Extraction
Extraction
Article
Extraction of Pectin from Passion Fruit Peel: Composition,
Structural Characterization and Emulsion Stability
Yonglun Liang 1,† , Yang Yang 1,2,† , Lili Zheng 1,2 , Xiaoyan Zheng 1,2 , Dao Xiao 1,2 , Shenwan Wang 1,2 ,
Binling Ai 1,2 and Zhanwu Sheng 1,2, *
1 Haikou Experimental Station, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
2 Haikou Key Laboratory of Banana Biology, Haikou 571101, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract: Extraction methods directly affect pectin extraction yield and physicochemical and struc-
tural characteristics. The effects of acid extraction (AE), ultrasonic-assisted acid extraction (UA),
steam explosion pretreatment combined with acid extraction (SEA) and ultrasonic-assisted SEA
(USEA) on the yield, structure, and properties of passion fruit pectin were studied. The pectin
yield of UA was 6.5%, equivalent to that of AE at 60 min (5.3%), but the emulsion stability of UA
pectin was poor. The pectin obtained by USEA improved emulsion stability. Compared with UA,
it had higher protein content (0.62%), rhamnogalacturonan I (18.44%) and lower molecular weight
(0.72 × 105 Da). In addition, SEA and USEA had high pectin extraction yields (9.9% and 10.7%)
and the pectin obtained from them had lower degrees of esterification (59.3% and 68.5%), but poor
thermal stability. The results showed that ultrasonic-assisted steam explosion pretreatment combined
with acid extraction is a high-efficiency and high-yield method. This method obtains pectin with
good emulsifying stability from passion fruit peel.
Citation: Liang, Y.; Yang, Y.; Zheng,
L.; Zheng, X.; Xiao, D.; Wang, S.; Ai,
Keywords: pectin; extraction; passion fruit; steam explosion; ultrasonic; emulsion stability
B.; Sheng, Z. Extraction of Pectin from
Passion Fruit Peel: Composition,
Structural Characterization and
Emulsion Stability. Foods 2022, 11,
1. Introduction
3995. https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods11243995 Passion fruit, in increasing demand yearly, is widely grown in many countries. The
fleshy passion fruit pulp is commonly used to prepare juices and jams [1–3]. During this
Academic Editors: Sara Ghorbani
production, many by-products are produced, especially the peel, which accounts for about
Gorji and Paul J. A. Sobral
50–60% of the total fruit mass. How to use and improve the value of passion fruit peel has
Received: 29 October 2022 attracted much attention [4].
Accepted: 5 December 2022 Passion fruit peel is rich in pectin. Pectin is a complex polysaccharide, mainly com-
Published: 9 December 2022 posed of a galacturonic acid (GalA) main chain and a neutral sugar side chain. Its main
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
domains are homogalacturonans (HG), rhamnogalacturonan I (RG–I) and rhamnogalac-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
turonan II (RG–II) [5]. GalA residue in the HG backbone can be methylated at C–6 or
published maps and institutional affil- acetylated at O–2 and/or O–3 [6]. Pectin is often used as a gelling agent, thickener and
iations. stabilizer in food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics [7]. Passion fruit peel is a good source
for extracting pectin. Scholars have obtained pectin with an extraction yield of 6.20–18.2%
from passion fruit peel through different extraction methods [8–12].
Acid extraction (AE) is a traditional commercial pectin extraction method. Its process
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. is mature, but the extraction time is longer than 60 min, and its performance cannot fully
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. meet the needs of modern industry. Therefore, scholars have developed many novel
This article is an open access article pectin extraction technologies, such as ultrasound, microwave, ohmic heating, pulsed
distributed under the terms and electric field, high pressure, high-speed shearing and other emerging technologies and
conditions of the Creative Commons
their combinations [12,13]. Ultrasonic-assisted acid extraction (UA), a method to improve
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
resource efficiency, has been applied to the extraction of pectin by scholars. De Oliveira
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
et al. [10] obtained pectin with an extraction yield of 12.7% from passion fruit peel using
4.0/).
the UA method. Tran et al. [14] obtained pectin with a yield of 53.8% from papaya at a UA
time of 35 min, higher than AE for 100 min. Maran et al. [15] used a UA time of 27 min to
obtain pectin with a yield of 9.0% from Musa balbisiana.
Steam explosion (SE) is an efficient new heat treatment technology [16]. The principle
of SE is that biomass undergoes high-pressure steam and then instantaneously depressur-
izes, opening the biomass structure and releasing small molecular substances [17]. Studies
have shown that SE has a high extraction yield in the extraction of bioactive components,
such as phenols [18], flavonoids [19] and monosaccharides [20].
Pectin is gradually being accepted as a food emulsifier. The emulsifying and emulsion
stability properties of pectin have attracted much attention in recent years. The emulsifying
properties of pectin are closely related to the extraction method and the source of pectin [21].
Schmidt et al. [22] studied citrus pectin’s interfacial and emulsifying properties with different
esterification degrees. Chen et al. [23] obtained pectin with excellent emulsification at a low
concentration by the AE method from fruit dragon peel. Liu et al. [24] compared the structure
and emulsifying properties of Gaertn seed pectin, apple pectin and citrus pectin. In summary,
the emulsifying properties of pectin are related to the domain, protein content, degree of
esterification, molecular weight and other pectin structures of pectin molecules [25].
This study compared the pectin extraction yield of AE, UA, steam explosion pretreat-
ment combined with acid extraction (SEA) and ultrasonic-assisted SEA (USEA). Then, the
following research was conducted: (1) characterization of the protein content, total phe-
nol content (TPC), degree of esterification (DE), morphological characteristics, molecular
weight (Mw ), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
of pectin; (2) determination of pectin’s thermal and emulsifying properties and clarification
of the relationship between properties and structure. This work aims to obtain a pectin
extraction method from passion fruit peel with high yield and good emulsifying stability.
2.3. Yield
The yield of pectin was calculated with reference to Muñoz-Almagro et al. [28]. The
yield of pectin was calculated using the following formula:
V2
DE (%) = × 100 (2)
V1 + V2
and RI detector. We used 0.005 M sulfuric acid as the mobile phase (the flow rate and
temperature of the mobile phase were 0.8 mL/min and 70 ◦ C, respectively). GalA, Ara,
Gal, Rha, Glc, Gal, Xyl and Man were used as standard. The proportion of HG and RG–I
regions of pectins were calculated according to Yang et al. [6], using the following formula:
extraction yield of pectin was greatly improved after SE pretreatment of passion fruit peel. The
high-pressure steam treated by SE degraded some biomass components of the peel, reduced
the internal bond or network strength of the peel molecules and completed the instantaneous
thermal expansion impact material during the pressure relief stage, resulting in material
breakage. The extraction yield of AE and UA has no statistical difference, but the extraction
time was much lower for UA (15 min). The cavitation, thermal and mechanical effects of
ultrasound destroyed the cell wall of the peel and improved the mass transfer efficiency [34,35].
Therefore, the USEA technology is an efficient and high extraction yield method.
3.3.2. DE
The DE value is related to the physicochemical properties of the extracted pectin. As
shown in Table 2, the DE value of pectin recovered from passion fruit peel was 59.31–83.40%,
which belongs to high methoxy pectin [31]. DE of pectin by UA was significantly higher
than that of AE, similar to the results reported by Yang et al. [36], which may be due to
the lower temperature and shorter extraction time of UA in this experiment [10,37]. The
DE values of pectin extracted using SEA and USEA were significantly lower than those
of AE and UA, respectively, which attributed to the high temperature and high-pressure
environment during SE pretreatment [38]. In this study, SE pretreatment did not make
passion fruit pectin become low methoxy pectin, but it significantly reduced the DE value
of pectin. The technology of USEA may positively affect the de-esterification of pectin.
Figure 2 shows the XRD pattern of passion fruit pectin. The passion fruit pectin has
a semi-crystalline structure. There are two broad peaks near 13.8◦ and 21.1◦ . In addition,
a small part of the crystal structure is shown at 21.7◦ , 22.9◦ and 12.5◦ . The results are
similar to those reported for pectin from sunflowers [44] and sweet lemon [45]. The crystal
structures of pectin extracted by AE and SEA are similar but different from UA and USEA.
It shows that SE pretreatment has little effect on the crystal structure of pectin, while
the ultrasonic-assisted process changes the crystal structure of pectin. The difference in
peak shape of XRD patterns between ultrasonically and thermally treated pectin was also
reported [46].
ture. The pectin obtained by USEA and SEA was more susceptible to thermal degradation
mainly due to the decrease of Mw of pectin by SE treatment [23]. The change in the second
region can be explained by the thermal degradation of the galacturonic acid chain, the
decarboxylation of the acid side group and the carbon in the ring to generate different
gaseous products and solid char [49]. The third region shows a slow weight loss, which
may be due to the slow thermal decomposition of solid carbon due to the continuous
temperature increase. In general, SE pretreatment reduced the thermal stability of passion
fruit pectin.
Figure 4. Emulsifying properties of pectin. (a) The appearance of emulsions after storage for 1 h and
10 days at room temperature; (b) optical microscope images of droplets in the upper layer of the
emulsions after storage for 10 days at room temperature (×200).
Foods 2022, 11, 3995 10 of 12
4. Conclusions
This study compared four processes for extracting pectin from passion fruit peel.
The UA process improved the extraction efficiency and obtained a higher DE value and
Mw pectin but reduced the proportion of RG–I of pectin, resulting in the pectin emulsion
stability not being as good as that of the AE. SE pretreatment significantly improved the
extraction yield of pectin and obtained a lower DE value and lower Mw of pectin (SEA and
USEA). The pectin extracted by SEA and USEA has higher protein content, TPC and RG–I
structure and has better emulsion stability, but reduces the thermal stability of pectin. In
general, USEA combines the high efficiency of UA and the high extraction yield of SEA,
and the pectin obtained by this method has good pectin emulsion stability. This study
provides a pectin extraction method with a high yield and good emulsifying properties
from passion fruit peel.
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods11243995/s1, Figure S1: The creaming index of pectin
emulsions for 10 days at room temperature.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.S.; methodology, Y.L., Y.Y., B.A., Z.S.; investigation, Y.L.,
Y.Y., B.A., Z.S., L.Z., D.X., X.Z. and S.W.; data curation, Y.L., Y.Y., B.A.; visualization, Y.L., Y.Y.; formal
analysis, Y.L., Y.Y., B.A., L.Z., D.X., X.Z. and S.W.; writing—original draft, Y.L., Y.Y., Z.S.; project
administration, B.A.; writing—review and editing, B.A., Z.S.; funding acquisition, Z.S.; resources, Z.S.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Hainan Province,
China (320CXTD440), the Key Research and Development Program of of Hainan Province, China
(ZDYF2020173), and the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund for Innova-
tive Research Team Program of CATAS, China (1630092022003).
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article or Supplementary Materials.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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