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The document provides an extensive overview of materials science, covering classifications of materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites, along with their properties and applications. It includes a literature review on stress factors, experimental work on tensile testing, and a finite element analysis (FEA) simulation procedure. The document concludes with results and discussions on experimental and FEA outcomes, as well as future work in the field.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 views110 pages

Book Details

The document provides an extensive overview of materials science, covering classifications of materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites, along with their properties and applications. It includes a literature review on stress factors, experimental work on tensile testing, and a finite element analysis (FEA) simulation procedure. The document concludes with results and discussions on experimental and FEA outcomes, as well as future work in the field.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1-15
1.1 Introduction to Materials 1
1.2 General Material Classifications 2
1.2.1 Metals 2
1.2.2 Ceramics 3
1.2.3 Polymers 5
1.2.4 Composites 6
1.2.5 Orthotropic material and Anisotropic material 8
1.3 Stress Concentration 10
1.3.1 Static Stress and Strain Concentration Factors 11
1.3.2 Neuber’s Formula for Nonlinear Material Behavior 12
1.4 Stress Intensity Factor 13
1.4.1 Fracture Mechanics 13
1.4.2 Stress Intensity Factor 14

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 16-26


2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Elastic stress factors 16
2.3 Common types of stress raisers 17
2.4 Stress distribution 19
2.5 Plastic reduction of stress factors 20
2.6 Summary of research papers 22
2.7 Mathematical studies of Composite Materials 25
3 DEFINATION OF PROBLEM 27-28

4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK 29-41


4.1 Tensile Testing 29
4.2 Coding of the Specimens 30
4.3 Specification of UTM 32
4.4 Test Procedure 35

5 FEA SIMULATION PROCEDURE 42-62


5.1 Simulation 42
5.2 Modeling Using The FEM 43
5.2.1 Stress concentration due to holes 44
Analytical Procedures creation of an Analytical
5.2.2 45
Model
5.2.3 Boundary Conditions 54
5.2.4 Solution Procedures 58
5.2.5 Contour Plot Of Stress 58

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 63-104


6.1 Experimental Result 63
6.2 FEA Results 77
6.3 Comparison of Results 92
6.4 FEA Results of Elliptical Hole 99

105-
7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
107
7.1 Conclusion 105
7.2 Future Work 107
CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Materials


Materials science is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its
applications to various areas of science and engineering. Materials Science and
Engineering (MSE) is a field of engineering that encompasses the spectrum of
materials types and how to use them in manufacturing. Materials span the range:
metals, ceramics, polymers (plastics), semiconductors, and combinations of materials
called composites. We live in a world that is both dependent upon and limited by
materials. This science investigates the relationship between the structure of materials
at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. It includes elements
of applied physics and chemistry. [1]

With significant media attention focused on nanosciences and nanotechnology in


recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities.
It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis. Materials
science also deals with fundamental properties and characteristics of materials. The
material of choice of a given era is often its defining point; the Stone Age, Bronze Age,
and Steel Age are examples of this. Everything we see and use is made of materials:
cars, airplanes, computers, refrigerators, microwave ovens, TVs, dishes, silverware,
athletic equipment of all types, and even biomedical devices such as replacement joints
and limbs.

All of these require materials specifically tailored for their application. Activities of
these engineers range from primary materials production, including recycling, through
the design and development of new materials to the reliable and economical
manufacturing for the final product. Such activities are found commonly in industries

1
Chapter 1● Introduction

such as aerospace, transportation, electronics, energy conversion, and biomedical


systems. The future will bring ever-increasing challenges and opportunities for new
materials and better processing. Materials are evolving faster today than at any time in
history. New and improved materials are an "underpinning technology" - one which
can stimulate innovation and product improvement.
High quality products result from improved processing and more emphasis will be
placed on reclaiming and recycling. For these many reasons, most surveys name the
materials field as one of the careers with excellent future opportunities.

1.2 General Material Classifications


There are thousands of materials available for use in engineering applications. Most
materials fall into one of three classes that are based on the atomic bonding forces of a
particular material. These three classifications are metallic, ceramic and polymeric.
Additionally, different materials can be combined to create a composite material.
Within each of these classifications, materials are often further organized into groups
based on their chemical composition or certain physical or mechanical properties.
Composite materials are often grouped by the types of materials combined or the way
the materials are arranged together. [1-2]

1.2.1 Metals
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of
the planet. Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility, high melting
points, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness. From the periodic table, it
can be seen that a large number of the elements are classified as being a metal. A few
of the common metals and their typical uses are presented below.

2
Chapter 1● Introduction

Figure 1.1 Common Metallic Materials

1. Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications


2. Aluminium - Aluminium and its alloys are used because they are easy to form,
readily available, inexpensive, and recyclable.
3. Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them
useful, including high electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and
good corrosion resistance.
4. Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000°
F) application, when component weight is a concern, or when good corrosion
resistance is required
5. Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F)
applications or when good corrosion resistance is required.
6. Refractory materials are used for the highest temperature (> 2000° F)
applications.[1-2]

1.2.2 Ceramics
A ceramic has traditionally been defined as “an inorganic, non-metallic solid that is
prepared from powdered materials, is fabricated into products through the application

3
Chapter 1● Introduction

of heat, and displays such characteristic properties as hardness, strength, low electrical
conductivity, and brittleness." The word ceramic comes the from Greek word
"keramikos", which means "pottery." They are typically crystalline in nature and are
compounds formed between metallic and non-metallic elements such as aluminium
and oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen (calcia - CaO), and silicon and
nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).
Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight.
Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness properties; however,
they are often brittle in nature. Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically
conductive materials or insulators. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display
magnetic properties. They are also more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers. Due to ceramic materials wide range of
properties, they are used for a multitude of applications.

The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry can be classified
as:
1. Structural clay products (brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile, flue linings,
etc.)
2. Whitewares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical porcelain, etc.)
3. Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass, cements,
ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries)
4. Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass
(dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass
(optical fibers))
5. Abrasives (natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide,
diamond, fused alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing,
lapping, or pressure blasting of materials)
6. Cements ( roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)
7. Advanced ceramics

4
Chapter 1● Introduction

 Structural (wear parts, bio-ceramics, cutting tools, and engine components)


 Electrical (capacitors, insulators, substrates, integrated circuit packages,
piezoelectric, magnets and superconductors)
 Coatings (engine components, cutting tools, and industrial wear parts)
 Chemical and environmental (filters, membranes, catalysts, and catalyst
supports)

Briefly though, the two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are
covalent and ionic. Covalent and ionic bonds are much stronger than in metallic bonds
and, generally speaking, this is why ceramics are brittle and metals are ductile.[1-2]

1.2.3 Polymers
A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains many chemically
bonded parts or units which themselves are bonded together to form a solid. The word
polymer literally means "many parts." Two industrially important polymeric materials
are plastics and elastomers. Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials
which are processed by forming or molding into shape. Just as there are many types of
metals such as aluminum and copper, there are many types of plastics, such as
polyethylene and nylon. Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically deformed a large
amount when a force is applied to them and can return to their original shape (or
almost) when the force is released.

Polymers have many properties that make them attractive to use in certain conditions.
Many polymers:
1. Are less dense than metals or ceramics,
2. Resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion,
3. Offer good compatibility with human tissue, or
4. Exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of electrical current.

5
Chapter 1● Introduction

The polymer plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics, depending on how they are structurally and chemically bonded. Thermoplastic
polymers comprise the four most important commodity materials – polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride. There are also a number of
specialized engineering polymers. The term ‘thermoplastic’ indicates that these
materials melt on heating and may be processed by a variety of moulding and extrusion
techniques. Alternately, ‘thermosetting’ polymers cannot be melted or remelted.
Thermosetting polymers include alkyds, amino and phenolic resins, epoxies,
polyurethanes, and unsaturated polyesters.

Rubber is a natural occurring polymer. However, most polymers are created by


engineering the combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms and the arrangement of the
chains they form. The polymer molecule is a long chain of covalent-bonded atoms and
secondary bonds then hold groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric
material. Polymers are primarily produced from petroleum or natural gas raw products
but the use of organic substances is growing. The super-material known as Kevlar is a
man-made polymer. Kevlar is used in bullet-proof vests, strong/lightweight frames,
and underwater cables that are 20 times stronger than steel. [1-2]

1.2.4 Composites
A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more distinct materials,
each of which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new material with
properties that cannot be achieved by any of the components acting alone. Using this
definition, it can be determined that a wide range of engineering materials fall into this
category. For example, concrete is a composite because it is a mixture of Portland
cement and aggregate. Fibreglass sheet is a composite since it is made of glass fibres’
imbedded in a polymer.

6
Chapter 1● Introduction

Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing phase is the fibers,
sheets, or particles that are embedded in the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and
the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials
are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material.
Some of the common classifications of composites are:
1. Reinforced plastics
2. Metal-matrix composites
3. Ceramic-matrix composites
4. Sandwich structures
5. Concrete

Composite materials can take many forms but they can be separated into three
categories based on the strengthening mechanism. These categories are dispersion
strengthened, particle reinforced and fiber reinforced. Dispersion strengthened
composites have a fine distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material.
These particles impede the mechanisms that allow a material to deform. Many metal-
matrix composites would fall into the dispersion strengthened composite category.
Particle reinforced composites have a large volume fraction of particle dispersed in the
matrix and the load is shared by the particles and the matrix. Most commercial
ceramics and many filled polymers are particle-reinforced composites. In fiber-
reinforced composites, the fiber is the primary load-bearing component. Fiberglass and
carbon fiber composites are examples of fiber-reinforced composites

If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the
reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable
properties not available in any single conventional material. Some composites also
offer the advantage of being tailorable so that properties, such as strength and stiffness,
can easily be changed by changing amount or orientation of the reinforcement material.

7
Chapter 1● Introduction

The downside is that such composites are often more expensive than conventional
materials. [3]

1.2.5 Orthotropic material and anisotropic material


An orthotropic material has two or three mutually orthogonal two-fold axes of
rotational symmetry so that its mechanical properties are, in general, different along the
directions of each of the axes. Orthotropic materials are thus anisotropic; their
properties depend on the direction in which they are measured. An isotropic material,
in contrast, has the same properties in every direction.

One common example of an orthotropic material with two axes of symmetry would be
a polymer reinforced by parallel glass or graphite fibers. The strength and stiffness of
such a composite material will usually be greater in a direction parallel to the fibers
than in the transverse direction. Another example would be a biological membrane, in
which the properties in the plane of the membrane will be different from those in the
perpendicular direction. Such materials are sometimes called transverse isotropic.

A familiar example of an orthotropic material with three mutually perpendicular axes is


wood, in which the properties (such as strength and stiffness) along its grain and in
each of the two perpendicular directions are different. Another example is a metal
which has been rolled to form a sheet; the properties in the rolling direction and each of
the two transverse directions will be different due to the anisotropic structure that
develops during rolling.

It is important to keep in mind that a material which is anisotropic on one length scale
may be isotropic on another (usually larger) length scale. For instance, most metals are
polycrystalline with very small grains. Each of the individual grains may be
anisotropic, but if the material as a whole comprises many randomly oriented grains,

8
Chapter 1● Introduction

then its measured mechanical properties will be an average of the properties over all
possible orientations of the individual grains.

Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials (e.g. Rochelle


salt) and 2-ply fiber-reinforced composites, are orthotropic. By definition, an
orthotropic material has at least 2 orthogonal planes of symmetry, where material
properties are independent of direction within each plane. Such materials require 9
independent variables (i.e. elastic constants) in their constitutive matrices.
By convention, the 9 elastic constants in orthotropic constitutive equations are
comprised of 3 Young’s modulii Ex, Ey, Ez, the 3 Poisson's ratios μyz, μzx, μxy, and the
3 shear modulii Gyz, Gzx, Gxy.

Hooke was probably the first person that suggested a mathematical expression of the
stress-strain relation for a given material.

The most general stress-strain relationship within the theory of linear elasticity is that
of the materials without any plane of symmetry, i.e., general materials
or triclinic materials. If there is a plane of symmetry, the material is termed monoclinic.
If the number of symmetric planes increases to two, the third orthogonal plane of
material symmetry will automatically yield and form a set of principal axes. In this
case, the material is known as orthotropic. If there exists a plane in which the
mechanical properties are equal in all directions, the material is called transversely
isotropic. If there is an infinite number of planes of material symmetry, i.e., the
mechanical properties in all directions are the same at a given point, the material is
known as isotropic.

Please distinguish 'isotropic' from 'homogeneous.' A material is isotropic when its


mechanical properties remain the same in all directions at a given point while they may
change from point to point; a material is homogeneous when its mechanical properties

9
Chapter 1● Introduction

may be different along different directions at given point, but this variation is
consistent from point to point. For example, consider three common items on a dining
table: stainless steel forks, bamboo chopsticks, and Swiss cheese. Stainless steel is
isotropic and homogeneous. Bamboo chopsticks are homogeneous but not isotropic
(they are transversely isotropic, strong along the fiber direction, relatively weak but
equal in other directions). Swiss cheese is isotropic but not homogeneous (The air
bubbles formed during production left inhomogeneous spots).

Both stress and strain fields are second order tensors. Each component consists of
information in two directions: the normal direction of the plane in question and the
direction of traction or deformation. There are nine (9) components in each field in a
three dimensional space. Since they are symmetric, engineers usually rewrite them
from a 3×3 matrix to a vector with six (6) components and arrange the stress-strain
relations into a 6×6 matrix to form the generalized Hooke's law. For the 36 components
in the stiffness or compliance matrix, not every component is independent to each other
and some of them might be zero.

In general, stress-strain relationships such as these are known as constitutive relations.


In general, there are 36 stiffness matrix components. However, it can be shown that
conservative materials possess a strain energy density function and as a result, the
stiffness and compliance matrices are symmetric. Therefore, only 21 stiffness
components are actually independent in Hooke's law. The vast majority of engineering
materials are conservative. [3]

1.3 Stress Concentration


When a large stress gradient occurs in a small, localized area of a structure, the high
stress is referred to as a stress concentration. Near changes in geometry of a loaded
structure, the flow of stress is interfered with, causing high stress gradients where the
maximum stress and strain may greatly exceed the average or nominal values based on
simple calculations. Thus, the two most common occurrences of stress concentrations
10
Chapter 1● Introduction

are due to (1) discontinuities in continuum and (2) contact forces. Discontinuities in
continuum include changes in geometry and material properties.

Rapid geometry changes disrupt the smooth flow of stresses through the structure
between load application areas. Plates in tension or bending with holes, notches, steps,
etc. are simple examples involving direct normal stresses. Shafts in tension, bending,
and torsion, with holes, notches, steps, keyways, etc., are simple examples involving
direct and bending normal stresses and torsional shear stresses. More complicated
geometries must be analyzed either by experimental or numerical techniques such as
the finite element method. Other, less obvious, geometry changes include rough
surface finish and external and internal cracks. Changes in material properties can
occur both at macroscopic and microscopic levels which include alloy formulation,
grain size and orientation, foreign materials, etc. [4]

1.3.1 Static Stress and Strain Concentration Factors


Consider the plate shown in Fig. 1.2, loaded in tension by a force per unit area, σ.
Although not drawn to scale, consider that the outer dimensions of the plate are infinite
compared with the diameter of the hole, 2a. It can be shown, from linear elasticity that
the tangential stress throughout the plate is given by

Figure 1.2 circular holes in a plate Loaded in tension.

11
Chapter 1● Introduction

Figure 1.3 Tangential stress distribution for  =0 and 90

 a2 a4
0  [1  2  (1  3 * 4 ) * cos 2 ]
2 r r

The maximum stress is  0  3 at r=a, and   90 . Figure 3 shows how the
0

tangential stress varies along the x and y axes of the plate. For the top (and bottom) of
the hole, we see the stress gradient is extremely large compared with the nominal
stress, and hence the term stress concentration applies. For the infinite plate containing

a hole and loaded in tension,  nom = σ,  max = 3 σ and thus Kt =3.

The analysis of the plate in tension with a hole just given is for a very wide plate
(infinite in the limit). As the width of the plate decreases, the maximum stress becomes
less than three times the nominal stress at the zone containing the hole. [4-5]

1.3.2 Neuber’s Formula for Nonlinear Material Behavior


If the load on a structure exceeds the value for which the maximum stress at a stress
concentration equals the elastic limit of the material, the stress distribution changes
from that within the elastic range. Neuber presented a formula which includes stress
and strain. Defining an effective stress concentration factor

K   max
 nom

12
Chapter 1● Introduction

σ nom, and an effective strain concentration factor, , Neuber established that


Kt is the geometric means of the stress and strain factors. That is

2
K
K   t
K 

In terms of the stresses and strains, can be written as

 max*  max  K t2 * nom * nom


Kt and σ nom are obtained exactly the same as when the max stress is within the

elastic range. The determination of  max is found from the material’s elastic stress-
strain curve using the nominal stress. [6]
1.4 Stress Intensity Factor
1.4.1 Fracture Mechanics
Fracture mechanics provides a tool for assessing the criticality of flaws in structures.
LEFM is the basic theory of fracture, originated by Griffith (1921) and completed by
Irwing (1957); Rice (1968); and Riveros (2006). The LEFM is a highly simplified
theory that is applicable to any material under a basic ideal situation: all the material is
elastic except in a vanishingly small region (a point) at the crack tip. [7]

Fracture mechanics is a method of characterizing the fracture behavior in structural


parameters, stress, and flaw size that can be used directly according to Barsom and
Rolfe. They also state that the science of fracture mechanics can be used to describe
quantitatively the trade-offs among stresses, material toughness, and flaw size. This
approach uses the flaw size and features, component geometry, loading conditions and
the material property called fracture toughness to evaluate the ability of a component
containing a flaw to resist fracture.

13
Chapter 1● Introduction

1.4.2 Stress Intensity Factor


A major achievement in the theoretical foundation of LEFM was the introduction of
the stress intensity factor KIC (the demand) as a parameter for the intensity of stresses
close to the crack tip and related to the energy release rate. Ingliss (1913) studied the
unexpected failure of naval ships, and Griffith (1921) extended this work using
thermodynamic criteria. [6-7]
A parameter called the “stress-intensity factor” (K) is used to determine the fracture
toughness of most materials. Mode I fracture is the condition in which the crack plane
is normal to the direction of largest tensile loading.
Stress intensity factors are a measure of the change in stress within the vicinity of the
crack tip. Therefore, it is important to know the crack direction and when the crack
stops propagating. The stress intensity factor is compared with the critical stress
intensity factor KIC (the capacity) to determine whether or not the crack will
propagate.
The wide range of structural configurations, loading conditions and crack geometries,
together with the material and geometric non-linearity’s which characterize response
under loads has made the analytical prediction of both the strength and Stress Intensity
Factors (SIFs) difficult.
Generally fatigue cracks initiate at several locations, mostly around the weld region in
joints and areas of Discontinuities, due to the high bending, welding residual stresses
and weld notch stresses. These cracks eventually coalesce to form a single crack which
grows in both the length and depth directions and which may finally becomes a
through thickness crack. In order to assess the integrity of structures containing defects,
it is necessary to be able to estimate both plastic collapse and fracture strengths of the
critical members containing defects.
The stress intensity factor is a function of loading, crack size, and structural geometry.
The stress intensity factor may be represented by the following equation: [8-9]
K I  *  * a

14
Chapter 1● Introduction

Figure 1.4 Failure stress related to crack size for infinitely wide plate subjected to
tension

15
Chapter 2● Literature Review

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
‘‘Stress concentration,’’ as it is commonly used in design, refers to a high local stress
relative to the overall macroscopic stress. Stress concentration has unique meaning for
plane problems in terms of average stress. If, for example, a small hole is drilled in an
end-loaded plate as in, the stress is essentially unchanged in regions away from the
hole. But at the edge of the hole, the tangential stress is increased dramatically.

By the concept of a macroscopic stress, we understand the average calculated stress


related to the material’s volume, characterized by a very fine structure. In terms of the
practical requirements, this assumption is sufficiently accurate for the great majority of
design situations. The notion of a stress concentration factor Kt is that it is the multiple
of the average stress, which produces the high, or maximum, state of stress.

2.2 Elastic stress factors


As a rule, stress concentrations arise due to the various local changes in shape, such as
sharp corners, screw threads, abrupt changes in thickness, and even curved members of
sharp curvature. This phenomenon is characteristic of elastic behavior. On the other
hand, plastic yielding accompanies high stresses and tends to mitigate stress
concentrations even in relatively brittle materials. This is a very important practical
rule to keep in mind in developing rational designs. Particularly in the case of ductile
response under static conditions, such as rivet holes in structural steel members.

High local stresses based on the elastic theory can, indeed, be tolerated. Under the
conditions of static loading applied to the parts made of brittle materials, stress raisers

16
Chapter 2● Literature Review

cannot be ignored. This is also true in the case of some inherently ductile materials,
which, at lower temperatures, fail due to the acquired brittle characteristics.

Stress concentrations of any kind of cyclic loading should be avoided or at least


mitigated. Furthermore, tests show that a single isolated hole or a notch appears to have
a worse effect than that due to a number of similar stress raisers placed relatively close
together. We can obtain elastic stress concentration factors either analytically or
experimentally. The published literature contains extensive design tables for stress
concentration factors as well as design procedures for guarding against fatigue failure
in the presence of stress raisers [10–16].

2.3 Common types of stress raisers


Design experience indicates that there are at least two groups of questions which
frequently come up during structural reviews. One concerns the effect of holes in plate
and shell members. The other involves stress concentration due to the fillets and
grooves under various conditions of loading.

Figure 2.1 Example of Stress Distribution


We can illustrate the first group by results listed in Table 2.1 for plates and rectangular
bars. These results are based upon long-established rules [18–19]. The results are also
applicable with curved surfaces, provided the local curvature is not too sharp.

17
Chapter 2● Literature Review

In the second group of stress raiser problems, a question frequently encountered


concerns the difference in the type of loading on shafts and bars with transversely
drilled circular holes. Where sharp grooves and notches are involved, the theoretical
values of stress concentration can be very high, and for this reason, the theory should
be corrected for small radii of curvature. Under repeated loading, sharp notches can be
especially detrimental. The highest stress concentration will develop when the notch
depth is large while the notch radius and the angle are small.

Stress concentration in the presence of a groove produces the effect of a combined


stress pattern, decreasing the shear stress, for instance, in the middle of a grooved
cylindrical specimen. This effect results in a cup-and-cone type of failure of a tensile
specimen, so that the ductile material appears to have the characteristics of brittle
failure on the inside

Figure Descriptions Approximate Kt

Uniaxial tension of Kt=[(3*b) / (b+d)]


central hole

Uniaxial tension of e/d 0.67 0.77 0.91 1.07 1.39 1.56


central hole Kt 4.37 3.93 3.61 3.40 3.25 3.16

Biaxial tension Kt = 2
(d/b small)

Biaxial tension and


compression Kt = 4
(d/b small)

18
Chapter 2● Literature Review

Table No: 2.1 Effect of circular hole on direct stress for Flat plate

Figure 2.2 approximate stress transfers in a welded join


In the design of steel structures [20], it should be noted that, in addition to problems of
grooves and sharp corners, non uniform stress distributions can occur in welded joints
as illustrated in Figure 2.2. An elongated transverse weld, as in Figure 2.2, produces a
more uniform stress gradient than a shorter transverse weld, as in Figure 2.2.

2.4 Stress distribution


When the structural geometry of sharp transitions, worms, notches, or holes creates a
stress concentration, a question which often arises is: What is the stress distribution
around the concentration? To discuss this, consider for example, the stretched plate of
Figure 2.1, illustrating stress concentration in tension. Theoretical and experimental
studies suggest that in this case the stress distribution can be represented as where σ
nominal is the general, overall, or average stress, and σmax represents the stress
enhancement as a result of the hole, as a function of distance x from the hole center.
When x is d/2, at the edge of the hole, σmax=3*σ. That is, the maximum theoretical
stress occurs at the hole edge and is three times the average stress σ. Alternatively,
when x becomes large in comparison with the hole diameter, σmax approaches the
average stress σ.

19
Chapter 2● Literature Review

d 2 3d 4
max   *{  1}
8x 32x

Above relation shows that stress disturbance is highly localized. Practical rules often
state that the maximum theoretical stress concentration for a plate in tension is
encountered when the width of the plate is more than about four times the diameter of
the hole. Putting b=4*d into an approximate formula, given in Table 2.1, we get
Kt=2.4. Only when d becomes very small, the theoretical value of 3 attained. In
general, the effect of open holes in beams is not easy to evaluate despite the various
theoretical and experimental tools available. For example, when holes are present in
the flange, the problem of location of the neutral axis can lead to many interesting
speculations. Furthermore, the effect of a hole in the tension flange of a beam is
difficult to assess if the beam does not fracture and the compression flange carries the
significant share of the load. On this basis, it would seem that the effect of holes in
flanges can often be ignored, particularly when rivets are used.

2.5 Plastic reduction of stress factors


So far in this chapter, we have considered stress concentration from an elastic
perspective. While this approach has been adopted by designers for many years,
economic and environmental considerations require a closer look at the stress
concentration factors to see if they can be reduced. More practical models are
continually being sought.

In 1913, Inglis [21] proposed a simple formula for estimating the increase in stress due
to a finite discontinuity such as an elliptical opening in a plate, porthole, or hatchway.
Figure 2.3 shows the Inglis model. The proposed design formula for this model is the
application of this expression can be extended to the geometry of cracks, notches,
scratches, and similar stress raisers as the L=R ratio is increased.

20
Chapter 2● Literature Review

Figure 2.3 Inglis model

The corresponding σmax=σ ratio becomes the conventional stress concentration factor
where the symbol Kt denotes the nominal stress existing at a point away from the
discontinuity. Observe in Figure 2.3 that when L= r, the hole becomes circular, and the
structure reduces to that of a symmetrically placed hole in a plate in Uniaxial tension
with Kt=3.

While the Inglis formula planted some interesting ideas in the minds of engineers, it
became necessary to invoke the principles of ductile response in the face of disturbing
theoretical results derived from purely elastic considerations. This process has led to
the development of a plastic reduction procedure [22, 23] for the elastic stress factors.
It became obvious that in the case of a truly ductile material under static loading, the
conventional elastic factor should be modified with the aid of the appropriate stress–
strain diagram of the material [24]. One of the simplest approaches to the correction of
any type of elastic stress concentration factor [25] is where Es is the secant modulus
(the slope of the stress–strain curve beyond the yield point) and E is the elastic
modulus.

21
Chapter 2● Literature Review

Es
K t  1  (K  1) * ( ) For Elliptical Hole
E

Es
K t  1  2( ) For Circular Hole
E

For the case of a circular hole in a wide plate, Equation becomes This method provides
the opportunity for rounding off the calculated higher peaks of the elastic stresses and
in this manner assuring a more reasonable value of the design stress factor. The
magnitude of the plastic stress concentration factor depends then on the shape of the
stress–strain curve while the conventional Kt factor is a function of the geometry of the
part alone. It should be stated in closing that stress concentrations in general are
virtually inevitable in real structures and machines due to the presence of grooves,
fillets, holes, threads, and similar discontinuities. The worst situations, of course,
include machine errors, gravel nicks, nonmetallic inclusions, and microvoids, which
may be difficult or even impossible to detect. Stress intensities due to cracks in
inherently brittle materials and in some ductile materials displaying brittle behavior
under specific environmental conditions may lead to fracture.

2.6 Summary of research papers on Composite


Over the past several years, considerable effort has been made by the research,
development and design to understand the mechanism of failure of composite
materials. New design application requires a better understanding of their failure
mechanism so that safe, reliable structure design can be developed.

[ Whitney J.M., Nuisner R.N. -1974-1975]


Uniaxial failure of composite laminate is presented which examines the effect of
changes in the material system, fiber orientations and the size of discontinuities on the
model predictions. This prediction was based on liner elastic fracture mechanisms.

22
Chapter 2● Literature Review

This is accomplished by obtaining experimental data on two material systems


glass/epoxy and graphite epoxy in conjunction with two orientation of fiber dominated
laminates containing through the thickness circular holes and sharp tipped cracks
several sizes.[26,27]

[William L. Ko NASA -1985]


Tangential stress distribution around a circular hole in a composite plate and examines
how the maximum stress points shift with the fiber orientations. In the analysis the
composite system is treated as continuous anisotropic properties. The calculated stress
concentration factor is them compared with experimental data. The analysis showed
that the anisotropic stress concentration factor could be greater or less than three for
isotropic materials also the location of maximum tangential stress points could be shift
with the change of fiber orientation in relation to the loading axis.[28]

[Shih Monika -2003]


The stress distribution of four type of tension specimen recommended in ASTM D 638
were investigated through the use the finite element technique. It was found that the
location of maximum von-misses stress with experimentally observed failures in brittle
specimen Nd-Fe-B particles. This study identified a solution to reduce the magnitude
of stress concentration by increasing the radius of the arc in the transitional area.[29]

[Lotfil Toubal, Karama ,Lorrain - 2004]


A non-contact measurement method namely “Electronic Speckle Pattern
Interferometer”(ESPI) was to investigate the tensile strain field of a composite plate in
presence of stress concentration caused by a geometrical defects consisting of circular
hole. The experimental result compares with predictions of theoretical model
previously developed by “Lekhniskii’s”. In analytical approach two different criteria
(1) Point stress criteria (2) Average stress Criterion exanimate. [30]

23
Chapter 2● Literature Review

[Zhong Hu, Brett – 2004]


In this work, investigating the strength of laminate composite, a non-linear finite
element analysis is used to simulate the stress concentration caused by a through
elliptical hole with various shape and size with metallic and fiber reinforced laminate
with different orientations subjected to Uniaxial tensile stress. Comparison between
metallic and laminate composite expresses a totally different.SFC depends not only on
the material properties, layer stacking order the geometry of the hole by using Ansys
APDL Language.[31]

[Jafari M. -2005]
In aerospace structure, panels with variously shaped cutout are often used. To analyses
the effect of cutout on the load bearing capacity and SFC of such plates is very
important in designing of complex structure. The result obtained using finite element
methods. The effect of the cutout depends on the material properties, fiber angle and
cutout curvature geometry is considered. The stress concentration factor of perforated
plated can be significantly change by using proper materials propertied and cutout
parameters. [32-33]

[Alexandrer Halter – 2006]


A compact analytical solution of stresses around a pin- loaded hole in orthotropic plate
is obtained by using the complex stress functions only analytical solution carried out
not simulated by any computer software.[34]

[Wang Q.Z., Song X.L. – 2007]


The eccentricity of the hole and the strip width are two governing geometric parameter
effect to the SCF. A semi analytical and semi empirical method is adapted to
formulated an explicit expression of SCF for an eccentrically located circular hole in a
tensile finite width strip of orthotropic materials. The compare with the analytical result
with FEA using ANSYS software. This method of formulation may be used to derive

24
Chapter 2● Literature Review

SCF expressions for corresponding 3-D dimension problem such sphere cavity in a
cylindrical bar subjected to tension or torsion. [35]

[Mittal N.D. , Jain N.K.– 2008]


The effect of fibre orientation on SFC in a rectangular laminate composite with central
circular hole under the transverse static loading has been studied by using finite
element method. Applied different boundary conditions with aspect ratio of hole
diameter with width of plate and different materials are used to analysis find SFC by
using ANSYS software. [36]

[Knoll L., Kostka P., Lepper M. – 2009]


An extensive basis of experimental data from tensile fracture tests on carbon fiber
reinforced specimen with circular notches was used to analyze factor determining the
notched strength. It was found the theoretical notch size and outer boundary
independent SFC is not sufficient for a reliable prediction of the notched strength. [37]

2.7 Mathematical studies of Composite Materials


When an infinite isotropic plate containing a circular hole is subjected to remote
Uniaxial tension, the tangential stress along the boundary of the circular hole will reach
a value for three time the remote tensile stress at two boundary points lying on the hole
diameter perpendicular to the loading axis. The maximum tangential stress
concentration factor is 3, which is independent of the hole size. For anisotropic
material such fiber-reinforced composite materials the picture is entirely different. The
value of the maximum tangential stress concentration factor for a composite plate can
be greater or less than 3, the location of the maximum stress point could shift
depending on the loading direction and the fibres orientations.

25
Chapter 2● Literature Review

Tangential Stress around a Circular Hole


For an anisotropic plate containing a circular hole subjected to remote Uniaxial
tensile stress   acting at an angle  with respect to the principal elastic axis 1 of the

plate the tangential stress   along the circular hole boundary may be expressed as

 
  cos 2   k  n  sin 2  k cos 2   
 E  
K 
  [(1  n) cos 2   k sin 2  ] sin 2   
E  
n(1  k  n) sin  cos  sin  cos  

Where E is the modulus of elasticity in the  direction given by


E E 1 E
 1 /[sin 4   1 cos 4   ( 1  2 12 ) sin 2 2 ]
E E2 4 G12

Where k and n are define by


E1
k    1 2 
E2

 E E 
n  i( 1   2 )  2  { 1   12 }  1 
 E2 G 12 

Where i   1 , and 1 , 2 are the complex roots of the anisotropic plate characteristic
equation.

26
Chapter 3● Defination of Problem

CHAPTER-3

DEFINATION OF PROBLEM

Stress concentration factor is most important factor of area to engineering applications.


‘‘Stress concentration,’’ as it is commonly used in design, refers to a high local stress
relative to the overall macroscopic stress. Stress concentration has unique meaning for
plane problems in terms of average stress.

This dissertation work, it does experimental analysis by considering the various


parameters of the systems. Stress concentrations arise due to the various local changes
in shape, such as sharp corners, screw threads, abrupt changes in thickness, and even
curved members of sharp curvature. In the experimental, the unique plate with central
hole also taken under consideration. Various parameters like change the hole diameter
of the plates, change in the width of the plates and change the thickness of the plates.
Also, find the mechanical properties like young modulus’s elasticity by the
experimental.

Design of experimental take the various parameters group and get the experimental
work. The experimental works get the results in foam of stress-strain diagram, and
values of the mechanical properties like yield strength, ultimate strength, final gauge
length etc.

Using of the data from the experimental work, simulation by the standard software.
The simulation of every group of the specimens for FEA stress concentration factor is
carried out. Comparative assessment of experimental and simulation data also
presented.

27
Chapter 3● Defination of Problem

Simulation is carried out by the obtained experimental data with standard software, to
understand the relationship between stress concentration factor (SCF) and stress
intensity factor (SIF). Simulation study is carried out for elliptical hole by changing the
ration the major axis to minor axis.

Composite material is most important application in engineering application, due to


ratio of weight to high strength. Stress concentration factor also most important factor
in composite material so study effect of the SCF. Along to this the literature review for
composite material is also carried out.

28
CHAPTER-4

EXPERIMENTATIONS
4.1 Tensile Testing
Tensile tests are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in
selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are
included in material Specification to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are
measured during development of new materials and processes, so that different
materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile properties often are used to
predict the behaviour of a material under forms of loading other than uni-axial tension.
The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of interest may be
measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause appreciable plastic
deformation or the maximum stress that the material can withstand. Also of interest is
the material’s ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be deformed before it
fractures. Rarely is ductility incorporated directly in design; rather, it is included in
material Specification to ensure quality and toughness. Low ductility in a tensile test
often is accompanied by low resistance to fracture under other forms of loading. Elastic
properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure these
properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by
ultrasonic techniques.

29
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.1 Components of a hydraulic universal testing machine

4.2 Coding of the Specimens


Representation of information is a fundamental aspect of all communication from bird
songs to human language. In the case of digital storage and transmission of
information, mathematical analysis has led to principles that drive the design of
symbolic representations.
Coding - establishing symbols to meaningfully communicate features
Classification - separate items into groups (and assign them a code) based on the
existence or absence of characteristic attributes (features).
XnAA BB CC
Symbol Meaning
Xn Pre-fix of the Group representation
AA Width of the Plate
BB Thickness of the Plate
CC Diameter of the hole
Table No: 4.1 Meaning of Code
30
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.2 schematically diagram of specimens

Sr. No. Group Code of the Dimension of the Plate


specimens Width X Thickness X Diameter of the hole
1 A A1-500510 50 X 05 X 10
2 A2-500507 50 X 05 X 07
3 A3-500505 50 X 05 X 05
4 A4-500502.5 50 X 05 X 2.5
5 A5-500500 50 X 05 X 00
6 B B1-250505 25 X 05 X 05
7 B2-250503.5 25 X 05 X 3.5
8 B3-250502.5 25 X 05 X 2.5
9 B4-250501.25 25 X 05 X 1.25
10 B5-250500 25 X 05 X 0
11 C C1-250605 25 X 06 X 05
12 C2-250600 25 X 06 X 00
31
Chapter 4●Experimentations

13 C3-320605 32 X 06 X 05
14 C4-320600 32 X 06 X 00
15 C C5-400605 40 X 06 X 05
16 C6-400600 40 X 06 X 00
17 C7-500605 50 X 06 X 05
18 C8-500600 50 X 06 X 00
19 D D1-251005 25 X 10 X 05
20 D2-251000 25 X 10 X 00
21 D3-251205 25 X 12 X 05
22 D4-251200 25 X 12 X 00
23 D5-251605 25 X 16 X 05
24 D6-251605 25 X 16 X 00
Table No: 4.2 coding of the specimens
4.3 Specification of UTM

Sr.No. Specification Description


1 Instruments Descriptions 40T Universal Testing Machine (Vertical Type).
2 Purpose To Test Mechanical properties of Metal parts
used. Mechanical Properties consists of mainly
with stand ability of test piece at specified load for
specified time, breaking load test, yield load,
%elongation, UTS etc.
3 Components Complete equipment along with suitable
Hydraulic unit, operation and control unit with
programmed controller, electronic extensometer
for gauge length 50 mm (min) along with suitable
software and computer, component mounting unit
jig and fixtures.
4 Measuring Capacity 400KN

32
Chapter 4●Experimentations

5 Measuring Range 0-400


6 Least Count 0.04KN
7 Lord range with ±1%
accuracy of
Measurements
8 Maximum tensile 50-700
Clearance(mm)
9 Minimum clearance 500
between Columns(mm)
10 Power Supply 3 Phase, 415V, 50 Hz AC
11 Ram Stroke (mm) 200
12 Straining/piston speeds 0 - 150
(mm) (at no load)

Table No: 4.3 Specification of UTM


Feature of the UTM:-
1. Designed for Tensile, compressive, bend/flex, and shear testing.

2. Should be able to hold at specified load for any specified time.

3 .User selectable systems of units: SI, metric

4. Interfacing and Software (with ease-of-operation and flexibility). Computer

interface includes data-acquisition Card and cable.

5. Window’s based graphical user interface

6. Provides platform for basic materials measurement, test control, report generation

7. Set-up and configuration of the display screen and control panel. Set-up of limits

and gain controls.

8 .On-line help and reference guide.


33
Chapter 4●Experimentations

9. Saving and retrieval of test methods and data. Advanced data management and high-

speed data retrieval system for accessing history. Option to edit/change/modify

history. Warning signals of vital parameters/settings in equipment.

34
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.3 40T Universal Testing Machine (Vertical Type)


4.4 Test Procedure

Load and strain ranges should be selected so that the test wills fit the range. The
maximum values to be recorded should be as close to the top of the selected scale as
convenient without running the risk of going past full scale. Ranges may be selected
using past experience for a particular test, or specifications data for the material (if
available). Note that many computer-based testing systems have automatic range
selection and will capture data even if the range initially selected is too small.

The identity of each specimen should be verified, and pertinent identification should
be accurately recorded for the test records and report.

The dimensions needed to calculate the cross sectional area of the reduced section
should be measured and recorded. The load-indicator zero and the plot-load-axis
zero, if applicable, should be set before the specimen is placed in the grips. Zeroes
should never be reset after the specimen is in place.

35
Chapter 4●Experimentations

The specimen is placed in the grips and is secured by closing the grips. If preload is
to be removed before the test is started, it should be physically unloaded by moving
the loading mechanism.

When the extensometer, if applicable, is installed, the technician should be sure to set
the mechanical zero correctly. The strain-readout zero should be set after the
extensometer is in place on the specimen.

The test procedure should be in conformance with the published test specification and
should be repeated consistently for every test.

In the simplest tensile test, the raw data comprise a single measurement of peak force
and the dimensional measurements taken to determine the cross-sectional area of the
test specimen. The first analysis step is to calculate the “tensile strength,” defined as
the force per unit area required to fracture the specimen.

Computer is produces the analysis of the test data and generate the test reports are
attach in appendix A.

36
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.4 Photograph of plate before Testing for Group-A

Figure:-4.5 Photograph of plate after testing for Group-A

37
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.6 Photograph of plate before testing for Group-B

Figure:-4.7 Photograph of plate after testing for Group-B


38
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.8 Photograph of plate before testing for Group-C

Figure:-4.9 Photograph of plate after testing for Group-C

39
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.10 Photograph of plate before testing for Group-D

Figure:-4.11 Photograph of plate after testing for Group-D

40
Chapter 4●Experimentations

Figure:-4.12 Photograph of necking

41
CHAPTER-5
FEA SIMULATION PROCEDURE
5.1. Simulation
Time and cost benefits of engineering simulation are well documented. Predicting
product performance and determining optimal solutions early in the design phase help
to avoid late-stage problems and to eliminate trial-and-error testing cycles that drive up
costs and bog down schedules. Simulation enables engineers to perform what-if studies
and to compare alternatives, processes that otherwise would be impractical. Indeed,
bottom-line savings are one key benefit that prompts most companies to implement
simulation, and are most readily quantified in return-on investment calculations.

The current economic climate has completely changed the way most companies view
engineering simulation. Leveraging the power of virtual prototyping to compress the
product development process and drive down costs is no longer a choice — it’s a
requirement for survival in an increasingly competitive environment.

In nearly every industry, driving product development through engineering simulation


technology has become a key strategy to develop more innovative products, reduce
development and manufacturing costs, and accelerate time to market.

They have already realized the enormous strategic benefits of virtual prototyping —
and are now seeking more from their investments in simulation. ANSYS 12.0 enables
these forward-looking companies to maximize the efficiency of their simulation
processes, to increase the accuracy of their virtual prototypes, and to capture and reuse
their simulation processes and data. This next level of performance signals a new era of
Smart Engineering Simulation, in which product innovations can be realized more
rapidly, and more cost effectively, than ever before.

42
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Smart Technologies = Smart Simulation


Better Prototypes, Better Products
The Finite Element Method (FEM) has developed into a key, indispensable technology
in the modelling and simulation of advanced engineering systems in various fields like
housing, transportation, communications, and so on. In building such advanced
engineering systems, engineers and designers go through a sophisticated process of
modelling, simulation, visualization, analysis, designing, prototyping, testing, and
lastly, fabrication. Note that much work is involved before the fabrication of the final
product or system. This is to ensure the workability of the finish product, as well as for
cost effectiveness. This process is often iterative in nature, meaning that some of the
procedures are repeated based on the results obtained at a current stage, so as to
achieve an optimal performance at the lowest cost for the system to be built. Therefore,
techniques related to modelling and simulation in a rapid and effective way play an
increasingly important role, resulting in the application of the FEM being multiplied
numerous times because of this.

The focus will be on the techniques of physical, mathematical and computational


modelling, and various aspects of computational simulation. A good understanding of
these techniques plays an important role in building an advanced engineering system in
a rapid and cost effective way.

5.2. Modeling
The behaviour of a phenomenon in a system depends upon the geometry or domain of
the system, the property of the material or medium, and the boundary, initial and
loading conditions. For an engineering system, the geometry or domain can be very
complex. Further, the boundary and initial conditions can also be complicated. It is
therefore, in general, very difficult to solve the governing differential equation via
analytical means. In practice, most of the problems are solved using numerical

43
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

methods. Among these, the methods of domain discretization championed by the FEM
are the most popular, due to its practicality and versatility.
The procedure of computational modelling using the FEM broadly consists of four
steps:
• Modelling of the geometry.
• Meshing (discretization).
• Specification of material property.
• Specification of boundary, initial and loading conditions.

5.2.1. Stress concentration due to holes


An elastic plate with hole in its centre is subjected to uniform longitudinal tensile stress
at one end clamped at the other end as show in figure 5.1. Perform the FEM stress
analysis of the 2-D elastic plate and calculate the maximum longitudinal stress in the
plate to obtain the stress concentration factor Kt.

Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of Problem

44
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

 Problem description
Plate geometry: L =250mm, height H=50mm, thickness B=5mm. Material: mild steel
having Young’s modulus E =210GPa and Poisson’s ratio ν=0.3. Hole: A hole has a
radius of 10mm Boundary conditions: The elastic plate is subjected to a uniform tensile
stress of σ=10Mpa in the longitudinal direction at the right end and clamped to a rigid
wall at the left end.

5.2.2. Analytical Procedures creation of an Analytical Model


Let us use a quarter model of the elastic plate with a hole as illustrated later in Figure
5.1, since the plate is symmetric about the horizontal and vertical centerlines. The
quarter model can be created by a slender rectangular area from which hole area is
subtracted by using the Boolean operation.
First, create the rectangular area by the following operation:

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Modelling →Create →Areas
→Rectangle → By2Corners
1 Input two 0’s into the WP X and WP Y boxes in the Rectangle by 2 Corners
window to determine the lower left corner point of the elastic plate on the
Cartesian coordinates of the working plane.
2 Input 125 and 25 (mm) into the Width and Height boxes, respectively, to
determine the shape of the quarter elastic plate model.
3 Click the OK button to create the quarter elastic plate on the ANSYS
Graphics window.

45
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Then, create a circular area having a diameter of 20mm and then reduce its diameter in
the longitudinal direction to a half of the original value to get the elliptic area. The
following commands create a circular area by designating the coordinates (UX, UY) of
the centre and the radius of the circular area:

46
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Modelling →Create →Areas →Circle →
Solid Circle
1 The Solid Circular Area window opens.
2 Input two 0’s into [A] WP X and [B] WP Y boxes to determine the centre
position of the circular area.
3 Input [C] 10 (mm) in Radius box to determine the radius of the circular area.
4 Click [D] OK button to create the circular area superimposed on the
rectangular area in the ANSYS Graphics window.

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Modeling →Operate →Booleans →
Subtract →Areas

1 Pick the rectangular area by the upward arrow and confirm that the colour of
the area picked turns from light blue into pink. Click the OK button.

47
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

2 Pick the circular area by the upward arrow and confirm that the colour of the
circular area picked turns from light blue into pink. Click the OK button to
subtract the circular area from the rectangular area to get a quarter model of a
plate with the circular hole in its centre.

48
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Material Props →Material Models
1 The Define Material Model Behavior window opens. Double-click Structural,
Linear, Elastic, and Isotropic butt on one after another.
2 Input the value of Young’s modulus, 2.1e5 (Map), and that of Poisson’s ratio,
0.3, into EX and PRXY boxes, and click the OK button of the Linear Isotropic
Properties for Materials Number 1 window.
3 Exit from the Define Material Model Behavior window by selecting Exit in
the Material menu of the window.

49
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Element Type →Add/Edit/Delete

1 The Element Types window opens.


2 Click the Add ...button in the Element Types window to open the Library of
Element Types window and select the element type to use. Select Structural
Mass – Solid and Quad 8node 82.Click the OK button in the Library of
Element Types window to use the 8-node Isoperimetric element.
3 Click the Options … button in the Element Types window to open the
PLANE82
4 Element type options window.
5 Select the Plane strs w/thk item in the Element behaviour box and click the
OK button to return to the Element Types window.
6 Click the Close button in the Element Types window to close the window.

50
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Real Constants →Add/Edit/Delete
1. The Real Constants window opens.
2. Click [A] Add/Edit/Delete button to open the Real Constants window and Click
the Add ...button.
3. The Element Type for Real Constants window opens. Click the OK button. The
Element Type for Real Constants window vanishes and the Real Constants Set
Number 1. For PLANE82 window appears instead.
4. Input a strip thickness of 10 (mm) in the Thickness box and click the OK
button. The Real Constants window returns with the display of the Defined Real
Constants Sets box changed to Set 1. Click the Close button.

51
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command :-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Meshing →Size Cntrls →Manual Size →
Global →Size

52
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Meshing →Mesh →Areas →Free
(1) The Mesh Areas window opens.
(2) The upward arrow appears in the ANSYS Graphics window. Move this arrow
To the quarter plate area and click this area.
(3) The color of the area turns from light blue into pink. Click the OK button to see
The area meshed by 8-node isoperimetric finite elements.

53
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

5.2.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Due to the symmetry, the constraint conditions of the quarter plate model are UX-
fixed condition on the left end and UY-fixed condition on the bottom side of the
quarter plate model. Apply the constraint conditions onto the corresponding lines by
the following commands:

54
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Solution →Define Loads →Apply →Structural →
Displacement →Symmetric B.C. →On line
1. The on Lines window opens and the upward arrow appears when the mouse
cursor is moved to the ANSYS Graphics window.
2. Confirming that the Pick and Single buttons are selected, move the upward
arrow onto the left-end side of the quarter plate area and click the left button
of the mouse.

A uniform longitudinal stress can be defined by pressure on the right-end side of the
plate model as described below:

55
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command
ANSYS Main Menu →Solution →Define Loads →Apply →Structural →
Pressure →On Lines
1. The Apply PRES on Lines window opens and the upward arrow appears
when the mouse cursor is moved to the ANSYS Graphics window.
2. Confirming that the Pick and Single buttons are selected, move the upward
arrow onto the right-end side of the quarter plate area and click the left button
of the mouse.
3. Another Apply PRES on Lines window opens. Select Constant value in the
[SFL] Apply PRES on lines as a box and input -10 (MPa) in the VALUE
Load PRES value box and leave a blank in the Value box.
4. Click the OK button in the window to Define a uniform tensile stress of
10MPa applied to the right end of the quarter plate model.
The boundary conditions applied to the central hole plate made by the above
operations.

56
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

57
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

5.2. 4 Solution Procedures


Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Solution →Solve →Current LS
1. The Solve Current Load Step and /STATUS Command windows appear.
2. Click the OK button in the Solve Current Load Step window to begin the
solution of the current load step.
3. Select the File button in /STATUS Command window to open the submenu
and select the Close button to close the /STATUS Command window.
4. When the solution is completed, the Note window appears. Click the Close
button to close the Note window.

5.2.5 Contour Plot of Stress

58
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →General Post-proc →Plot Results →Contour Plot →Nodal
Solution
1. The Contour Nodal Solution Data window opens.
2. Select Stress and X-Component of stress.
3. Select deformed shape with undeformed edge in the Undisplaced shape key,
box to compare the shapes of the notched plate before and after deformation.
4. Click the OK button to display the contour of the x-component of stress in the
Quarter model of the center notched plate in the ANSYS Graphics window.

59
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

Command:-
ANSYS Utility Menu →PlotCtrls →Symbols …

The Symbols window opens as shown.

1. Select [A] All Reactions in the [/PBC] Boundary condition symbol buttons,[B]
Pressures in the [/PSF] Surface Load Symbols box and [C] Arrows in the
[/PSF] Show pres and convect as box.
2. The distributions of the reaction force and the longitudinal stress in the ligament
region as well as that of the applied stress on the right end of the plate area are
superimposed on the contour x-component of stress in the plate in the ANSYS
Graphics window. The reaction force is indicated by the leftward red arrows,
whereas the longitudinal stress by the rightward red arrows in the ligament
region.

60
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

61
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure

The longitudinal stress reaches its maximum value at the foot of the hole and is
decreased approaching to a constant value almost equal to the applied stress at some
distance, say, about one major diameter distance, from the foot of the hole.

62
CHAPTER-6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


6.1 Experimental Result
In solid mechanics, Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus, is a measure
of the stiffness of an isotropic elastic material. It is defined as the ratio of the
Uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's
Law holds. This can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain
curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. Testing is
performed by the standard is specimens as shown in figure below.

Figure: 6.1- Std. Specimen to Find out Young's modulus

Figure: 6.2- Stress Vs Strain diagram for standard Specimen


63
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

From the stress-strain diagram found the young modulus’s of elasticity is E = 280 X
103 Mpa and Poission’s ratio is 0.3.
Tensile tests are performed and getting the results. GroupWise the result are plotted in
tabular foam as under the below. Also the stress vs. strain diagram also plotted as
under the below.
Group-A
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
A1-500510 63774 318.87 255.096 1.25
A2-500507 69832 324.8 279.328 1.162790698
A3-500505 66015 293.4 264.06 1.111111111
A4-50052.5 74203 312.4336842 296.812 1.052631579
A5-500500 83514 334.056 334.056 1

Table No: 6.1 Experimental stress concentration factor (Group-A)

64
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.3- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (A1-500510)

Figure: 6.4- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (A2-500507)

Figure: 6.5- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (A3-500505)


65
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.6- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (A4-500502.5)

Group-B
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
B1-250505 36009 360.09 288.072 1.25
B2-25053.5 37434 348.2232558 299.472 1.162790698
B3-25052.5 40863 363.2266667 326.904 1.111111111
B4-25051.25 39305 330.9894737 314.44 1.052631579
B5-250500 67933 543.464 543.464 1

Table No: 6.2 Experimental stress concentration factor (Group-B)

66
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.7- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (B1-250505)

Figure: 6.8- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (B2-250503.5)

67
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.9- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (B3-250502.5)

Figure: 6.10- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (B4-250501.25)

68
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.11- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (B5-250500)

In the group-A and B hole diameter is varies to find out the experimental Kt. Hole
diameter is more the experimental Kt is also more. The ultimate strength and yield
strength are also varies with the geometry changes, in the hole diameter is more the
both strength are also in decrease. Maximum experiential stress concentration in both
cases is 1.25 and minimum experiential stress concentration in both cases is 1.0526.

Group-C
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
C1-250605 93370 778.0833333 622.4666667 1.25
C2-250600 38889 259.26 259.26 1
C3-320605 117825 727.3148148 613.671875 1.185185185
C4-320600 104785 545.7552083 545.7552083 1
C5-400605 131211 624.8142857 546.7125 1.142857143
C6-400600 151836 632.65 632.65 1
C7-500605 144169 533.9592593 480.5633333 1.111111111
C8-500600 168365 561.2166667 561.2166667 1
69
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Table No: 6.3 Experimental stress concentration factor (Group-C)

Figure: 6.12- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C1-250605)

Figure: 6.13- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C2-250600)

70
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.14- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C3-320605)

Figure: 6.15- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C4-320600)

71
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.16- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C5-400605)

Figure: 6.17- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C6-400600)

72
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.18- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (C7-500605)

In the group-C width of Plate is varies to find out the experimental Kt. width of Plate is
more the experimental Kt is also less. Maximum experiential stress concentration in
case is 1.25 and minimum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.1111.

Group-D
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
D1-251005 114284 571.42 457.136 1.25
D2-251000 139165 556.66 556.66 1
D3-251205 146822 611.7583333 489.4066667 1.25
D4-251008 166117 553.7233333 553.7233333 1
D5-251605 145014 453.16875 362.535 1.25
D6-251600 153710 384.275 384.275 1

73
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Table No: 6.4 Experimental stress concentration factor (Group-D)

Figure: 6.19- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (D1-251005)

74
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.20- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (D2-251000)

Figure: 6.21- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (D3-251205)

Figure: 6.22- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (D4-251200)


75
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.23- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (D5-251605)

Figure: 6.24- Stress Vs Strain diagram for Specimen (D6-251605)

76
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

In the group-D Thickness of Plate is varies to find out the experimental Kt. In this case
constant experiential stress concentration in case is 1.25 is obtain. Thickness is not
importance parameter to find out the experimental stress concentration factor because
ratio of the maximum stress to nominal stress, thickness parameter is not involved.

6.2 FEA Results


Today, most quantitative stress analysis is conducted using powerful computer
techniques; the most widely used of these is the finite element method. In applications
to isotropic linear elasticity, the method constructs an approximate solution to the
equations governing elastic boundary value problems. In practice, the approximate
displacement field is constructed as a piece wise continuous, low order polynomial
within small “elements;” in two dimensional models (e.g., plane stress), the elements
are typically triangular or quadrilateral shape and also in three dimensional models
taken for simulations.

Group A
Code FEA Stress FEA Stress concentration
Kt (FEA)
A1-500510 841.853 1.215184374
A2-500507 909.304 1.312547454
A3-500505 868.739 1.253993343
A4-50052.5 955.399 1.37908392
A5-500500 692.778 1
Table No: 6.5 FEA stress concentration factor (Group-A)

In the group-A hole diameter is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.3790 occurs on a
plate as shown in figures 6.28. Minimum experiential stress concentration in case is
1.2151 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.25.
77
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.25- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (A1-500510)

Figure: 6.26- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (A2-500507)

78
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.27- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (A3-500505)

Figure: 6.28- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (A4-500502.5)

79
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.29- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (A5-500500)


Group B
Code FEA Stress FEA Stress concentration
Kt (FEA)
B1-250505 971.944 1.236435
B2-25053.5 988.069 1.256948
B3-25052.5 1042 1.325555
B4-25051.25 988.609 1.257635
B5-250500 786.086 1
Table No: 6.6 FEA stress concentration factor (Group-B)

In the group-B hole diameter is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.3255 occurs on a
plate as shown in figures 6.32. Minimum experiential stress concentration in both cases
is 1.2364 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.30.

80
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.30- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (B1-250505)

Figure: 6.31- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (B2-250503.5)

81
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.32- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (B3-250502.5)

Figure: 6.33- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (B4-250501.25)

82
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.34- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (B5-250500)


Group C
Code FEA Stress FEA Stress concentration
Kt (FEA)
C1-250605 2046 1.505519
C2-250600 1359 1
C3-320605 1617 1.736629
C4-320600 931.114 1
C5-400605 1622 1.599606
C6-400600 1014 1
C7-500605 1584 1.655121
C8-500600 957.03 1
Table No: 6.7 FEA stress concentration factor (Group-C)

83
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

In the group-C width of Plate is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.736629occurs on a
plate as shown in figures 6.37. Minimum experiential stress concentration in both cases
is 1.505519 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.35.

Figure: 6.35- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C1-250605)

84
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.36- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C2-250600)

Figure: 6.37- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C3-320605)


85
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.38- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C4-320600)

Figure: 6.39- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C5-400605)

86
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.40- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C6-400600)

Figure: 6.41- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C7-500605)

87
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Code FEA Stress FEA Stress concentration


Kt (FEA)
D1-251005 1546 1.492277992
D2-251000 1036 1
D3-251205 1515 1.65686401

Figure: 6.42- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (C8-500600)

88
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

D4-251008 914.378 1
D5-251605 1226 1.698310278
D6-251600 721.894 1
Group D
Table No: 6.8 FEA stress concentration factor (Group-D)

In the group-D thickness of Plate is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.698310278 occurs on
a plate as shown in figures 6.47. Minimum experiential stress concentration in both
cases is 1.492277992 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.43.

Figure: 6.43- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (D1-251005)

89
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.44- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (D2-251000)

Figure: 6.45 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (D3-251205)

90
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.46- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (D4-251200)

Figure: 6.47- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (D5-251605)

91
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.48- Contour plots of axial stress Specimen (D6-251600)

6.3 Comparison of Results


FEA results are comparing with the experimental results as shown in below. Bias error,
graphs and curve fitting value table are show in below.
E
A
t
r
e F
s E
s
o S
n t
c r
e e
n s
t
r
a o
t
o n
n c
x t
p r
e t
r
m n
i
e
n
t
l
t
F

CA

i
-e
En

a
K
i
a
s
E
r
r
o
r
B

a
o
C

Code FEA Stress Experimental Bias Error Overall Bias


concentration Kt Error
Kt (FEA)
A1-500510 1.215184374 1.25 -2.8650
A2-500507 1.312547454 1.162790698 11.4096
10.9026
A3-500505 1.253993343 1.111111111 11.3942
A4-50052.5 1.37908392 1.052631579 23.6717
92
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Table No: 6.9 Comparison of Kt (Experimental) with Kt (FEA) – Group-A


Code FEA Stress Experimental Bias Error Overall Bias
concentration Kt Error
Kt (FEA)
B1-250505 1.236435 1.25 -1.0971
B2-250503.5 1.256948 1.162790698 7.4909 9.7181
B3-250502.5 1.325555 1.111111111 16.1777
B4-250501.25 1.257635 1.052631579 16.3007

Table No: 6.10 Comparison of Kt (Experimental) with Kt (FEA) – Group-B

Code FEA Stress Experimental Bias Error Overall Bias


concentration Kt Error
Kt (FEA)
C1-250605 1.505519 1.25 16.9722
C3-320605 1.736629 1.185185185 31.7537 27.5370
C5-400605 1.599606 1.142857143 28.5538
C7-500605 1.655121 1.111111111 32.8683

Table No: 6.11 Comparison of Kt (Experimental) with Kt (FEA) – Group-C

93
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Code FEA Stress Experimental Bias Error Overall Bias


concentration Kt Error
Kt (FEA)
B1-250505 1.236435 1.25 -1.0971
C1-250605 1.505519 1.25 16.9722
16.6128
D1-251005 1.492277992 1.25 16.2354
D3-251205 1.65686401 1.25 24.5563
D5-251605 1.698310278 1.25 26.3974

Table No: 6.12Comparison of Kt (Experimental) with Kt (FEA) – Group-D

94
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.49- Hole diameter V/s Stress Concentration Kt- Group-A

Figure: 6.50 Hole diameter V/s Stress Concentration Kt- Group-B

95
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.51 Width of plate V/s Stress Concentration Kt- Group-C

Figure: 6.52 Thickness of Plate V/s Stress Concentration Kt- Group-D

96
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.53 Ratio of D/W V/s Stress Concentration Kt- Group-A & B

Group-A in minimum bias error is -2.8650 and maximum bias error is 23.6717.
Overall bias error in group-A is 10.9026. Group-B in minimum bias error is -
1.0971and maximum bias error is 16.1777. Overall bias error in group-A is 9.7181.
Group-A and Group-B the overall bias error is less compare to other groups. In both
the experimental values are too much near the simulation data.

Group-C in minimum bias error is 16.9722 and maximum bias error is 32.8683.
Overall bias error in group-A is 27.5370 Group-D in minimum bias error is -1.0971and
maximum bias error is 26.3974. Overall bias error in group-A is 16.6128. Group- C
and Group-D are overall bias error is more to another groups.

97
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Value
Case Condition Equations
of R²

Experimental Kt = 0.024*(d) + 0.993 0.995

A Kt = -0.001*(d)4 + 0.026*(d)3 - 0.182*(d)2 +


FEA 0.463*(d) + 1 1

Experimental Kt = 0.049*(d) + 0.993 0.995

B Kt = 0.003*(d)4 - 0.025*(d)3 - 0.006*(d)2 +


FEA 0.246*(d) + 1 1

Experimental Kt = -0.005*(d) + 1.371 0.943

C Kt = 0.000*(d)3 - 0.021*(d)2 + 0.790*(d) -


FEA 7.885 1

Experimental Kt = 1.25
N.A.
D Kt = -0.001*(d)4 + 0.047*(d)3 - 0.704*(d)2 +
FEA 4.483*(d) - 8.763 1

Kt = 605.5*(d)5 – 1847*(d)4 + 2026*(d)3 -


Elliptical Hole FEA 960.7*(d)2 + 172.2*(d) - 2E-10 1

Table No: 6.13 Value of R2 for curve fitting

98
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

From the graphs the comparison to simulation data and experimental data is represent
to various parameters like hole diameter , width of plate and thickness of plate V/s
stress concentration factor.

Using of the curve fitting techniques, show the equation of the curve fitting with values
of R2. Value R2is unity then become equation is most perfect to curve fitting equation.
It’s represent which type of relationship between two variable of represent of curves.

6.3 FEA Results of Elliptical Hole:-


Using the above methodology for plate of center hole is verified with validation. So
replace the center hole by the elliptical hole and simulation of the stress concentration
factor. Study of stress concentration factor how to convert the stress intensity factor.

Ratio of Major Major Axis Minor Axis FEA Stress FEA Stress
axis to Minor concentration
axis Kt (FEA)

0.8 5 4 1058 2.3662


0.6 5 3 1296 2.8985
0.4 5 2 1688 3.7752
0.2 5 1 2977 9.4605
0.1 5 0.5 4230 9.4603
No hole 0 0 447.12 0
Table No: 6.14 FEA stress concentration factor (Elliptical hole)

99
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.54 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.8

Figure: 6.55 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.6

100
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.56 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.4

101
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.57Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.2

Figure: 6.58 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.1

102
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.59 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen no hole

From the results, stress concentration factor depends upon the geometry irregularity.
While stress intensity factor is most brittle material while SFC in ductile materials.
But sometimes elliptical hole become more and more narrow range, its behavior like
penny crack. And that time no stress concentration factor involves but stress intensity
factor involved.

103
Chapter 6● Results and discussion

Figure: 6.60 Stress Concentration Kt-Ratio of minor axis to major axis


when a crack begins to propagate, a brittle fracture can occur. Moreover, the speed of
propagation can be several thousand feet per second. The amount of plastic energy
consumed in the propagation of a crack is assumed to be rather small, so that the
process of crack extension is primarily governed by the release of elastic strain
energy.

As a material’s thickness decreases, lateral constraint relaxes and the size of the
plastic zone around the crack tip grows suddenly. This phenomenon is known as
‘‘crack-tip blunting,’’ indicating that a relatively large volume of material has
deformed. This process may be compared to the behavior of the neck region in a
tensile test specimen. The velocities of crack propagation in this instance drop
drastically and the crack is arrested.

If, after a crack has been arrested, the loading on the structure is increased so that the
stress again exceeds the yield stress of the material, the crack may propagate again.
We are then in a state of what might be called ‘‘arrestable instability.’’ In this state,
the fracture toughness parameter no longer applies.

104
CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

7.1 Conclusions
Present study showed that for the steel specimen subjected to an uniaxial tensile
stress, the stress concentration factor (Kt), around the centered circular hole was
affected by the diameter of hole to width of plate ratio and diameter of hole to
thickness of plate ratio, so that the larger diameter of hole to width of plate ratio and
the diameter of hole to thickness of plate ratio, the smaller the stress concentration
factor (Kt), value.

Plastic deformation for the steel specimen can improve stress concentration around
the hole. For specimen subjected to a uniaxial tensile stress, the stress concentration
factor (Kt), around the centered elliptical hole is affected not only by the diameter of
hole to width of plate ratio and diameter of hole to thickness of plate ratio, but also by
the ratio of minor axis to major axis. The interaction of the radius of the curvature of
the hole and the net area of the cross section at the hole was complicated.

The high stress concentration at the edge of a cutout is of practical importance in


designing of the engineering structures. There is not any closed form solutions for a
plate with a centered hole. These types of hole usually are determined either
experimentally or numerically using finite element methods. The simple analytical
stress analysis provides a numerical result for stress concentration factors for
perforated plates.

Experimentally and simulation studies were conducted to investigate the effects of


variation in diameter of the hole and geometries on the location and the value of the
maximum stress in flat plate under a uniaxial tensile load. Simulation solution for

105
Chapter 7● Conclusions and Future Work

circular and elliptical hole is extended to special cutout shape using complex variable
mapping. This complex variable function can be used in modeling and evaluation of
stress distribution in perforated plates. The stress concentration factor of perforated
plates can be significantly change by using proper material properties and cutout
parameters.
It should be stated in closing that stress concentrations in general are virtually
inevitable in real structures and machines due to the presence of grooves, fillets,
holes, threads, and similar discontinuities. The worst situations, of course, include
machine errors, gravel nicks, nonmetallic inclusions, and micro-voids, which may be
difficult or even impossible to detect. Stress intensity due to cracks in inherently
brittle materials and in some ductile materials displaying brittle behavior under
specific environmental conditions may lead to fracture.

In the case of simulation procedures should be adjusted to achieve conformity of


chosen criteria characteristics of diagnostic processes with the same characteristics
evaluated experimentally. Proposed methodology forms fundamentals for diagnostic
relations development basing on simulation model of stress concentration factor. At
the same time it indicate methodological way to simulation diagnostics as an aiding
tool for traditional diagnostic procedures used to evaluate the stress concentration
factor.

A vast number of FEA calculations were performed for the verification of the
developed calculation methods. A comparison of these simulation values and the
results obtained by means of the developed experimental solution methods showed a
high level of concurrence and therefore support the developed calculation method in a
strong way.

106
Chapter 7● Conclusions and Future Work

7.2 Future Work


The following are some of the essential sectors of stress concentration factor
methodologies that require further attention. The current model incorporates some of
the salient features of a reliable stress concentration factor procedure, such as the
elliptical hole, and the inclusion of a crack propagation model (Fracture mechanics).
The following recommendation highlights the core attributes of stress concentration
factor methodology and delineates the areas where further endeavors should be
concentrated.

Statistical properties of material systems as well as its performance of stress


distribution should be assessed for all potential simulated application environments
so that stress concentration factor methodologies may incorporate a level of statistical
confidence. This could lead to the evolvement of better methods for assessing
material variability, with geometry variability.

Design of experimental(DOE) through various parameters like elliptical hole,


eccentric hole, also the eccentric elliptical hole with change in width of plate and
thickness of plates. To investigate the stress concentration by the experimental set-up.
Today, composite materials the much important role in engineering application due to
ratio of weight to strength. In composite material not isotropic material so not
predicate the stress distribution in the composite materials to much difficult. In
composite material the uni-directional, bi-directional, woven type composite made
and experimentally stress concentration study required.

107

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