Book Details
Book Details
1 INTRODUCTION 1-15
1.1 Introduction to Materials 1
1.2 General Material Classifications 2
1.2.1 Metals 2
1.2.2 Ceramics 3
1.2.3 Polymers 5
1.2.4 Composites 6
1.2.5 Orthotropic material and Anisotropic material 8
1.3 Stress Concentration 10
1.3.1 Static Stress and Strain Concentration Factors 11
1.3.2 Neuber’s Formula for Nonlinear Material Behavior 12
1.4 Stress Intensity Factor 13
1.4.1 Fracture Mechanics 13
1.4.2 Stress Intensity Factor 14
105-
7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
107
7.1 Conclusion 105
7.2 Future Work 107
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
All of these require materials specifically tailored for their application. Activities of
these engineers range from primary materials production, including recycling, through
the design and development of new materials to the reliable and economical
manufacturing for the final product. Such activities are found commonly in industries
1
Chapter 1● Introduction
1.2.1 Metals
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of
the planet. Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility, high melting
points, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness. From the periodic table, it
can be seen that a large number of the elements are classified as being a metal. A few
of the common metals and their typical uses are presented below.
2
Chapter 1● Introduction
1.2.2 Ceramics
A ceramic has traditionally been defined as “an inorganic, non-metallic solid that is
prepared from powdered materials, is fabricated into products through the application
3
Chapter 1● Introduction
of heat, and displays such characteristic properties as hardness, strength, low electrical
conductivity, and brittleness." The word ceramic comes the from Greek word
"keramikos", which means "pottery." They are typically crystalline in nature and are
compounds formed between metallic and non-metallic elements such as aluminium
and oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen (calcia - CaO), and silicon and
nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).
Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight.
Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness properties; however,
they are often brittle in nature. Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically
conductive materials or insulators. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display
magnetic properties. They are also more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers. Due to ceramic materials wide range of
properties, they are used for a multitude of applications.
The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry can be classified
as:
1. Structural clay products (brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile, flue linings,
etc.)
2. Whitewares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical porcelain, etc.)
3. Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass, cements,
ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries)
4. Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass
(dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass
(optical fibers))
5. Abrasives (natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide,
diamond, fused alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing,
lapping, or pressure blasting of materials)
6. Cements ( roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)
7. Advanced ceramics
4
Chapter 1● Introduction
Briefly though, the two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are
covalent and ionic. Covalent and ionic bonds are much stronger than in metallic bonds
and, generally speaking, this is why ceramics are brittle and metals are ductile.[1-2]
1.2.3 Polymers
A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains many chemically
bonded parts or units which themselves are bonded together to form a solid. The word
polymer literally means "many parts." Two industrially important polymeric materials
are plastics and elastomers. Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials
which are processed by forming or molding into shape. Just as there are many types of
metals such as aluminum and copper, there are many types of plastics, such as
polyethylene and nylon. Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically deformed a large
amount when a force is applied to them and can return to their original shape (or
almost) when the force is released.
Polymers have many properties that make them attractive to use in certain conditions.
Many polymers:
1. Are less dense than metals or ceramics,
2. Resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion,
3. Offer good compatibility with human tissue, or
4. Exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of electrical current.
5
Chapter 1● Introduction
The polymer plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics, depending on how they are structurally and chemically bonded. Thermoplastic
polymers comprise the four most important commodity materials – polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride. There are also a number of
specialized engineering polymers. The term ‘thermoplastic’ indicates that these
materials melt on heating and may be processed by a variety of moulding and extrusion
techniques. Alternately, ‘thermosetting’ polymers cannot be melted or remelted.
Thermosetting polymers include alkyds, amino and phenolic resins, epoxies,
polyurethanes, and unsaturated polyesters.
1.2.4 Composites
A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more distinct materials,
each of which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new material with
properties that cannot be achieved by any of the components acting alone. Using this
definition, it can be determined that a wide range of engineering materials fall into this
category. For example, concrete is a composite because it is a mixture of Portland
cement and aggregate. Fibreglass sheet is a composite since it is made of glass fibres’
imbedded in a polymer.
6
Chapter 1● Introduction
Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing phase is the fibers,
sheets, or particles that are embedded in the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and
the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials
are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material.
Some of the common classifications of composites are:
1. Reinforced plastics
2. Metal-matrix composites
3. Ceramic-matrix composites
4. Sandwich structures
5. Concrete
Composite materials can take many forms but they can be separated into three
categories based on the strengthening mechanism. These categories are dispersion
strengthened, particle reinforced and fiber reinforced. Dispersion strengthened
composites have a fine distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material.
These particles impede the mechanisms that allow a material to deform. Many metal-
matrix composites would fall into the dispersion strengthened composite category.
Particle reinforced composites have a large volume fraction of particle dispersed in the
matrix and the load is shared by the particles and the matrix. Most commercial
ceramics and many filled polymers are particle-reinforced composites. In fiber-
reinforced composites, the fiber is the primary load-bearing component. Fiberglass and
carbon fiber composites are examples of fiber-reinforced composites
If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the
reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable
properties not available in any single conventional material. Some composites also
offer the advantage of being tailorable so that properties, such as strength and stiffness,
can easily be changed by changing amount or orientation of the reinforcement material.
7
Chapter 1● Introduction
The downside is that such composites are often more expensive than conventional
materials. [3]
One common example of an orthotropic material with two axes of symmetry would be
a polymer reinforced by parallel glass or graphite fibers. The strength and stiffness of
such a composite material will usually be greater in a direction parallel to the fibers
than in the transverse direction. Another example would be a biological membrane, in
which the properties in the plane of the membrane will be different from those in the
perpendicular direction. Such materials are sometimes called transverse isotropic.
It is important to keep in mind that a material which is anisotropic on one length scale
may be isotropic on another (usually larger) length scale. For instance, most metals are
polycrystalline with very small grains. Each of the individual grains may be
anisotropic, but if the material as a whole comprises many randomly oriented grains,
8
Chapter 1● Introduction
then its measured mechanical properties will be an average of the properties over all
possible orientations of the individual grains.
Hooke was probably the first person that suggested a mathematical expression of the
stress-strain relation for a given material.
The most general stress-strain relationship within the theory of linear elasticity is that
of the materials without any plane of symmetry, i.e., general materials
or triclinic materials. If there is a plane of symmetry, the material is termed monoclinic.
If the number of symmetric planes increases to two, the third orthogonal plane of
material symmetry will automatically yield and form a set of principal axes. In this
case, the material is known as orthotropic. If there exists a plane in which the
mechanical properties are equal in all directions, the material is called transversely
isotropic. If there is an infinite number of planes of material symmetry, i.e., the
mechanical properties in all directions are the same at a given point, the material is
known as isotropic.
9
Chapter 1● Introduction
may be different along different directions at given point, but this variation is
consistent from point to point. For example, consider three common items on a dining
table: stainless steel forks, bamboo chopsticks, and Swiss cheese. Stainless steel is
isotropic and homogeneous. Bamboo chopsticks are homogeneous but not isotropic
(they are transversely isotropic, strong along the fiber direction, relatively weak but
equal in other directions). Swiss cheese is isotropic but not homogeneous (The air
bubbles formed during production left inhomogeneous spots).
Both stress and strain fields are second order tensors. Each component consists of
information in two directions: the normal direction of the plane in question and the
direction of traction or deformation. There are nine (9) components in each field in a
three dimensional space. Since they are symmetric, engineers usually rewrite them
from a 3×3 matrix to a vector with six (6) components and arrange the stress-strain
relations into a 6×6 matrix to form the generalized Hooke's law. For the 36 components
in the stiffness or compliance matrix, not every component is independent to each other
and some of them might be zero.
are due to (1) discontinuities in continuum and (2) contact forces. Discontinuities in
continuum include changes in geometry and material properties.
Rapid geometry changes disrupt the smooth flow of stresses through the structure
between load application areas. Plates in tension or bending with holes, notches, steps,
etc. are simple examples involving direct normal stresses. Shafts in tension, bending,
and torsion, with holes, notches, steps, keyways, etc., are simple examples involving
direct and bending normal stresses and torsional shear stresses. More complicated
geometries must be analyzed either by experimental or numerical techniques such as
the finite element method. Other, less obvious, geometry changes include rough
surface finish and external and internal cracks. Changes in material properties can
occur both at macroscopic and microscopic levels which include alloy formulation,
grain size and orientation, foreign materials, etc. [4]
11
Chapter 1● Introduction
a2 a4
0 [1 2 (1 3 * 4 ) * cos 2 ]
2 r r
The maximum stress is 0 3 at r=a, and 90 . Figure 3 shows how the
0
tangential stress varies along the x and y axes of the plate. For the top (and bottom) of
the hole, we see the stress gradient is extremely large compared with the nominal
stress, and hence the term stress concentration applies. For the infinite plate containing
The analysis of the plate in tension with a hole just given is for a very wide plate
(infinite in the limit). As the width of the plate decreases, the maximum stress becomes
less than three times the nominal stress at the zone containing the hole. [4-5]
12
Chapter 1● Introduction
2
K
K t
K
elastic range. The determination of max is found from the material’s elastic stress-
strain curve using the nominal stress. [6]
1.4 Stress Intensity Factor
1.4.1 Fracture Mechanics
Fracture mechanics provides a tool for assessing the criticality of flaws in structures.
LEFM is the basic theory of fracture, originated by Griffith (1921) and completed by
Irwing (1957); Rice (1968); and Riveros (2006). The LEFM is a highly simplified
theory that is applicable to any material under a basic ideal situation: all the material is
elastic except in a vanishingly small region (a point) at the crack tip. [7]
13
Chapter 1● Introduction
14
Chapter 1● Introduction
Figure 1.4 Failure stress related to crack size for infinitely wide plate subjected to
tension
15
Chapter 2● Literature Review
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
‘‘Stress concentration,’’ as it is commonly used in design, refers to a high local stress
relative to the overall macroscopic stress. Stress concentration has unique meaning for
plane problems in terms of average stress. If, for example, a small hole is drilled in an
end-loaded plate as in, the stress is essentially unchanged in regions away from the
hole. But at the edge of the hole, the tangential stress is increased dramatically.
High local stresses based on the elastic theory can, indeed, be tolerated. Under the
conditions of static loading applied to the parts made of brittle materials, stress raisers
16
Chapter 2● Literature Review
cannot be ignored. This is also true in the case of some inherently ductile materials,
which, at lower temperatures, fail due to the acquired brittle characteristics.
17
Chapter 2● Literature Review
Biaxial tension Kt = 2
(d/b small)
18
Chapter 2● Literature Review
Table No: 2.1 Effect of circular hole on direct stress for Flat plate
19
Chapter 2● Literature Review
d 2 3d 4
max *{ 1}
8x 32x
Above relation shows that stress disturbance is highly localized. Practical rules often
state that the maximum theoretical stress concentration for a plate in tension is
encountered when the width of the plate is more than about four times the diameter of
the hole. Putting b=4*d into an approximate formula, given in Table 2.1, we get
Kt=2.4. Only when d becomes very small, the theoretical value of 3 attained. In
general, the effect of open holes in beams is not easy to evaluate despite the various
theoretical and experimental tools available. For example, when holes are present in
the flange, the problem of location of the neutral axis can lead to many interesting
speculations. Furthermore, the effect of a hole in the tension flange of a beam is
difficult to assess if the beam does not fracture and the compression flange carries the
significant share of the load. On this basis, it would seem that the effect of holes in
flanges can often be ignored, particularly when rivets are used.
In 1913, Inglis [21] proposed a simple formula for estimating the increase in stress due
to a finite discontinuity such as an elliptical opening in a plate, porthole, or hatchway.
Figure 2.3 shows the Inglis model. The proposed design formula for this model is the
application of this expression can be extended to the geometry of cracks, notches,
scratches, and similar stress raisers as the L=R ratio is increased.
20
Chapter 2● Literature Review
The corresponding σmax=σ ratio becomes the conventional stress concentration factor
where the symbol Kt denotes the nominal stress existing at a point away from the
discontinuity. Observe in Figure 2.3 that when L= r, the hole becomes circular, and the
structure reduces to that of a symmetrically placed hole in a plate in Uniaxial tension
with Kt=3.
While the Inglis formula planted some interesting ideas in the minds of engineers, it
became necessary to invoke the principles of ductile response in the face of disturbing
theoretical results derived from purely elastic considerations. This process has led to
the development of a plastic reduction procedure [22, 23] for the elastic stress factors.
It became obvious that in the case of a truly ductile material under static loading, the
conventional elastic factor should be modified with the aid of the appropriate stress–
strain diagram of the material [24]. One of the simplest approaches to the correction of
any type of elastic stress concentration factor [25] is where Es is the secant modulus
(the slope of the stress–strain curve beyond the yield point) and E is the elastic
modulus.
21
Chapter 2● Literature Review
Es
K t 1 (K 1) * ( ) For Elliptical Hole
E
Es
K t 1 2( ) For Circular Hole
E
For the case of a circular hole in a wide plate, Equation becomes This method provides
the opportunity for rounding off the calculated higher peaks of the elastic stresses and
in this manner assuring a more reasonable value of the design stress factor. The
magnitude of the plastic stress concentration factor depends then on the shape of the
stress–strain curve while the conventional Kt factor is a function of the geometry of the
part alone. It should be stated in closing that stress concentrations in general are
virtually inevitable in real structures and machines due to the presence of grooves,
fillets, holes, threads, and similar discontinuities. The worst situations, of course,
include machine errors, gravel nicks, nonmetallic inclusions, and microvoids, which
may be difficult or even impossible to detect. Stress intensities due to cracks in
inherently brittle materials and in some ductile materials displaying brittle behavior
under specific environmental conditions may lead to fracture.
22
Chapter 2● Literature Review
23
Chapter 2● Literature Review
[Jafari M. -2005]
In aerospace structure, panels with variously shaped cutout are often used. To analyses
the effect of cutout on the load bearing capacity and SFC of such plates is very
important in designing of complex structure. The result obtained using finite element
methods. The effect of the cutout depends on the material properties, fiber angle and
cutout curvature geometry is considered. The stress concentration factor of perforated
plated can be significantly change by using proper materials propertied and cutout
parameters. [32-33]
24
Chapter 2● Literature Review
SCF expressions for corresponding 3-D dimension problem such sphere cavity in a
cylindrical bar subjected to tension or torsion. [35]
25
Chapter 2● Literature Review
plate the tangential stress along the circular hole boundary may be expressed as
cos 2 k n sin 2 k cos 2
E
K
[(1 n) cos 2 k sin 2 ] sin 2
E
n(1 k n) sin cos sin cos
E E
n i( 1 2 ) 2 { 1 12 } 1
E2 G 12
Where i 1 , and 1 , 2 are the complex roots of the anisotropic plate characteristic
equation.
26
Chapter 3● Defination of Problem
CHAPTER-3
DEFINATION OF PROBLEM
Design of experimental take the various parameters group and get the experimental
work. The experimental works get the results in foam of stress-strain diagram, and
values of the mechanical properties like yield strength, ultimate strength, final gauge
length etc.
Using of the data from the experimental work, simulation by the standard software.
The simulation of every group of the specimens for FEA stress concentration factor is
carried out. Comparative assessment of experimental and simulation data also
presented.
27
Chapter 3● Defination of Problem
Simulation is carried out by the obtained experimental data with standard software, to
understand the relationship between stress concentration factor (SCF) and stress
intensity factor (SIF). Simulation study is carried out for elliptical hole by changing the
ration the major axis to minor axis.
28
CHAPTER-4
EXPERIMENTATIONS
4.1 Tensile Testing
Tensile tests are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in
selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are
included in material Specification to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are
measured during development of new materials and processes, so that different
materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile properties often are used to
predict the behaviour of a material under forms of loading other than uni-axial tension.
The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of interest may be
measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause appreciable plastic
deformation or the maximum stress that the material can withstand. Also of interest is
the material’s ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be deformed before it
fractures. Rarely is ductility incorporated directly in design; rather, it is included in
material Specification to ensure quality and toughness. Low ductility in a tensile test
often is accompanied by low resistance to fracture under other forms of loading. Elastic
properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure these
properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by
ultrasonic techniques.
29
Chapter 4●Experimentations
13 C3-320605 32 X 06 X 05
14 C4-320600 32 X 06 X 00
15 C C5-400605 40 X 06 X 05
16 C6-400600 40 X 06 X 00
17 C7-500605 50 X 06 X 05
18 C8-500600 50 X 06 X 00
19 D D1-251005 25 X 10 X 05
20 D2-251000 25 X 10 X 00
21 D3-251205 25 X 12 X 05
22 D4-251200 25 X 12 X 00
23 D5-251605 25 X 16 X 05
24 D6-251605 25 X 16 X 00
Table No: 4.2 coding of the specimens
4.3 Specification of UTM
32
Chapter 4●Experimentations
6. Provides platform for basic materials measurement, test control, report generation
7. Set-up and configuration of the display screen and control panel. Set-up of limits
9. Saving and retrieval of test methods and data. Advanced data management and high-
34
Chapter 4●Experimentations
Load and strain ranges should be selected so that the test wills fit the range. The
maximum values to be recorded should be as close to the top of the selected scale as
convenient without running the risk of going past full scale. Ranges may be selected
using past experience for a particular test, or specifications data for the material (if
available). Note that many computer-based testing systems have automatic range
selection and will capture data even if the range initially selected is too small.
The identity of each specimen should be verified, and pertinent identification should
be accurately recorded for the test records and report.
The dimensions needed to calculate the cross sectional area of the reduced section
should be measured and recorded. The load-indicator zero and the plot-load-axis
zero, if applicable, should be set before the specimen is placed in the grips. Zeroes
should never be reset after the specimen is in place.
35
Chapter 4●Experimentations
The specimen is placed in the grips and is secured by closing the grips. If preload is
to be removed before the test is started, it should be physically unloaded by moving
the loading mechanism.
When the extensometer, if applicable, is installed, the technician should be sure to set
the mechanical zero correctly. The strain-readout zero should be set after the
extensometer is in place on the specimen.
The test procedure should be in conformance with the published test specification and
should be repeated consistently for every test.
In the simplest tensile test, the raw data comprise a single measurement of peak force
and the dimensional measurements taken to determine the cross-sectional area of the
test specimen. The first analysis step is to calculate the “tensile strength,” defined as
the force per unit area required to fracture the specimen.
Computer is produces the analysis of the test data and generate the test reports are
attach in appendix A.
36
Chapter 4●Experimentations
37
Chapter 4●Experimentations
39
Chapter 4●Experimentations
40
Chapter 4●Experimentations
41
CHAPTER-5
FEA SIMULATION PROCEDURE
5.1. Simulation
Time and cost benefits of engineering simulation are well documented. Predicting
product performance and determining optimal solutions early in the design phase help
to avoid late-stage problems and to eliminate trial-and-error testing cycles that drive up
costs and bog down schedules. Simulation enables engineers to perform what-if studies
and to compare alternatives, processes that otherwise would be impractical. Indeed,
bottom-line savings are one key benefit that prompts most companies to implement
simulation, and are most readily quantified in return-on investment calculations.
The current economic climate has completely changed the way most companies view
engineering simulation. Leveraging the power of virtual prototyping to compress the
product development process and drive down costs is no longer a choice — it’s a
requirement for survival in an increasingly competitive environment.
They have already realized the enormous strategic benefits of virtual prototyping —
and are now seeking more from their investments in simulation. ANSYS 12.0 enables
these forward-looking companies to maximize the efficiency of their simulation
processes, to increase the accuracy of their virtual prototypes, and to capture and reuse
their simulation processes and data. This next level of performance signals a new era of
Smart Engineering Simulation, in which product innovations can be realized more
rapidly, and more cost effectively, than ever before.
42
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
5.2. Modeling
The behaviour of a phenomenon in a system depends upon the geometry or domain of
the system, the property of the material or medium, and the boundary, initial and
loading conditions. For an engineering system, the geometry or domain can be very
complex. Further, the boundary and initial conditions can also be complicated. It is
therefore, in general, very difficult to solve the governing differential equation via
analytical means. In practice, most of the problems are solved using numerical
43
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
methods. Among these, the methods of domain discretization championed by the FEM
are the most popular, due to its practicality and versatility.
The procedure of computational modelling using the FEM broadly consists of four
steps:
• Modelling of the geometry.
• Meshing (discretization).
• Specification of material property.
• Specification of boundary, initial and loading conditions.
44
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Problem description
Plate geometry: L =250mm, height H=50mm, thickness B=5mm. Material: mild steel
having Young’s modulus E =210GPa and Poisson’s ratio ν=0.3. Hole: A hole has a
radius of 10mm Boundary conditions: The elastic plate is subjected to a uniform tensile
stress of σ=10Mpa in the longitudinal direction at the right end and clamped to a rigid
wall at the left end.
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Modelling →Create →Areas
→Rectangle → By2Corners
1 Input two 0’s into the WP X and WP Y boxes in the Rectangle by 2 Corners
window to determine the lower left corner point of the elastic plate on the
Cartesian coordinates of the working plane.
2 Input 125 and 25 (mm) into the Width and Height boxes, respectively, to
determine the shape of the quarter elastic plate model.
3 Click the OK button to create the quarter elastic plate on the ANSYS
Graphics window.
45
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Then, create a circular area having a diameter of 20mm and then reduce its diameter in
the longitudinal direction to a half of the original value to get the elliptic area. The
following commands create a circular area by designating the coordinates (UX, UY) of
the centre and the radius of the circular area:
46
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Modelling →Create →Areas →Circle →
Solid Circle
1 The Solid Circular Area window opens.
2 Input two 0’s into [A] WP X and [B] WP Y boxes to determine the centre
position of the circular area.
3 Input [C] 10 (mm) in Radius box to determine the radius of the circular area.
4 Click [D] OK button to create the circular area superimposed on the
rectangular area in the ANSYS Graphics window.
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Modeling →Operate →Booleans →
Subtract →Areas
1 Pick the rectangular area by the upward arrow and confirm that the colour of
the area picked turns from light blue into pink. Click the OK button.
47
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
2 Pick the circular area by the upward arrow and confirm that the colour of the
circular area picked turns from light blue into pink. Click the OK button to
subtract the circular area from the rectangular area to get a quarter model of a
plate with the circular hole in its centre.
48
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Material Props →Material Models
1 The Define Material Model Behavior window opens. Double-click Structural,
Linear, Elastic, and Isotropic butt on one after another.
2 Input the value of Young’s modulus, 2.1e5 (Map), and that of Poisson’s ratio,
0.3, into EX and PRXY boxes, and click the OK button of the Linear Isotropic
Properties for Materials Number 1 window.
3 Exit from the Define Material Model Behavior window by selecting Exit in
the Material menu of the window.
49
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Element Type →Add/Edit/Delete
50
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Pre-processor →Real Constants →Add/Edit/Delete
1. The Real Constants window opens.
2. Click [A] Add/Edit/Delete button to open the Real Constants window and Click
the Add ...button.
3. The Element Type for Real Constants window opens. Click the OK button. The
Element Type for Real Constants window vanishes and the Real Constants Set
Number 1. For PLANE82 window appears instead.
4. Input a strip thickness of 10 (mm) in the Thickness box and click the OK
button. The Real Constants window returns with the display of the Defined Real
Constants Sets box changed to Set 1. Click the Close button.
51
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command :-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Meshing →Size Cntrls →Manual Size →
Global →Size
52
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Preprocessor →Meshing →Mesh →Areas →Free
(1) The Mesh Areas window opens.
(2) The upward arrow appears in the ANSYS Graphics window. Move this arrow
To the quarter plate area and click this area.
(3) The color of the area turns from light blue into pink. Click the OK button to see
The area meshed by 8-node isoperimetric finite elements.
53
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Due to the symmetry, the constraint conditions of the quarter plate model are UX-
fixed condition on the left end and UY-fixed condition on the bottom side of the
quarter plate model. Apply the constraint conditions onto the corresponding lines by
the following commands:
54
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →Solution →Define Loads →Apply →Structural →
Displacement →Symmetric B.C. →On line
1. The on Lines window opens and the upward arrow appears when the mouse
cursor is moved to the ANSYS Graphics window.
2. Confirming that the Pick and Single buttons are selected, move the upward
arrow onto the left-end side of the quarter plate area and click the left button
of the mouse.
A uniform longitudinal stress can be defined by pressure on the right-end side of the
plate model as described below:
55
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command
ANSYS Main Menu →Solution →Define Loads →Apply →Structural →
Pressure →On Lines
1. The Apply PRES on Lines window opens and the upward arrow appears
when the mouse cursor is moved to the ANSYS Graphics window.
2. Confirming that the Pick and Single buttons are selected, move the upward
arrow onto the right-end side of the quarter plate area and click the left button
of the mouse.
3. Another Apply PRES on Lines window opens. Select Constant value in the
[SFL] Apply PRES on lines as a box and input -10 (MPa) in the VALUE
Load PRES value box and leave a blank in the Value box.
4. Click the OK button in the window to Define a uniform tensile stress of
10MPa applied to the right end of the quarter plate model.
The boundary conditions applied to the central hole plate made by the above
operations.
56
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
57
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
58
Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Main Menu →General Post-proc →Plot Results →Contour Plot →Nodal
Solution
1. The Contour Nodal Solution Data window opens.
2. Select Stress and X-Component of stress.
3. Select deformed shape with undeformed edge in the Undisplaced shape key,
box to compare the shapes of the notched plate before and after deformation.
4. Click the OK button to display the contour of the x-component of stress in the
Quarter model of the center notched plate in the ANSYS Graphics window.
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Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
Command:-
ANSYS Utility Menu →PlotCtrls →Symbols …
1. Select [A] All Reactions in the [/PBC] Boundary condition symbol buttons,[B]
Pressures in the [/PSF] Surface Load Symbols box and [C] Arrows in the
[/PSF] Show pres and convect as box.
2. The distributions of the reaction force and the longitudinal stress in the ligament
region as well as that of the applied stress on the right end of the plate area are
superimposed on the contour x-component of stress in the plate in the ANSYS
Graphics window. The reaction force is indicated by the leftward red arrows,
whereas the longitudinal stress by the rightward red arrows in the ligament
region.
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Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
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Chapter 5● FEA Simulation Procedure
The longitudinal stress reaches its maximum value at the foot of the hole and is
decreased approaching to a constant value almost equal to the applied stress at some
distance, say, about one major diameter distance, from the foot of the hole.
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CHAPTER-6
From the stress-strain diagram found the young modulus’s of elasticity is E = 280 X
103 Mpa and Poission’s ratio is 0.3.
Tensile tests are performed and getting the results. GroupWise the result are plotted in
tabular foam as under the below. Also the stress vs. strain diagram also plotted as
under the below.
Group-A
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
A1-500510 63774 318.87 255.096 1.25
A2-500507 69832 324.8 279.328 1.162790698
A3-500505 66015 293.4 264.06 1.111111111
A4-50052.5 74203 312.4336842 296.812 1.052631579
A5-500500 83514 334.056 334.056 1
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
Group-B
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
B1-250505 36009 360.09 288.072 1.25
B2-25053.5 37434 348.2232558 299.472 1.162790698
B3-25052.5 40863 363.2266667 326.904 1.111111111
B4-25051.25 39305 330.9894737 314.44 1.052631579
B5-250500 67933 543.464 543.464 1
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
In the group-A and B hole diameter is varies to find out the experimental Kt. Hole
diameter is more the experimental Kt is also more. The ultimate strength and yield
strength are also varies with the geometry changes, in the hole diameter is more the
both strength are also in decrease. Maximum experiential stress concentration in both
cases is 1.25 and minimum experiential stress concentration in both cases is 1.0526.
Group-C
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
C1-250605 93370 778.0833333 622.4666667 1.25
C2-250600 38889 259.26 259.26 1
C3-320605 117825 727.3148148 613.671875 1.185185185
C4-320600 104785 545.7552083 545.7552083 1
C5-400605 131211 624.8142857 546.7125 1.142857143
C6-400600 151836 632.65 632.65 1
C7-500605 144169 533.9592593 480.5633333 1.111111111
C8-500600 168365 561.2166667 561.2166667 1
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
71
Chapter 6● Results and discussion
72
Chapter 6● Results and discussion
In the group-C width of Plate is varies to find out the experimental Kt. width of Plate is
more the experimental Kt is also less. Maximum experiential stress concentration in
case is 1.25 and minimum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.1111.
Group-D
Code Yield Strength Maximum Stress Nominal Stress Experimental
σmax σnom Kt
D1-251005 114284 571.42 457.136 1.25
D2-251000 139165 556.66 556.66 1
D3-251205 146822 611.7583333 489.4066667 1.25
D4-251008 166117 553.7233333 553.7233333 1
D5-251605 145014 453.16875 362.535 1.25
D6-251600 153710 384.275 384.275 1
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
In the group-D Thickness of Plate is varies to find out the experimental Kt. In this case
constant experiential stress concentration in case is 1.25 is obtain. Thickness is not
importance parameter to find out the experimental stress concentration factor because
ratio of the maximum stress to nominal stress, thickness parameter is not involved.
Group A
Code FEA Stress FEA Stress concentration
Kt (FEA)
A1-500510 841.853 1.215184374
A2-500507 909.304 1.312547454
A3-500505 868.739 1.253993343
A4-50052.5 955.399 1.37908392
A5-500500 692.778 1
Table No: 6.5 FEA stress concentration factor (Group-A)
In the group-A hole diameter is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.3790 occurs on a
plate as shown in figures 6.28. Minimum experiential stress concentration in case is
1.2151 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.25.
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
In the group-B hole diameter is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.3255 occurs on a
plate as shown in figures 6.32. Minimum experiential stress concentration in both cases
is 1.2364 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.30.
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
82
Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
In the group-C width of Plate is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.736629occurs on a
plate as shown in figures 6.37. Minimum experiential stress concentration in both cases
is 1.505519 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.35.
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
D4-251008 914.378 1
D5-251605 1226 1.698310278
D6-251600 721.894 1
Group D
Table No: 6.8 FEA stress concentration factor (Group-D)
In the group-D thickness of Plate is varies to find out the FEA Kt using the ANSYS
Software. Maximum experiential stress concentration in case is 1.698310278 occurs on
a plate as shown in figures 6.47. Minimum experiential stress concentration in both
cases is 1.492277992 occurs on a plate as shown in figures 6.43.
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
Figure: 6.53 Ratio of D/W V/s Stress Concentration Kt- Group-A & B
Group-A in minimum bias error is -2.8650 and maximum bias error is 23.6717.
Overall bias error in group-A is 10.9026. Group-B in minimum bias error is -
1.0971and maximum bias error is 16.1777. Overall bias error in group-A is 9.7181.
Group-A and Group-B the overall bias error is less compare to other groups. In both
the experimental values are too much near the simulation data.
Group-C in minimum bias error is 16.9722 and maximum bias error is 32.8683.
Overall bias error in group-A is 27.5370 Group-D in minimum bias error is -1.0971and
maximum bias error is 26.3974. Overall bias error in group-A is 16.6128. Group- C
and Group-D are overall bias error is more to another groups.
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
Value
Case Condition Equations
of R²
Experimental Kt = 1.25
N.A.
D Kt = -0.001*(d)4 + 0.047*(d)3 - 0.704*(d)2 +
FEA 4.483*(d) - 8.763 1
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
From the graphs the comparison to simulation data and experimental data is represent
to various parameters like hole diameter , width of plate and thickness of plate V/s
stress concentration factor.
Using of the curve fitting techniques, show the equation of the curve fitting with values
of R2. Value R2is unity then become equation is most perfect to curve fitting equation.
It’s represent which type of relationship between two variable of represent of curves.
Ratio of Major Major Axis Minor Axis FEA Stress FEA Stress
axis to Minor concentration
axis Kt (FEA)
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
Figure: 6.54 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.8
Figure: 6.55 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.6
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
Figure: 6.56 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.4
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
Figure: 6.58 Contour plots of axial stress Specimen Elliptical hole = 0.1
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
From the results, stress concentration factor depends upon the geometry irregularity.
While stress intensity factor is most brittle material while SFC in ductile materials.
But sometimes elliptical hole become more and more narrow range, its behavior like
penny crack. And that time no stress concentration factor involves but stress intensity
factor involved.
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Chapter 6● Results and discussion
As a material’s thickness decreases, lateral constraint relaxes and the size of the
plastic zone around the crack tip grows suddenly. This phenomenon is known as
‘‘crack-tip blunting,’’ indicating that a relatively large volume of material has
deformed. This process may be compared to the behavior of the neck region in a
tensile test specimen. The velocities of crack propagation in this instance drop
drastically and the crack is arrested.
If, after a crack has been arrested, the loading on the structure is increased so that the
stress again exceeds the yield stress of the material, the crack may propagate again.
We are then in a state of what might be called ‘‘arrestable instability.’’ In this state,
the fracture toughness parameter no longer applies.
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CHAPTER 7
7.1 Conclusions
Present study showed that for the steel specimen subjected to an uniaxial tensile
stress, the stress concentration factor (Kt), around the centered circular hole was
affected by the diameter of hole to width of plate ratio and diameter of hole to
thickness of plate ratio, so that the larger diameter of hole to width of plate ratio and
the diameter of hole to thickness of plate ratio, the smaller the stress concentration
factor (Kt), value.
Plastic deformation for the steel specimen can improve stress concentration around
the hole. For specimen subjected to a uniaxial tensile stress, the stress concentration
factor (Kt), around the centered elliptical hole is affected not only by the diameter of
hole to width of plate ratio and diameter of hole to thickness of plate ratio, but also by
the ratio of minor axis to major axis. The interaction of the radius of the curvature of
the hole and the net area of the cross section at the hole was complicated.
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Chapter 7● Conclusions and Future Work
circular and elliptical hole is extended to special cutout shape using complex variable
mapping. This complex variable function can be used in modeling and evaluation of
stress distribution in perforated plates. The stress concentration factor of perforated
plates can be significantly change by using proper material properties and cutout
parameters.
It should be stated in closing that stress concentrations in general are virtually
inevitable in real structures and machines due to the presence of grooves, fillets,
holes, threads, and similar discontinuities. The worst situations, of course, include
machine errors, gravel nicks, nonmetallic inclusions, and micro-voids, which may be
difficult or even impossible to detect. Stress intensity due to cracks in inherently
brittle materials and in some ductile materials displaying brittle behavior under
specific environmental conditions may lead to fracture.
A vast number of FEA calculations were performed for the verification of the
developed calculation methods. A comparison of these simulation values and the
results obtained by means of the developed experimental solution methods showed a
high level of concurrence and therefore support the developed calculation method in a
strong way.
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Chapter 7● Conclusions and Future Work
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