEB
an entire department devoted to the illustration ˆ Aurangzeb did not encourage painting and as
and scribing of his documents. a result, large number of Mughal court painters
ˆ He established a formal artistic studio called started migrating to the provincial courts in
Tasvir Khana where the artists were hired on a Rajasthan, etc.
salary and were able to develop their individual ˆ Hence, during the reign of Aurangzeb, there was
styles. a sharp decline in the activity of painting.
ˆ Akbar looked upon paintings as a means of study
REGIONAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
and amusement.
ˆ Akbar also recognised the skills of talented Indian
artists who had worked for previous rulers and
invited them to work in his Tasvir Khana.
ˆ Hence, ‘Indian influence’ started to appear in the
Mughal paintings.

JAHANGIR
ˆ The Mughal paintings reached their zenith in
the period of Jahangir.

www.sleepyclasses.com 509 1800-890-3043

RAJASTHANI SCHOOL OF PAINTING ˆ The Kishangarh School and Bundi School are the
prominent schools that come under the Marwar
Mewar School of Painting
School.
ˆ The kingdom of Mewar resisted Mughal
Kishangarh School Of Painting
suzerainty for the longest time, eventually
(17th-18th Century AD)
agreeing to Mughal power in the reign of Shah
Jahan. ˆ Paintings at Kishangarh are associated with the
ˆ If one looks at the early Mewar painting, it is most romantic legends-for example, the tale of
clear that it was dominated by the extraordinary Sawant Singh and his beloved Bani Thani, and
painter of the 17th century, Sahibdin. the intertwining of lives and myths, romance
and bhakti.
ˆ This period of Mewari painting focuses on
Sahibdin’s depiction of literary texts-the ˆ Nihal Chand (the painter) created some of the
Ragamala, the Ramayana and the Bhagavata most legendary paintings under this school.
Purana. ˆ It is sometimes argued that the women in the
ˆ After Sahibdin’s death, the style of Mewari painting ‘bani thani’ resemble the character of
paintings changed. Most of the paintings Radha.
depicted life at the court in Mewar. Bundi School Of Painting (17th-19th Century AD)
Amber-Jaipur School of Painting ˆ The twin kingdoms of Bundi and Kota are
collectively known as Hadoti.
ˆ The Amber rulers were another dynasty that
ˆ The sister States, formed by splitting the
was closely associated with the Mughals. Much
older Bundi kingdom between two brothers,
of the collection from this school has remained in
have closely intertwined histories and artistic
private hands and is unpublished.
traditions.
ˆ The Amber school is also called the ‘Dhundar’ ˆ Bundi and Kota’s kings were devotees of
school and their earliest pieces of evidence of Krishna and in the 18th century, they declared
this school come from the paintings at Bairat in themselves to be mere regents, ruling on behalf of
Rajasthan. the god who was the true king (similar patterns
ˆ Some paintings can also be seen on the palace of worship are seen in several other centres,
walls and mausoleum at Amer Palace in including Udaipur and Jaipur).
Rajasthan. ˆ Their Krishna- bhakti plays a role in painting.
ˆ In the Bundi school, paintings of local vegetation
MARWAR SCHOOL OF PAINTING
were detailed.
ˆ It is one of the most extensive schools of painting
ˆ The paintings are characterised by lush green
as it includes Jodhpur and Bikaner.
vegetation, dramatic night skies and depictions
ˆ Like Bikaner, Jodhpur too was a desert kingdom of water with light swirls.
that prospered through its close links with the ˆ Human faces were round with a pointed nose.
Mughals. In the paintings produced in the 15th
ˆ The sky was painted in different colours and
and 16th centuries, the men wore colourful
mostly a red ribbon is visible in the sky.
clothing and so did the women.
ˆ Mostly court scenes, hunting scenes and scenes
ˆ In this period, the artists followed the Mughal
related to Lord Krishna were painted. Baramasa
patterns but after the 18th century, the Rajput
is a popular theme of Bundi paintings.
elements became predominant, for example,
there was an influx of paintings that contained a ƒ It is an atmospheric description of the 12
linear rhythm coupled with bright colours. months by Keshav Das.

www.sleepyclasses.com 510 1800-890-3043

PAHARI SCHOOL OF PAINTING Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal and Nal
(17TH-19TH CENTURY) Damayanti.
ˆ Pahari painting is an umbrella term for the form ˆ Love scenes of Krishna were a very prominent
of painting that originated in the sub Himalayan theme. All the paintings had an other-worldly
states, which were also under Mughal influence. feel about them.
ˆ Many schools flourishing in smaller Rajput ˆ Another very famous group of paintings is the
kingdoms also came under the blanket of ‘Pahari ‘Twelve months paintings’, where the artist
Paintings’. tried to bring out the effects of the 12 months
ˆ These consisted of ateliers in the courts of around on the emotions of human beings.
22 princely States stretching from Jammu to ˆ This emotive style was popular untill the 19th
Almora. Two major schools of the Pahari School century.
can therefore be recognised: ˆ The Kangra school became the parent school to
ƒ Basholi School the other ateliers which developed in the region
ƒ Kangra School of Kullu, Chamba and Mandi.
ˆ In Kangra, Sansar Chand Museum can be visited
Basholi School (from 17th century)
to see the prominent Kangra school paintings.
ˆ Paintings of Pahari school in the 17th century
Miniature Paintings in South India
were from Basholi in Jammu and Kashmir.
They were Miniature Paintings. ˆ The trend of making miniature paintings was
ˆ These were the early phase paintings. The faces already prevalent in South India and it developed
of the figures were characterised by receding in the early medieval period.
hairlines and big expressive eyes shaped like ˆ The South Indian miniature paintings were
lotus petals. different from those of the north Indian schools
ˆ These paintings used a lot of primary colours, as they were characterised by the heavy use of
that is red, yellow and green. gold.

ˆ The artists used the Mughal technique of painting ˆ Furthermore, the artists concentrated on
on cloth but developed their own styles and painting divine creatures much more than
techniques. painting the rulers who patronised them.

Kangra School (from mid-18th century) Tanjore Painting (Famous for Gold Coating)

ˆ After the decline of the Mughal empire (especially ˆ The Thanjavur or Tanjore School is famous for its
following Nadir Shah’s invasion), many artists special style of decorative paintings.
trained in the Mughal style migrated to the ˆ It probably developed as the result of the defeat
Kangra region of Himachal Pradesh where they of the Thanjavur Nayakas by the Marathas and
received patronage from the Rajput Kingdom. the fall of the Vijayanagara empire.
ˆ The migration of artists led to the birth of the ˆ The Maratha rulers patronised this art form
Guler-Kangra School of painting. This school immensely during the 18th century. The
reached its zenith under the patronage of Raja paintings are unique as they are mostly created
Sansar Chand. on glass and wooden planks (Palagai padam)
ˆ The paintings that he commissioned were instead of cloth and vellum, which was
marked with a sensuality and intelligence that preferred in North India.
the other schools lacked. ˆ They are unique because of the use of brilliant
ˆ The popular subjects were the Gita Govinda, patterns and the liberal use of gold leaf.

www.sleepyclasses.com 511 1800-890-3043

 Roman statues.
ˆ This school was prevalent in Bengal and Bihar
region.
ˆ Apart from depicting the Greco- Roman heritage,
the artists made paintings on everyday bazaars
that showed Indian with a European background.

RAJA RAVI VARMA (1848-1906)

ˆ Raja Ravi Verma was one of India’s greatest
painters. He is considered to be the originator of
the school of modern painting.
ˆ The school was called modern because of the
heavy influence of techniques and themes.
ˆ He was unique as he brought together elements
ˆ This art form has been awarded geographical of South Indian painting with the Western
indication (GI) status by the Government of techniques of colour and style.
India.
ˆ He belonged to the state of Kerala and is known
ˆ Most of the paintings depict a smiling Krishna as the ‘Father of Modern Indian Art’.
in different poses and various major events in
his life. Bengal School of Art
ˆ The Bengal School is supposed to have arisen as
MODERN INDIAN PAINTING
a reaction against the existing styles of paintings.
Company Painting (Kampani Kalam) ˆ This school is unique as the artists use simple
ˆ In the colonial period, a hybrid style of painting colours. The idea of the Bengal school originated
emerged that combined the elements of Rajput, with the works of Abanindranath Tagore in the
Mughal and other Indian styles with European early 20th century.
elements. ˆ His Arabian Night series made a mark on a
ˆ These paintings evolved when officers of the global scale. He tried to incorporate Swadeshi
British East India Company employed painters values in Indian art and tried to reduce the
who had been trained in Indian styles of painting. influence of Western materialistic style among
artists.
ˆ The artists combined their employer’s European
tastes with their Indian sensibilities, and their ˆ He is known for his painting Bharat Mata (1905)
paintings were called ‘Company Paintings’. and various Mughal-influenced paintings.

Bazaar Painting ˆ The Bengal school painters rejected the art of

Raja Ravi Verma as they considered it imitative
ˆ This school was also influenced by the European and westernised.
encounter in India. Bazaar paintings were
ˆ The other notable painter of this school was
different from Company paintings.
Nandalal Bose whose works led to further
ˆ While the Company School mixed European development of Modern Indian Art. He was also
techniques and themes with Indian ones, the associated with Santiniketan.
Bazaar School absorbed Roman and Greek
ˆ He is known for his white-on- black Gandhi
influences.
sketch of the Dandi March, which achieved
ˆ The patrons made the painters copy Greek and iconic status during the 1930s. ‘

www.sleepyclasses.com 512 1800-890-3043

ˆ He was also entrusted with the task of illustrating ˆ The pen is first used to make outlines in black
the original document of the Constitution of colour, which is extracted from a mixture of
India. fermented jaggery, water and iron filings.
ˆ After the motifs are painstakingly drawn, various
FOLK PAINTINGS
vegetable dyes are used for filling in the colours.
Madhubani Painting ˆ The main centres for this art are Srikalahasti and
ˆ Traditionally done by the women of villages Machilipatnam in the State of Andhra Pradesh.
around Madhubani town (Bihar), are also called ˆ Srikalahasti style paintings are drawn free
Mithila Paintings. hand and the inspiration comes from Hindu
ˆ They find mention in the text of the Ramayana. mythology.
ˆ The paintings have a common theme and usually ˆ The paintings were mainly used to decorate
depict religious deities of the Hindus, including temple interiors. Kalamkari painting existed
Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi and Shiva. even during the Vijayanagara empire.
ˆ The figures in the painting are symbolic, for ex- ˆ It has received GI status. The Machilipatnam
ample, the fish depicts good luck and fertility. Kalamkari is influenced by Persian motifs and the
designs are printed with hand-carved traditional
ˆ The paintings are also made to depict auspicious
blocks with intricate detailing painted by hands.
like birth, marriage and festivals.
Warli Painting
Pattachitra Painting
ˆ The name of the painting comes from the people
ˆ Pattachitra, a traditional painting of Odisha,
who have been carrying out this painting
comes from the Sanskrit word patta, which
tradition that goes back to 2500-3000 BC.
means canvas/cloth, and chitra, which means
picture. ˆ They are called the Warlis, indigenous people of
ˆ The paintings show a mix of classical and folk
the Sahyadris that occupy mainly the Gujarat-
elements, with a bias towards the latter. Maharashtra border.
ˆ The base of the painting is treated cloth while ˆ These paintings have a close resemblance to
the colours used come from natural sources the mural paintings of Bhimbetka in Madhya
including burnt coconut shells, hingula, ramaraja Pradesh.
and lamp black. Thangka Painting
ˆ No pencil or charcoal is used. Instead, a brush is
ˆ Presently practised in Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh,
used to draw the outlines in red or yellow after
the Ladakh region and Arunachal Pradesh,
which the colours are filled in.
Thangka paintings were originally used as a
Kalamkari Painting medium of reverence that evoked the highest
ˆ The name kalamkari comes from the kalam or ideals of Buddhism.
pen used to paint these exquisite paintings. ˆ They were traditionally made by Buddhist
ˆ The pen made out of bamboo sharpened at one monks and particular ethnic groups.
end and wound with cloth to regulate the flow ˆ The skills of this art form have been passed down
of colours. from one generation to the other.
ˆ The base is cotton fabric while the colours used
ˆ Thangkas are painted on a base of cotton canvas
are vegetable dyes. The fabric is first treated to
(white background) with paints made from
bleach and soften it.
natural vegetable dyes or mineral dyes.

www.sleepyclasses.com 513 1800-890-3043

Manjusha Painting ˆ The painting is done mostly in white, while the
backdrop of painting is red or yellow.
ˆ This art form belongs to the Bhagalpur region of
Bihar. It is also known as Angika art, where ‘ang’ ˆ The colours are extracted from minerals and
refers to one of the Mahajanpadas. plants. The human shapes are geometrical and
stick-like.
ˆ Since snake motifs are always present, it is
also called snake painting. These paintings are ˆ The designs have gained popularity in recent
generally executed on boxes of jute and paper. times with a lot of T-shirts, female clothing, etc.
featuring Saura style designs.
Santhal Painting
ˆ These tribal paintings are drawn by a special
community called Jadu Patua or magic painters
in the Santhal tribal belts of Bengal/Bihar
borders.
ˆ Santhal painters never came under the influences
of the Mughals, Rajput or the British. Hence, the
design and style of their paintings are original
and authentic.
ˆ The painters use handmade paper which is
sometimes backed by canvas cloth.
ˆ Natural vegetable colours are used in the paints,
Saura Painting as can be seen in most tribal paintings.
ˆ They are made by the Saura Tribe of Odisha and
are similar to Warli paintings.
ˆ They are essentially a wall mural painting which
are ritualistic in nature. The Saura wall paintings
are generally dedicated to Idital, the main deity
of the Sauras.

www.sleepyclasses.com 514 1800-890-3043

 ART & CULTURE
ƒ Re - Rishabha
ƒ Ga - Gandhara
ƒ Ma - Madhyama
ƒ Pa - Panchama
ƒ Dha - Dhaivata
ƒ Ni – Nishada
ˆ Raga - These are the basis of classical music.
Ragas involve arrangement of Swaras in different
sequences.
ˆ There are 6 main Ragas in the Indian Music
System associated with season during which
they are played.
ƒ Raga Hindol - Spring
HISTORY OF MUSIC IN INDIA ƒ Raga Bhairav - Autumn
ˆ Music is the art based on organisation of ƒ Raga Megh - Rainy
different sounds in time. ƒ Shri Raga - Winter
ˆ The tradition of music in India is one of the oldest ƒ Raga Deepak - Summer - Tansen could light
musical traditions in the entire world because lamp by using this Raga.
it has been going on without any interruption ƒ Raha Malkauns - Winter
since the Stone Age.
ˆ Tala - Rhythm element of music, It is a sequence
ˆ Indian Music is divine in origin because it is of beats performed by singers using hands and
believed that God Shiva created them. He used fingers at fixed time cycles, and this varies from
to indulge in music and dance while performing 3 to 128 beats.
his responsibilities of creation and preservation
of Universe as well as while destroying evils. ˆ Rasa - Ragas involve generation of emotional
effects in the performer as well as in the listener.
ˆ The divine knowledge was recorded in the This emotional effect is known as Rasa.
book form by Bharata Muni in his famous
book Nataya Shastra, This book is the most ƒ Abhinavabharti written by Abinavagupta
authoritative text on music, dance and drama in (950 -1020 AD) contains the most detailed
India. analysis of Rasa Theory. (It is a commentary
on Bharats Muni’s Natya Shastra)
FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF
INDIAN MUSIC PROGRESS IN MUSIC AND DANCE DURING
ANCIENT AGE
ˆ Swara - These are the categories of sounds
associated with music and are 7 in number. The ˆ Some scenes of communal dance have been
group of 7 Swaras is known as Gamut. found in Bhimbhetka cave paintings of Madhya
Pradesh.
ˆ 7 Swaras and their full form
ƒ Sa - Shajda

www.sleepyclasses.com 515 1800-890-3043

ˆ Image of Dancing girl found at Harappa (made ˆ In the Tamil book, Tolkapiyam, there is a
at Steatite) and Mohenjodaro (made of Bronze) description of an old musical instrument called
inform that dance was practiced by the people of Yazh.
Harappa civilisation. ˆ Due to Historic age, music and dance developed
ˆ Harappans were aware of musical instruments under the patronage of courts and due to the
and practices music as well. efforts of individuals. Temples also contributed
ƒ A seal found at Lothal depicts a musical immensely to the progress of these art forms.
instrument similar to Veena. ˆ Some of the rulers took personal interest in
ˆ During the Vedic Age music has been practiced Music. Samudragupta is depicted playing Veena
as the hymns of Samadeva have been set to in his coins.
musical tones. Gandharva Veda deals exclusively ƒ According to Vatsyayana, prostitutes were
with music. formally trained in music and dance.
ˆ In Ramayan there is a reference to Ravana Large number of devadasis were maintained in
playing the Veena. temples for entertainment of temple dieties with
ˆ The famous scholar Panini in his book dance and music. According to Kalidasa, Mahakal
Ashtadhyayi wrote about various instruments, Temple of Ujjain had a large number of devadasis.
he also developed music on scientific basis and
gave it a classical bent.

www.sleepyclasses.com 516 1800-890-3043

PROGRESS IN MUSIC AND DANCE DURING KHAYAL
MEDIEVAL AGE
ˆ Amir Khusrau invented it and it came out of the
ˆ Amir Khusrau was a great musician from the Qawwali singing style.
Sultanate Period. ˆ It also gives importance to music and rather the
ƒ He is credited with inventing around 19 Ragas words.
out of which - Khayal, Tarana and Qawwali ˆ The Mughal Emperor Mohammad Shah
are the most famous. patronised KHAYAL in his court.
ƒ He is credited with inventing the Sitar by
combining Veena (Indian) and Tambura THUMRI
(Iranian). Tabla is also regarded as one of his ˆ Thumri gained prominence in the 19th century
many inventions. under the patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
of Awadh.
PROGRESS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD
ˆ It is romantic as well as devotional in nature,
ˆ Akbar loved and patronised music in all forms. and overall it is foams for sensuality.
According to Abul Fazal, 36 musicians played ˆ Themes generally revolve around a girl’s
vocal instruments in Akbar’s court. devotion and love for Krishna.
ƒ Most famous of them - Tansen - Raag Megh
and Raag Deepak. TAPPA
ˆ It originated from the folk songs of the camel
ƒ Kathak Dance was also patronised by Akbar
riders of Punjab.
in his court.
ˆ The word tappa stands for jumping, bouncing
ƒ Shah Jahan cultivated music in his court and skipping.
ƒ Aurangzeb himself was a proficient player of ˆ Tappa is crisp and highly volatile in nature.
Veena. Most of the books on music in Persian
Language were written during the reign of KIRTAN
Aurangzeb. ˆ It is a form of Vaishnavite congregational
singing.
INDIAN VOCAL MUSIC
ˆ It was originated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
DHRUPAD ˆ It involves chanting hymns or mantras.
ˆ This is the oldest Vocal style, here the greater
significance is given to music rather than the
words. Indian Dance Forms
ˆ Main exponents are Swami Haridas and Tansen.
ˆ Patronized by Akbar and Raja Maan Singh of
Gwalior.
ˆ It is performed by a solo singer or at times by a
few singers together.

QAWWALI
ˆ Amir Khusrau created Qawali through a fusion
of Persian and Indian Musical Traditions.
ˆ It is devotional in nature.
ˆ It is sung in a group with a solo voice against a
chorus.

www.sleepyclasses.com 517 1800-890-3043

BACKGROUND ˆ The guru passes on the knowledge of the different
ˆ As the story goes in Bharata’s Natya Shastra, traditions - sampradayas classical art form onto
when Lord Brahma was requested by the gods to the disciple. This guru-shishya parampara forms
create a pastime, he combined certain aspects of the core of Indian dance forms.
the four Vedas and created a fifth Veda known ˆ Presently, as per the Sangeet Natak Akademi,
as the Natya Veda. there exists eight classical dance forms in India,
ˆ Natya is an amalgamation of dance, drama and which include Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi,
music and included Paathya (words) from the Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Odissi, Manipuri,
Rig Veda, Abhinaya (gestures) from the Yajur Kathak and Sattriya.
Veda, Geet (music) from Sama Veda and Rasa BHARATNATYAM
(emotions) from the Atharva Veda.
ˆ This highlights the divine importance attached
to dance in the Indian cultural tradition.
ˆ From Shiva’s Tandava dance, which signifies
the cycle of creation, preservation and
destruction, to the feminine response of Parvati,
Indian mythology is replete with examples of
dance forms and expressions.
ˆ Similarly, the engravings of community dancing
at the girl (Mohenjo-Daro) of the Harappan
Civilisation highlights the importance of dance
as a means of social entertainment.
ˆ Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh and
the sculpture of the Bronze dancing
ˆ The first formal mention of dance is found in
Bharata’s famous work Natya Shastra, which is
a most comprehensive and vivid treatise on the
various facets of Indian classical dance. ˆ Oldest among all classical dance forms,
Bharatanatyam derives its name from ‘Bharata
ˆ The work was compiled probably between
Muni’ and ‘natyam’ which means dance in
200 BC and 200 AD and describes in detail the
Tamil. However, other scholars have ascribed
techniques, postures, emotions, ornaments, stage
the Bharata’ to ‘Bhava’, ‘Raga’ and ‘Taal”.
and even the audience.
ˆ The origin of this dance form can be traced back
ˆ Bharata Muni describes dance as the ‘complete
to ‘Sadir- the solo dance performance of the
art’ encompassing within its scope all other
temple dancers or ‘devadasis’ in Tamil Nadu,
forms of art music, sculpture, poetry and drama.
hence it was also referred to as Dashiattam’.
INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE FORMS ˆ With the decline of the Devadasi system, the art
ˆ Distinct styles of dance have evolved in different too became nearly extinct. However, the efforts
regions of India, each with their own specific of E. Krishna Iyer (1897-1968), a prominent
nuances. However, all these dance forms are freedom fighter, revived this dance form.
governed by the basic rules and guidelines laid ˆ Previously, this dance form was performed
down in the Natya Shastra, the principal rule by solo female dancers; it has since become
being that true transfer of knowledge can only
come through a guru.

www.sleepyclasses.com 518 1800-890-3043

 increasingly popular among male and group
artists as well.
ˆ Rukmini Devi Arundale (1904-86), another
famous proponent of Bharatanatyam, is
remembered for giving global recognition to the
dance.
ˆ Bharatanatyam is often referred to as the
‘fire dance’, as it is the manifestation of fire
in the human body. Most of the movements in
Bharatanatyam resemble that of a dancing flame.
ƒ In this dance form, equal emphasis is given KUCHIPUDI
to both the Tandava and Lasya aspects of
dance, with major emphasis on ‘mudras’.
ƒ One of the principal mudras is ‘Katakamukha
Hasta’ in which three fingers are joined to
symbolise ‘Om’.
ˆ Famous proponents: Yamini Krishnamurthy,
Lakshmi Viswanathan, Padma Subramanyam,
Mrinalini Sarabhai, Mallika Sarabhai, Alarmel
Valli, etc.

KUCHIPUDI
ˆ Originally performed by a group of actors going
from village to village, known as Kusselavas,
Kuchipudi derives its name from the village of
Kusselavapuri or Kuche- lapuram in Andhra
Pradesh.
ˆ In the 17th century, Siddhendra Yogi formalised
and systematised the tradition. With the advent
of Vaishnavism, the dance form became a
monopoly of the male Brahmins and began to
be performed at temples.
ˆ The dance form gained prominence under the
patronage of the Vijayanagara and Golconda
rulers.
ˆ However, it remained confined to villages and
remained obscure till the advent of the 20th
century, when Balasaraswati and Ragini Devi
revived this dance form. Lakshminarayan Sastri,
in the early 20th century, brought in new practices
such as solo recitals and female participation.

www.sleepyclasses.com 519 1800-890-3043

ˆ Some of the features of Kuchipudi dance are as ˆ However, with the breakdown of the feudal
follows: set-up, Kathakali began declining as an art
ƒ It involves difficult foot movements, and is form. It was revived in the 1930s by the famous
generally a team performance. Malayali poet V. N. Menon under the patronage
of Mukunda Raja.
y Most of the Kuchipudi recitals are based
on stories of the Bhagavata Purana but ˆ Some of the features of Kathakali dance are as
also have a secular theme. follows:
ƒ Kathakali is generally an all-male troupe
performance.
ƒ There is minimal use of props in the Kathakali
recital. However, very elaborate facial make-
up along with a head gear is used for different
characters.
ƒ Most of the Kathakali recitals are a grand
representation of the eternal conflict between
good and evil. It draws its themes from the
stories narrated in the epics and the puranas
It is also called as the ‘Ballad of the East”.

KATHAKALI ƒ The language used for Kathakali songs

is Manipravalam, that is a mixture of
Malayalam and Sanskrit.
ƒ Kathakali is remarkable in the representation
of the rasas through movements of eye
and eyebrows, through which the story is
conveyed. Nine important facial expressions
called ‘Navarasas’ are taught to convey the
different emotions.
ƒ Kathakali is generally performed in open-air
theatres covered with coarse mats or temple
premises with lush green trees of Kerala
providing a backdrop.

MOHINIYATTAM

ˆ In the temples of Kerala, two forms of dance-

drama, Ramanattam and Krishnattam, evolved
under the patronage of feudal lords, narrating
episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
ˆ These folk drama traditions later became the
source of Kathakali, which derived its name
from the words ‘Katha’ meaning story and ‘Kali’
meaning drama.
ˆ It is a wonderful combination of music, dance
and drama.

www.sleepyclasses.com 520 1800-890-3043

ˆ Mohiniyattam or the Dance of an Enchantress ˆ It was primarily practised by the ‘maharis’ and
(Mohini’ meaning beautiful woman and patronised by the Jain King Kharavela. With
attam’ means dance) is essentially a solo dance the advent of Vaishnavism in the region, the
performance by women that was further Mahari system became defunct. Instead, young
developed by Vadivelu in the 19th century boys were recruited and dressed as females to
and gained prominence under the rulers of continue the art form. They came to be known as
Travancore in the present state of Kerala. ‘Gotipuas’.
Some of the features of Mohiniyattam are as ˆ In the mid-20th century, Odissi gained
follows: international acclaim due to the efforts of
Charles Fabri and Indrani Rahman. Some of the
ˆ Mohiniyattam combines the grace and elegance features of Odissi are as follows:
of Bharatanatyam with the vigour of Kathakali.
There is a marked absence of thumping of ˆ It is similar to Bharatnatyam in the use of Mudras
footsteps, and the footwork is gentle. and postures to express emotions.

ˆ Mohinivattam generally narrates the story of the ˆ Odissi dance form is unique in its representation
feminine dance of Vishnu. It has its own Nritta of gracefulness, sensuality and beauty.
and Nritya aspects like that of other classical
dances.
ˆ The Lasya aspect (beauty and grace) of dance is
dominant in a Mohiniyattam recital. Hence, it is
mainly performed by female dancers. The dance
is accompanied by music and songs.

ODISSI

ˆ The lyrics of Gita Govinda, written by Jayadeva,

are used along with compositions of some local
poets.
ˆ Famous proponents: Guru Pankaj Charan Das,
ˆ The caves of Udayagiri-Khandagiri provide Gurn Kelucharan Mohapatra, Sonal Mansingh,
some of the earliest examples of Odissi dance. Sharm Lowen (USA) and Anandini Dasi
The dance form derives its name from the ‘Odra (Argentina).
nritya’ mentioned in the Natya Shastra.

www.sleepyclasses.com 521 1800-890-3043

MANIPURI KATHAK

ˆ The Manipuri dance form finds its mythological

origin in the celestial dance of Shiva and Parvati
in the valleys of Manipur along with the local
‘Gandharvas’.
ˆ The dance gained prominence with the advent
of Vaishnavism in the 15th century Krishna
became the central theme of this dance form. It
is performed generally by female dancers.
ˆ Rabindranath Tagore brought back the dance
form into the limelight when he introduced it in
Shantiniketan (West Bengal).
ƒ Nagabandha mudra in which the body is Kathak
connected through curves in the shape of ‘8’,
is an important posture in the Manipuri dance ˆ Tracing its origins from the Ras Leela of
form. Brajbhoomi, Kathak is the traditional dance
form of Uttar Pradesh.
ƒ Ras Leela (Radha-Krishna love story) is a
recurring theme of the Manipuri dance recital. ˆ Kathak derived its name from the ‘Kathika’
or the storytellers who recited verses from the
ƒ Thang-ta and Sankirtana are also influenced epics, with gestures and music.
by Manipuri dance.
ˆ During the Mughal era, the dance form
ˆ Famous proponents: The Jhaveri sisters (Nayana, degenerated into a lascivious style and branched
Suverna, Ranjana and Darshana), Guru Bipin off into court dance. It was also influenced by
Singha and N Madhabi Devi, etc. Persian costumes and styles of dancing.
ˆ The classical style of Kathak was revived by
Lady Leela Sokhey in the 20th century.
ˆ Some of the features of Kathak are as follows:
ƒ An important feature of Kathak is the
development of different gharanas as it is
based on Hindustani style of music.
y Lucknow: Reached its peak under the reign
of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. It puts more
importance on expression and grace.

www.sleepyclasses.com 522 1800-890-3043

 y Jaipur: Initiated by Bhanuji, it emphasised ˆ The art form derives its name from the Vaishnava
fluency, speed and long rhythmic patterns. monasteries known as ‘Sattras’, where it was
y Raigarh: It developed under the patronage primarily practised.
of Raja Chakradhar Singh. It is unique in its ˆ It finds mention in the ancient text Natya Shastra
emphasis on percussion music. of sage Bharat Muni.
y Banaras: It developed under Janakiprasad. ˆ It is inspired from the Bhakti movement.
It sees a greater use of floor and lays special ˆ Some of the features of Sattriya dance include the
emphasis on symmetry. following:
ƒ Kathak dance form is characterised by the use ˆ The focus of the Sattriya recitals is to own
of intricate footwork and pirouettes. the devotional aspect of dance and narrate
ƒ The elements of a Kathak recital are as follows: mythological stories of Vishnu.
y Ananda or the introductory item through ˆ The dance is generally performed in a group by
which the dancer enters the stage. male monks known as “Bhoots” as part of their
y Thaat comprising soft and varied daily rituals or even on festivals.
movements. Todas and Tukdas are small ˆ The songs are a composition of Sankardev
pieces of fast rhythm. known as ‘Borgeets’.
y Jugalbandi is the main attraction of kathak ˆ Please Note: To date, the Sangeet Natak Akademi
recital which shows a competitive play has recognised eight classical dance forms,
between the dancer and the tabla player. whereas the Ministry of Culture has recognized
y Padhant is a special feature in which nine classical dance forms including Chhau.
the dancer recites complicated bols and
THE “HOPE” EXPERIMENT
demonstrates them.

SATTRIYA DANCE

SATTRIYA
ˆ Sattriya dance in modern form was introduced
by the Vaishnava Saint Sankardev in the 15th
century AD in Assam.

www.sleepyclasses.com 523 1800-890-3043