MODULE V

MODERN TECHNIQUES OF RETROFITTING

To meet up the requirements of advance infrastructure new innovative materials/
technologies in civil engineering industry has started to make its way. However, these
technologies and materials have their limitations and to overcome this, new technologies
have to be invented and used. Old buildings have started to show a serious need of additional
methods to increase their durability and life. Many environmental and natural disasters,
earthquake being the most affecting of all, has also produced a need to increase the
present safety levels in buildings. Retrofitting is one of the best options to make an
existing inadequate building safe against future probable earthquake or other environmental
forces.

RETROFITTING

It is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to seismic activity,
ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes. It is also applicable for other natural
hazards such as tropical cyclones, tornadoes and severe winds from thunderstorms.

NEED FOR RETROFITTING

It is needed for earthquake damaged buildings and also for earthquake-vulnerable buildings
(with no exposure to severe earthquakes).

NEED OF RETROFITTING IN EXISTING EARTHQUAKE VULNERABLE

BUILDINGS

• Buildings have been designed according to a seismic code, but the code has been
upgraded in later years.

• Buildings designed to meet the modern seismic codes, but deficiencies exist in the
design and /or construction.

• Historical monuments and architectural buildings.

• Important buildings whose services are assumed to be essential just after an earthquake like
hospitals

. • Buildings, the use of which has changed through the years

. • Buildings that are expanded, renovated or rebuilt.

BASIC CONCEPT OF RETROFITTING

According to CEB (1997), the main aim is at upgradation of lateral strength, increase in the
ductility and increase in strength of the structure.

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RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES

The main two techniques of retrofitting are global techniques and local techniques.

GLOBAL TECHNIQUES

1. ADDING NEW SHEAR WALLS

This technique is Frequently used for retrofitting of non-ductile reinforced concrete frame
buildings. The added elements can be either cast‐in‐place or precast concrete elements.
New elements should preferably be placed at the exterior of the building. This method is not
preferred in the interior of the structure in order to avoid interior mouldings.

2. ADDING INFILL WALLS

Masonry infills contribute significant lateral stiffness, strength, overall ductility and energy
dissipation capacity. Structural load transfer mechanism is changed from frame action to
predominant truss action. Frame columns will now experience increased axial forces but with
reduced bending moments and shear forces. When infills are non-uniformly placed in a
building, cause soft storey effect, short-column effect, torsion and out-of-plane collapse.
Hence, seismic code tends to discourage such constructions in high seismic regions.

3. ADDING STEEL BRACINGS

This technique is an effective solution when large openings are required. Some of
the advantages of this method are higher strength and stiffness, opening for natural
light, amount of work is less since foundation cost may be minimized, adds much less weight
to the existing structure.

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4. ADDING WINGWALL OR BUTTRESS

Wing walls are added to increase lateral strength, ductility and stiffness of the structure.
They are placed on the exterior side of an existing frame.

5. INCREASING WALL THICKNESS

Here, we increase the thickness by adding bricks, concrete and steel reinforcement. So, the
wall can bear more vertical and horizontal loads and does not cause sudden failure of the
wall.

6. MASS REDUCTION

In this technique we are removing one or more storey of building as shown in the figure.
This decreases the load at foundation and increases the life and strength.

7. BASE ISOLATION

Base isolation is the process placing flexible isolation systems between the foundation and
the superstructure. It Provides safety against collapse of the structure due to ground
movement. It is also used in the seismic retrofitting of historic structures without impairing
their architectural characteristics by reducing the induced seismic forces

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Advantages of base isolation:

• It isolates building from ground motion i.e., Lesser seismic loads, hence lesser damage to
the structure and Minimal repair of superstructure • Building can remain serviceable
throughout construction • Does not involve major intrusion upon existing superstructure
Disadvantages of base isolation: • Expensive • Cannot be applied partially to structure unlike
other retrofitting • Allowance for building displacements • Not suitable for buildings rested
on soft soil • Inefficient for high rise buildings

8. MASS DAMPERS

A tuned mass damper (TMD), also known as a harmonic absorber or seismic damper, is a
device mounted in structures to reduce mechanical vibrations. It consists of a mass that is
mounted on one or more damped springs. The oscillation frequency of the mass is tuned to
be similar to the resonant frequency of the object they are mounted to.

Tuned mass dampers are used to reduce the maximum amplitude of the object while
weighing very much less than it. Their application can prevent discomfort, damage, or
outright structural failure. They are frequently used in power transmission, automobiles, and
tall buildings.

LOCAL TECHNIQUES

1. JACKETING

It is the most popular method for strengthening of building columns. The types of jacketing
are steel jacket, reinforced concrete jacket, fibre polymer composite jacket, etc. The purpose
of jacketing is to increase concrete confinement, to increase shear strength and to increase
flexural strength

i. Concrete jacketing: - It involves addition of longitudinal bars, closely spaced ties, and a
layer of concrete. The jacket increases both flexural strength and shear strength of concrete.
The usual practice consists of first assembling the jacket reinforcement cages, arranging the

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formwork and then placing the concrete jacket. It is cost effective. But, it increases
dimension and weight of structure.

ii. Steel jacketing: - Steel jacketing refers to encasing the member with steel plates and
filling the gap with non-shrink grout. The jacket enhances both flexural strength and shear
strength of concrete. Disadvantages are Complicated working procedure, Inner surface
corrosion, Heavy weight and C/S increases

iii. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) jacketing:- FRP is a composite material consisting of
polymeric resin reinforced with high strength fibers. The fibers can be of glass, carbon,
aramid,etc. They are suitable in low cost seismic retrofit applications. The FRP
composites are useful for repair, rehabilitation and retrofit of structures for the
following reasons:

a. The FRP sheets are light and flexible, which facilitate installation

b. It does not need drilling of concrete or masonry

c. The curing time required is less

d. The sheets are thin hence no marginal increase in the size of retrofitted member.

e. The material is chemically inert and has resistance against electro-chemical

corrosion

f. There is good fatigue strength, which is suitable for fluctuating loads

Jacketing of Beams: -

It gives continuity to the columns and increases the strength and stiffness of the structure.
While jacketing, avoid the creation of a strong beam-weak column joint. The beam should be
jacketed through its whole length. The reinforcement has also been added to increase
beam flexural capacity moderately. The most common ways of jacketing are one sided jacket
or 3- and 4- sided jackets

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Jacketing of Columns:-

Here concrete is added with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement around the
existing columns. It improves axial and shear strength of columns while the flexural strength
of column and strength of the beam-column joints are same. It improves the lateral load
capacity of the building in a distributed way-avoiding the concentration of stiffness unlike
the case of shear wall. There is no major changes in the original geometry of building
Beam-Column Joint Jacketing:- Beam column joints are the most vulnerable portion in a
reinforced concrete frame subjected to seismic forces. This critical region should have
enough confinement and shear capacity. Jacketing beam-column joint has been effective in
rehabilitating the joint as it increases the strength. It is very important to have a very strong
column as compared to the beam to avoid driving of the column or joint in to significant
inelastic behavior.

2. STRENGTHENING OF INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS

Strengthening of columns foundations is required in the case of applying additional

loads. Widening and strengthening of existing foundations may be carried out by
constructing a concrete jacket to the existing footings. The new jacket should be properly
anchored to the existing footing and column neck in order to guarantee proper transfer of
loads. This can be accomplished by drilling holes into existing concrete of footing and
epoxy grouting the longitudinal reinforcement of jacket. Another possibility is to provide
full anchorage length for longitudinal reinforcement by extending the column jacket at the
top of footing.

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REPAIR OF CORROSION DAMAGE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

1. GUNITING
Guniting or application of shotcrete is the oldest method of repairing concrete. In this
method, the mixture of cement and sand in specific ratio and water is forcefully sprayed or
shot from the nozzle using compressed air. The equipment consists of the compressor, spray
nozzle, and flexible hose pipe. The size and working capacity of the machine depend upon
the quantity of work. The dry mix of cement and sand or readymade mortar named shotcrete
is conveyed from the machine with the help of air pressure. The water is added to the
nozzle by a separate connection for the hydration of the cement. The nozzle is
designed in such a way that it automatically mixes the mortar and water and then the
slurry is sprayed or shot over the repairing area. If the thickness of repaired portion is
more than 25 mm, wire mesh of different diameter can be used.

2. MIGRATING CORROSION INHIBITOR

A corrosion inhibitor is defined as a chemical substance that reduces the corrosion of metals
without a reduction in the concentration of corrosive agents. Corrosion inhibitors
work by reducing the rate of the anodic and/or cathodic reactions thereby suppressing
the overall corrosion rate. The effectiveness of migrating corrosion inhibitors is generally
controlled by environmental, material and structural factors. Migrating corrosion
inhibitors are generally organic-based materials that move through unsaturated concrete by
vapour diffusion. Organic corrosion inhibitors such as amino-alcohols are believed to
suppress corrosion by primarily being adsorbed onto the steel surface thereby displacing

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corrosive ions such as chlorides. The adsorbed organic layer inhibits corrosion by interfering
with anodic dissolution of iron while simultaneously disrupting the reduction of oxygen
at the cathode. When assessing the suitability of repairs with migrating corrosion
inhibitors, two important issues must first be considered: • The likely penetration of the
material into the concrete needs to be determined. • The severity of the corrosive
environment at the reinforcement must be quantified. Migrating corrosion inhibitors are
designed to move fairly rapidly through partially saturated concretes that allow vapour
diffusion. Penetration has however been found to be poor in near-saturated concretes
typically found in partially submerged marine structures. This poor penetration
performance may be ascribed to high moisture and salt levels that prevent significant
vapour diffusion through the concrete. It is critical therefore that satisfactory
penetration of corrosion inhibitors is checked before undertaking full-scale repairs.
The performance of migrating corrosion inhibitors in controlling chloride-induced
corrosion is largely dependent on chloride levels at the reinforcement.

3. ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES

Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete is an electrochemical process that occurs

when embedded steel is depassivated by a reduction in concrete alkalinity or the
presence of corrosive ions such as chlorides. Two repair techniques, • Electrochemical
chloride removal and • Realkalization, attempt to restore passivating conditions by the
temporary application of a strong electric field to the cover concrete region.

• REALKALIZATION

Realkalization is a concrete treatment process used to combat carbonation-induced corrosion

of steel in concrete. When CO2/CO from the atmosphere penetrates into concrete and reacts
with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonates, it is known as carbonation. CO2/CO in
the presence of moisture converts to carbonic acid and attacks concrete, which
reduces the alkalinity of concrete. The process of realkalization reverses the
carbonization process and returns the material to a stronger state. Realkalization is carried
out by temporarily applying an electric field between the reinforcement in the concrete and
an externally mounted anode mesh. During the process an alkaline electrolyte, such as
sodium or potassium carbonate solution, is transported into the concrete, increasing the
alkalinity of the cover zone. At the same time, electrolysis at the reinforcement surface
produces a high pH environment. This process returns the steel reinforcement to a passive
condition. The treatment is monitored by determining the voltage-to-current ratio. Once
this reaches an approximately constant value, the process is considered to be complete.

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• ELECTROCHEMICAL CHLORIDE REMOVAL

It is a process that extracts chloride from chloride contaminated concrete members. The
electrochemical chloride extraction employs the electrical field between steel bars and an
external anode. It reduces chloride levels in concrete and re-establish the passive conditions of steel
bars. The ECE treatment process is conducted by using a temporary electric field between
reinforcements and an anode, which is externally attached to the concrete surface. ECE can be
applied to both vertical and horizontal concrete surfaces, and it provides extended service life and
minimum disruption of traffic. The negative terminal of a DC power supply is connected to the
reinforcing steel in the concrete. In contrast, the positive terminal is connected to an anode
embedded in an electrolyte medium applied to the surface of the concrete. Chloride ions move
toward the anode, which is outside the concrete. These chloride ions leave the concrete and
accumulate in the electrolyte media around the anode. The chloride content of the concrete is
reduced, particularly on and around the negatively charged reinforcing steel. During the
electrolysis process, the production of hydroxyl ions at the reinforcing steel surface results in a high
pH highly alkaline concrete environment after completion of the process. This alkaline environment
protects the steel against future chances of corrosion.

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STRENGTHENING BY PRESTRESSING PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is a form of concrete used in construction. It is substantially
"prestressed" (compressed) during production, in a manner that strengthens it against tensile
forces which will exist when in service. This compression is produced by the tensioning of
high-strength "tendons" located within or adjacent to the concrete and is done to improve the
performance of the concrete in service. Tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire
strands or threaded bars that are most commonly made from high-tensile steels, carbon
fiber or aramid fiber. The essence of prestressed concrete is that once the initial
compression has been applied, the resulting material has the characteristics of high-
strength concrete when subject to any subsequent compression forces and of ductile
high-strength steel when subject to tension forces. This can result in improved
structural capacity and serviceability compared with conventionally reinforced concrete in
many situations.

ADVANTAGES

• The cross-section is utilized more efficiently in pre-stressed concrete as compared to

reinforced concrete.

• Pre stressed concrete allows for a longer span.

• Pre-stressed concrete members offer more resistance against shear force.

• Pre stressing in concrete improves the ability of concrete member to absorb impact
loads more efficiently.

DISADVANTAGES

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 • Use of pre-stressed concrete needs expertise and special equipment.

• It requires quality control and inspection.

• It can be costly for small scale in initial cost.

TYPES OF TENSIONING IN PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

(1) INTERNAL PRESTRESSING

(2) EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING

INTERNAL PRESTRESSING

In this system, a prestressing force is applied to the high tensile steel. It induces
internal compressive stresses in concrete. It is the most commonly used method because of
easy and accurate application.

Internal prestressing can be done by two methods:

❖ Pre-Tensioned Concrete

❖ Post- Tensioned Concrete

PRE-TENSIONED CONCRETE

Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are

tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. In this method, prestressing is induced before the
concrete is placed and it is done in factories. Pre-tensioning is accomplished by stressing
wires or strands, called tendons, to predetermined amount by stretching them between two
anchorages prior to placing concrete. The concrete bonds to the tendons as it cures,
following which the end-anchoring of the tendons is released, and the tendon tension forces
are transferred to the concrete as compression by static friction. This type of prestressing
method is commonly used for small sized members like beams, slabs, piles, sleepers and
electric poles, etc which can be casted easily in factories. The tendons tend to regain
their original length by shortening and in this process transfer through bond a
compressive stress to the concrete. The tendons are usually stressed by the use of hydraulic
jacks.

Stages In Pre-Tensioning

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Advantages And Disadvantages

• Pre-tensioning is done in the factories so it is more reliable and durable technique. But is
used for smaller sections, so heavier and longer sections cannot be prestressed

. • When cable is released or cut, after pre-tensioning it leads to more losses due to
shortening. The shrinkage and creep losses are also more in pre-tensioning system.

POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

In a post-tensioned Concrete, the tendons are stressed and each end is anchored to the
concrete section after the concrete has been cast and has attained sufficient strength to safely
withstand the prestressing force. Here tendons are coated with grease or a bituminous
material to prevent them from becoming bonded to concrete. Another method used in
preventing the tendons from bonding to the concrete during placing and curing of
concrete is to encase the tendon in a flexible metal hose before placing it in the forms. After
the tendon has been stressed, the void between the tendon and the sheath is filled with grout.
Thus, the tendons become bonded to concrete and corrosion of steel is prevented.

Stages In Post-Tensioned Concrete

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Advantages

• It reduces or eliminates shrinkage cracking-therefore no joints, or fewer joints, are

needed.

• Cracks that do form are held tightly together.

• It allows slabs and other structural members to be thinner.

• It allows us to build slabs on expansive or soft soils.

• It lets us design longer spans in elevated members, like floors or beams.

Disadvantages

• Since there are a number of tendons and wires spread inside the post tension slab, it can
result in corrosion. But largely, this tendency to corrode depends on the quality of the
material used.

• Complexity of work: The post tension slab can be made only by skillful professionals.

EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING

External prestressing is a prestressing system in which the concrete structural members

are prestressed longitudinally using tendons located completely outside the concrete section.
External prestressing refers to a post-tensioning method in which tendons are placed on the
outside of a structural member. This technique is adopted in bridges and
strengthening of buildings. It is a preferred strengthening methods because of its speed and
the possibility of monitoring, future re tensioning and replacing the tendons. External

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prestressing becomes very important and popular technique for prestressing of concrete
structures, as it improves the load carrying capacity of structural members. It is often useful
for rehabilitation, for strengthening or stabilizing a structure by providing confining
forces.

ADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING

• Profiles of external tendons are easier to check during and after Installation hence,
provide the ease of inspection.

• External tendons can be removed and replaced if any type problem found.

• The external tendons are linked to the structure only at the deviation and anchorage
zones, chances of friction losses are significantly reduced.

• Due to independency of construction operations workmanship reduced.

• It usually allows easy access to anchorages, adjustment and control of tendon forces.

• Members could be made thinner so that there is a reduction of dead load.

DISADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING

• External tendons are more easily accessible than internal ones and are more vulnerable to
corrosion.

• Free length should be limited because external tendons are subjected to vibrations.

• Deviation and anchorage zones are vital additions to the cross section and these
elements must be designed to support large longitudinal and transverse forces.

• Values of eccentricities of external tendons are generally smaller as compared to

internal.

REPAIRING OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Due to many reasons, steel structure is becoming popular day by day throughout the world.
This structural steel may be damaged by overload, high wide load impacts, fire or
seismic effect. If this damaged condition is unrepaired, then the condition of the components
of this steel structure may be deteriorated. Due to this reason, Repairing and retrofitting is
needed to overcome such deterioration. There are many methods to repair steel structures.
So, there are many methods to repair steel structures. This may depend on location of the
crack, type of crack, type of repairing work etc. So, in this portion of this article, causes of
repairing, methods of repairing work, some practical examples and recommendations
are included. So, some reasons which are liable to such type of repairing work are discussed
below:

a. Fatigue

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 The main cause of fatigue is the creation of cracks in members or connections of
steel structures. It can be caused due to cyclic service loading.

b. Fracture

Fracture is a common phenomenon of steel structures. It is occurred when the rapid

extension of the crack is happened. Fatigue and fracture are different. The large extension
of fatigue may cause fracture. The fracture of the members of steel structures may cause
total collision of this structure. When the loads are applied at the first time of the steel
structures then the fracture can be caused.

c. Rough holes

These are observed in truss members during ultrasonic testing and inspection. This is clear
indication of the starting of fatigue cracks. When at a specific point, the connection
is required in steel structures, then a hole is drilled. This is called open holes.

d. Bullet Indentation/Bullet Holes

These holes and indentations can be classified as nicks. They may have fissures around the
perimeter and hence are stress raisers.

e. Misaligned Holes/Open Holes

Open and misaligned holes shall be assessed to establish if fasteners are required for a
structural connection.

f. Nicks and Gouges

Nicks, gouges and notches create a discontinuity in the stress flow and are considered to
be stress raisers. All nicks, gouges and notches shall be located and depths measured in
order to determine the appropriate repair procedure.

g. Cracks

All cracks shall be identified and their size and location noted.

h. Bending/Buckling/Sweep

Trusses are comprised of both tension and compression members. Distortion in

tension members is not as critical as distortion in compression members.

METHODS OF REPAIRING OF DAMAGED STEEL MEMBERS

1. HOLE DRILLING

Hole Drilling is another famous method for repairing work. The main objective of this
method is to remove the sharp notch at the crack tip. Several methods are used for repairing
of steel structures. The choice of method depends on the location of fatigue cracking and

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may depend on the availability of certain skills and tools from local contractors who would
perform the repairs.

2. SURFACE TREATMENT

The effective and commonly used surface treatment for repairing of steel structures is
hammer peening. This treatment is also easiest and least expensive. This can also be used
for repair of shallow surface cracks up to 1/8 inch (3mm) deep. And this treatment can also
be applied on the welds.

3. GRINDING

Grinding is another popular method for repairing of steel structures. This is also used to
create a nice finish of the joints or welds of steel structures. It is mainly used to remove
portions of a detail containing small cracks at any location of steel structures. Under cyclic
loading, these cracks may turn into fatigue cracks. So, there grinding is needed to repair
this. Especially in the field of offshore engineering, structures with tubular joints, where the
welds are very large, grinding is effective in shaping the weld and by reducing the
associated stress concentration factor, it is enhancing the fatigue strength.

There are two types of grinding. :

a. Disc grinding

Disc grinding is a circular type of instrument which is an effective means to remove metal.
However, if the grinder operation is not careful, too much material may be removed. The
goal of the grinding is to remove a small amount of material.

b. Burr grinding

The main goal of the Burr grinding is to work in more confined regions than Disc grinding.
It is easier to handle and excellent for grinding the edges of welds. However, the cutting
rate of Burr grinders 3 ft/hr (1m/hr) is slower than that of grinding wheels, 6ft/hr (2m/hr).
The Burr grinding operation is similar to Disc grinding, However the goal is different, and
it needs to be held differently.

4. AIR HAMMER PEENING

Air Hammer peening produces the tensile residual stress during the welding process. And
this method is simple and effective for weld improvement. And this is commonly used to
remove slag from welds. This type of peening is also useful for improving the fatigue
performance of welds without detectable fatigue cracks. After repair welding, 175%
improvement can be done with this. The following picture shows a typical Air Hammer.

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 5. CORROSION

On the contact with sea water, unprotected steel can be corroded. and the higher corrosion
rate can depend on different locations, structural type, water temperature, wave condition
etc.

Methods To Overcome Corrosion

a. Dry and Wet Welding

To repair the corroded steel structures in seawater, a steel patch welding is a good method
for this. They are two types depending on the basis of dry and wet environment. They
are dry welding and wet welding. In dry welding process, steel patch plate is welded in a
dry chamber condition which is created in under sea water. In this process initial cost is
high but maintenance cost is low. And in the wet welding process, wet welds are more
susceptible to defects, such as pores, cracks, inclusion etc. Its initial cost is low but
maintenance cost is high. A paint system which is defined as a coating for carbon steel
used in structures is considered as the corrosion protective coating for steel structures.
And hot dipped galvanizing is also regarded as a corrosion protection method for steel
structures. Using a cover plate at damage steel framed structure is more effective to get
strength in the damaged part.

b. Epoxy

For smaller steel sections, an effective and handy approach to repairing steel is by using
epoxy specialized in reconnecting and reinforcing broken and cracked steel sections. The
procedure is done by creating the epoxy mixture, which then leads to the application of the
epoxy into the damaged section. The final step is to polish the section with epoxy using
sandpaper, which would then be smoothened even further with a grinder. This process works
in ensuring that steel would be repaired and reinforced even without the need to do some
welding. This is a convenient and quick process that works best for quick repairs for

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smaller steel parts and sections. c. Rust Removers and Protective Coating Should your
steel sections appear that they are experiencing early signs of rust, it is best to act upon it as
soon as possible, and use rust removing solutions. These chemicals would be able to remove
any signs of rust on your steel section, which can then be cleaned after, returning to its former
state. A good preventive measure that can help protect your steel sections and parts from rust
is by applying protective coatings such as rust-resistant paint or solutions. These solutions
help add an extra layer that provides extra protection against elements that cause rust,
prolonging the life of your steel parts and sections.

6. ROUGH HOLES

Members with rough holes are flagged for future inspection. The inspection interval may be
reduced from the regular inspection interval.

7. BULLET INDENTATION/BULLET HOLES

Bullet indentation/bullet holes are drilled out to eliminate stress raisers and tear cracks when
practical. The open holes are filled with fully torqued high strength A325 bolts for
compression members; however, bolts are not required for tension members.

8. MISALIGNED HOLES/OPEN HOLES

Misaligned holes/open connection holes shall be reamed and a high strength A325
bolt installed and torqued if they are a structural connection – if not a structural
connection, no action is warranted. Many trusses have open holes where bridge rail
and/or bracing modifications were made. These open holes may not require filling. Open
holes shall be filled with high strength bolts when structural considerations warrant.

9. NICKS AND GOUGES

Nicks and gouges up to 5 mm deep shall be removed by grinding provided that the net
cross-sectional area after removal of the notch is at least 98% of the original cross-sectional
area. Notch removal shall be accomplished by fairing to the edge of the material with a slope
not steeper than 1:10. Grinding marks shall be parallel to the direction of rolling. Notches
deeper than 5 mm shall be repaired by welding.

10. CRACKS

Truss members with identified cracks under a rivet head are generally monitored. Tension
members with cracks extending beyond the rivet head are generally replaced and
compression members with cracks extending beyond the rivet head will generally be
repaired by field welding. Where replacement is not practical, an alternative suitable repair
procedure can be developed. Cracks in rolled beams or plate girders are repaired
using approved welding procedures developed for the particular case.

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11. BENDING/BUCKLING/SWEEP

Severely distorted truss members are generally replaced when they cannot be cost
effectively repaired. Steel girder sections are repaired either by a heat straightening method
or by partial replacement.

12. FLAME STRAIGHTENING

This repair method does not significantly degrade steel properties and should be considered
for the repair of all bent members with the following exceptions:

• Do not flame straighten fracture-critical members unless the flame-straightened area is

fully supplemented by bolted splicing.

• Do not flame straighten members when the radius of curvature in the plane of bending is
more than WE/2Fy where W is member width, E is the modulus of elasticity, and 1y is the
yield point.

• However, any deviation from the required alignment after removing all external forces can
be assumed to have resulted from yielding and can be straightened.

• Do not attempt to flame straighten excessively wrinkled plates or plates with excessive
kinks. It is nearly impossible to flame straighten this type of damage.

13. HOT MECHANICAL STRAIGHTENING

This is a process where heat is applied to all sides of a bent member, and while the member
is still hot it is straightened by applying force. The results of this type of
straightening are unpredictable. When the radius of bending curvature is small and
concentrated in one location, hot straightening may result in a series of buckles occurring in
the heated zone. When the radius of curvature is relatively large, hot straightening may result
in a member with a series of smaller curves, depending on the number of heating points.
Hot mechanical straightening probably should not be performed on quenched and
tempered steels, because heating could degrade ductility and toughness. Degradation
may result from excessive bends or wrinkles. Hot mechanical straightening may be
used on primary compression members or secondary members provided the operators
have the skill to produce results that are free of wrinkles, cracks, bulges, and poor
alignment.

14. COLD MECHANICAL STRAIGHTENING

Cold mechanical straightening is a process where an accidentally bent member is

straightened by applying force. No heat is used. The amount of plastic strain and the number
of strain cycles are the two most important factors affecting the degradation of steel due to
cold mechanical straightening. Cold straightening a bridge member may result in one
complete cycle. Plastic curvature at the ends of restrained members may be very
difficult to cold straighten. Cold mechanical straightening shall not be applied to
member areas that have cracks, nicks, or gouges.

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15. WELDING

The most basic form of repairing steel, welding is the simplest and most practical approach,
as the goal is to reattach broken steel sections together by welding them again. This is also
the most common form of steel repair, as it is able to provide the best solution for a number
of situations where steel damage is present. Welding is done in a mostly straightforward
fashion, as the welder only needs to use the welding tool and weld along the broken sections.
Along with welding pieces back together, another approach is to add a small steel section to
reinforce the broken or cracked section to strengthen the section even further.

16. BOLTING

Bolting may be used as a repair method or as a supplement to other repair methods.

Replacement of a damaged element with a new piece of steel fastened with high-strength
bolts is regarded as the safest method of repair. Replacing damaged riveted elements with
bolted material may not be excessively difficult and should be considered. Adding
bolted splice material to welded members generally is difficult, time consuming, and
expensive. Fracture critical members should be repaired by bolting or repaired by other
methods and fully straightened by adding new bolted material.

17. PARTIAL REPLACEMENT

In some instances, damage will be so serious that partial replacement is necessary.

These damages include excessively wrinkled plates, excessive deformations and bends,
tears in member elements, and large cracks. Partial replacement will normally consist of
removing the damaged area and replacement with either a welded insert or a bolted splice
insert. Welded inserts should meet the criteria given in this manual. Partial replacement by
bolting and welding is an acceptable method, provided the longitudinal web weld is located
in a compression area. This partial replacement can be used for any appropriate situation
provided the web is weldable in a shear-compression area. The web could also be
spliced by bolting instead of welding. Partial replacements can be used in conjunction
with other repair methods, such as flame straightening.

18. COMPLETE REPLACEMENT

Complete replacement of a member is normally the most expensive method of

repair. Replacing a girder will require removing a portion of the roadway slab. If the
girder is continuous, more than one span length may have to be removed, or new
bolted or welded splices introduced. Removal of truss members will require tension ties or
compression posts to carry all loads during replacement. Jacking may be required to
obtain the correct distance between end connections. Joint rotations resulting from the
damage will increase replacement difficulty. If a member is excessively damaged throughout
its full length, replacement may be the only alternative. Other less difficult methods of repair
should be carefully studied prior to selecting complete replacement.

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