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Group Work

The overriding theme of Group Work: Processes and Applications is a focus

on the specialized group work that counselors perform from a systemic
perspective in a multicultural context. This text briefly covers traditional
theoretical approaches, focusing more on the techniques and applications of
the approaches, but the core of the text involves the systemic approach to
group work: preparing group leaders to facilitate the systemic group process,
from planning the group through the four stages of group work: forming and
orienting, transition, working, and termination. The content is aligned with
the 2016 Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational
Programs (CACREP) standards. Numerous other techniques covered are
linked with specific theoretical orientations. PowerPoints and Instructor’s
Manual are available.

Bradley T. Erford, Ph.D., is a professor in the human development counseling

program of the Department of Human and Organizational Development in the
Peabody College at Vanderbilt University. He was the 2012–2013 president of
the American Counseling Association (ACA). He has authored or edited more
than 30 books. His research specialization falls primarily in development and
technical analysis of psychoeducational tests and outcomes research and has
resulted in the publication of more than 75 refereed journal articles, more than
100 book chapters, and 15 published tests. He has received numerous awards
for his scholarship and service to the counseling profession from the ACA
and the Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling (AARC),
organizations within which he has held numerous leadership positions.
Group Work
Processes and Applications
2nd Edition

Edited by
Bradley T. Erford
Second edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Bradley T. Erford to be identified as the author of the
editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pearson Education Inc. 2010
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-0-815-36296-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-815-36303-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-11067-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/cw/punukollu
Contents

List of Figuresxvii
List of Tablesxviii
Prefacexix
About the Editorxxv
About the Authorsxxvii

SECTION 1
Foundations of Group Work1

1 Introduction to Group Work: Historical Perspectives

and Functional Group Models 3
BRADLEY T. ERFORD AND GERTA BARDHOSHI

Preview 3
Defining Group Work 3
The History of Group Work 4
The Late 1800s and Early 1900s 4
The 1920s and 1930s 5
The 1940s and 1950s 6
The 1960s and 1970s 8
The 1980s and Beyond 12
Functional Group Models 14
Task Groups 14
Psychoeducational Groups 18
Counseling Groups 21
Psychotherapy Groups 24
The Group Leader as a Person 27
Using Theory as a Guide to Planning and
Accomplishment 29
Summary 31
Activities 31
vi Contents
2 Ethical and Legal Foundations of Group Work 33
LYNN E. LINDE AND BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 33
Ethical Issues in Group Work 33
Meta-Ethical Principles 34
Grounding Oneself in the Ethics of Group Work 35
Major Ethical Issues in Group Work 38
Confidentiality 38
Informed Consent and Disclosure Statements 41
Relationships Among Group Members 45
When Should a Group Terminate? 46
Group Participation 46
The Right to Terminate Prematurely 46
Counselor Competence 47
Diversity Issues 48
Legal Issues in Group Work 48
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
of 1974 50
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
Act (HIPAA) of 1996 51
Summary 53
Activities 53

3 Multicultural Issues in Group Work 55

BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 55
Multicultural Issues in Group Work 55
Oppression and Marginalization 57
Diversity Issues Throughout Group Development 58
Group Leadership and Oppression 60
Gender and Group Work 62
Sexual Orientation and Group Work 65
Disabilities and Group Work 67
Special Issues That Might Arise When Leading Multicultural
Groups 68
When a Group Leader Is Culturally Different From Group
Members 68
When Group Member Hostility Arises 69
When Advocating for Group Members 70
Becoming a Multiculturally Sensitive Group Leader 70
Summary 71
Activities 71
 Contents vii
4 Outcome Research in Group Work 73
BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 73
Outcome Research in Group Work 73
How Effective Is Group Work? An Introduction to Group
Work Outcome Research 76
Process Issues in Group Outcome Research 77
Group Effectiveness Related to Group Planning
Characteristics 77
Group Structure and Effectiveness 78
The Effectiveness of Pre-Group Training 78
The Effectiveness of Therapeutic Factors 78
Group Outcome Research With Adults 79
The Effectiveness of Structured Group Treatment
Regimens 79
Outcomes Based on Different Response Sources 79
Differential Effects of Group Composition in Adults 79
Effectiveness of Group Work With Members With Various
Clinical Diagnoses 80
Group Outcome Research With Children and Adolescents 80
The Effectiveness of Large-Group Psychoeducational
Approaches With Children and Adolescents 81
Small-Group Approaches Addressing Developmental and
Clinical Concerns With Children and Adolescents 81
Preventing Harm in Group Work 82
Efficient Member Screening 82
Effective Counselor Behaviors 83
Implications of the Current State of the Outcome Literature
for Group Workers 83
Collaborate With Researchers 83
Advocate for Outcome Research Funding 84
Read the Outcome Literature 84
Summary 84
Activities 85

5 Leading Groups 86
AMY MILSOM

Preview 86
Group Leaders 86
Leadership Styles 88
Member Responsibility 89
Choosing a Leadership Style 89
viii Contents
Group Leader Core Characteristics 92
Adaptability 92
Multicultural Competence 93
Belief in the Group Process 93
Enthusiasm 93
Self-Confidence 94
Willingness to Model 95
Skills of Effective Group Leaders 95
Initiating 96
Active Listening 96
Clarifying 97
Questioning 97
Providing Feedback 97
Empathizing 98
Blocking 99
Linking 99
Confronting 100
Instructing 100
Modeling 100
Summarizing 101
Evaluating 101
Leader Functions 101
Executive Functioning 102
Helping Members Gain Insight and Attribute
Meaning 102
Emotional Stimulation 103
Focus on Here and Now 103
Promote Interaction 104
Group Co-Leaders 104
Group Co-Leadership Styles 104
Benefits of Group Co-Leadership 106
Challenges of Group Co-Leadership 107
Navigating Group Co-Leadership 108
Summary 110
Activities 111

6 Distinguishing Group Member Roles 112

CARMEN F. SALAZAR AND GEORGE R. LEDDICK

Preview 112
Essential Tasks for Group Members 112
Self-Disclosure 112
Feedback 114
 Contents ix
Considering Members’ Multiple Cultures 117
Challenges in Working With Group Members 118
Problems Understanding Members 119
Problems for Group Process 122
Clarity for Member Behavior 124
Summary 126
Activities 126

SECTION 2
Systemic Group Work129

7 Planning for Group Work 131

F. ROBERT WILSON AND MICHAEL D. BRUBAKER

Preview 131
Planning for Group Work 131
Clarifying One’s Scope of Group Work Competence 133
Establishing the Overarching Purpose for the Intervention 135
Identifying Goals and Objectives for the Intervention 136
Detailing Methods for Achieving Goals and Objectives
During the Intervention 138
Detailing Methods to Be Used in Screening, Selecting, and
Preparing Members to Be Successful in the Group 139
Selecting Methods for Deriving Meaning and Transferring
Learning 142
Determining Resources Needed to Launch and Sustain the
Group 146
Determining Methods for Measuring Outcomes 147
Planning for Closed Groups Versus Open Groups 147
Program Development and Evaluation in Open and
Closed Groups 149
Group and Member Preparation in Open and Closed
Groups 149
Voluntary Groups Versus Mandated Groups 150
Planning for the Unknown 151
Summary 152
Activities 152

8 Accountability in Group Work 155

BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 155
Accountability in Group Work 155
x Contents
Conducting a Needs Assessment 157
Data-Driven Needs Assessment 157
Perceptions-Based Needs Assessments 158
Accountability: Evaluating Programs and Assessing
Outcomes 166
Process Evaluation 167
Results or Outcomes Evaluation 168
Sources of Evidence 168
Selecting Outcome and Process Measures 169
Practical Program Evaluation Considerations 170
Aggregated Outcomes 171
Designing Outcome Studies 173
Single-Subject Research Design (SSRD) 176
Putting It All Together: Working for the Future 179
Summary 179
Activities 180

9 Forming and Orienting Groups 181

NATHANIEL N. IVERS AND RACHEL M. CARTER

Preview 181
Getting Started: Forming and Orienting 181
Leader Responsibilities in the Forming and Orienting Stage 184
Reviewing Group Goals 185
Helping Members Establish Personal Goals 185
Specifying Group Rules 186
Modeling Facilitative Group Behavior 188
Assisting Members in Expressing Their Apprehensions 188
Establishing and Maintaining Trust 190
Promoting Positive Interchanges Among Group Members 192
Teaching Basic Interpersonal Skills 192
Instilling and Maintaining Hope 195
Case Illustration of an Initial Group Session 197
Case Illustration of a Subsequent Forming and Orienting
Stage Session 200
Summary 202
Activities 202

10 The Transition Stage in Group Work 204

BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 204
Transition in Context 204
 Contents xi
Transition as a Critical Group Task 205
Conflict 206
Boundary Testing 207
Feedback 207
Adaptation 208
Anxiety as the Source of Conflict 209
The Group Itself as a Source of Anxiety 209
Core Needs as Sources of Anxiety 211
The Expression of Transition Issues 213
Struggle for Control 213
Resistance to Intimacy 216
Handling Transition Issues: Leading Through the Storm 217
Common Leader Traps 218
Focal Points for Handling Transition 220
Summary 227
Activities 227

11 The Working Stage 229

KEVIN A. FALL AND H. GEORGE MCMAHON

Preview 229
Overview and Elements of the Working Stage 229
Goals of the Working Stage 231
Members’ Role in the Working Stage 233
Leader’s Role in the Working Stage 236
The Working Stage and Co-Leadership Considerations 241
The Real Working Stage 243
Different Working Stages for Different Groups 250
Group Foundations 250
Group Design 252
Group Membership 255
Evaluation and the Working Stage 258
Summary 261
Activities 262

12 Termination 264
CATHERINE Y. CHANG AND BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 264
Termination and Group Closure 264
Goals and Benefits of Termination 265
Self-Awareness 266
Awareness of Others 266
xii Contents
Planning for the Future 266
Challenges of Termination 268
Termination With Children and Adolescents 269
Common Leader Functions During All Phases of Termination 270
Preparing Members for Termination 270
Moving Members Through Termination 270
Premature Termination 274
Why Do Members Terminate Group Prematurely? 277
Preventing Premature Termination 281
Techniques for Preventing Premature Termination 283
Termination of Individual Group Sessions 285
Benefits 286
Challenges 287
Techniques for Terminating Individual Group Sessions 288
Evaluation of Group Sessions 293
Termination of the Group Experience 293
Evaluation of the Group Experience 293
Challenges 294
Techniques for Terminating the Group 295
Follow-Up 297
Summary 299
Activities 300

13 Group Work Across the Lifespan 302

BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 302
Group Work Across the Lifespan 302
Group Work With Children 303
Developing Interventions 303
Group Size 304
Group Work With Adolescents 305
Participation and Resistance 305
Involuntary Participation 306
Leader Characteristics 307
Addressing Problem Behavior 307
Ethical Practice 308
Group Work With Members in Young and Middle Adulthood 309
Relevant Developmental Issues 309
Gender Differences 310
Group Work With Elderly Persons 311
 Contents xiii
Stage-of-Life Issues 311
Benefits of Participation 312
Leader Characteristics and Skills 313
Potential Pitfalls 313
Group Work and Addictions 314
Summary 317
Activities 319

SECTION 3
Task and Psychoeducational Groups321

14 Leading Task Groups 323

BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 323
Leading Task Groups 324
Important Principles in Leading Effective Task Groups 325
Suggestions for Effective Leadership 326
Summary 343
Activities 344

15 Leading Psychoeducational Groups 345

SAM STEEN, JULIA BRYAN, AND NORMA L. DAY-VINES

Preview 345
Conducting Psychoeducational Groups 345
Benefits of Psychoeducational Groups 346
Planning Psychoeducational Groups 348
Implementing Psychoeducational Groups 349
Early Stage of Psychoeducational Groups: Forming and
Transition 350
Middle Stage of Psychoeducational Groups: Working 351
Ending Stage of Psychoeducational Groups: Termination 351
Diversity Issues in Psychoeducational Groups 352
Implementing Psychoeducation in the Classroom 354
Planning for Classroom Psychoeducation 354
Classroom or Group Session Management 355
Two Exemplar Techniques for Psychoeducational Group Work 360
Achieving Success Everyday (ASE) Group Model 360
Using Bibliotherapy in Psychoeducational Groups 363
Summary 367
xiv Contents
SECTION 4
Group Work in Action369

16 Person-Centered and Existential Approaches to

Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory, Techniques, and
Applications 371
LAURA R. HADDOCK AND JOEL F. DIAMBRA

Preview 371
Humanistic Groups 371
Types of Humanistic Groups 372
Role and Function of the Leader in Humanistic
Groups 372
Techniques Commonly Used in Humanistic Groups 374
Limitations of Humanistic Groups 374
Some Final Comments on Humanistic Groups 375
Existential Groups 375
Types of Existential Groups 376
Role and Function of the Leader in Existential Groups 376
Techniques Commonly Used in Existential Groups 377
Some Final Comments on and Limitations of Existential
Groups 378
Case Example of a Humanistic/Existential Group 379
Summary 387
Activities 387

17 The Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Approach

to Group Counseling and Psychotherapy:
Theory, Techniques, and Applications 390
BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 390
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) Groups 390
Types of REBT Groups 391
Role and Function of the Leader in REBT Groups 395
Techniques Commonly Used in REBT Groups 395
Example of a Topic-Specific REBT Group on Anxiety 397
Session 2 398
Session 3 401
Some Final Comments on REBT Groups 405
Summary 405
Activities 405
 Contents xv
18 Reality Therapy, Solution-Focused, and Behavioral
Approaches to Counseling and Psychotherapy Groups:
Theories, Techniques, and Applications 407
BRADLEY T. ERFORD AND GERTA BARDHOSHI

Preview 407
Choice Theory/Reality Therapy Groups 407
Types of Reality Therapy Groups 408
Role and Function of the Leader in Reality Therapy Groups 409
Techniques Commonly Used in Reality Therapy Groups 410
An Example of a Reality Therapy Group 411
Some Final Comments on Reality Therapy Groups 413
Solution-Focused Groups 413
Types of Solution-Focused Groups 414
Role and Function of the Leader in Solution-Focused
Groups 415
Techniques Commonly Used in Solution-Focused Groups 415
Some Final Comments on Solution-Focused Groups 417
Behavioral Groups 418
Types of Behavioral Groups 419
Role and Function of the Leader in Behavioral Groups 419
Techniques Commonly Used in Behavioral Groups 420
Some Final Comments on Behavioral Groups 421
Summary 422
Activities 423

19 Adlerian, Gestalt, and Psychodrama Approaches

to Counseling and Psychotherapy Groups: Theory,
Techniques, and Applications 424
DARCIE DAVIS-GAGE, LAURA R. HADDOCK,
AND BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Preview 424
Adlerian Groups 424
Types of Adlerian Groups 425
Role and Function of the Leader in Adlerian Groups 426
Techniques Commonly Used in Adlerian Groups 426
Some Final Comments on Adlerian Groups 428
Case Example of the Adlerian Approach in Practice 428
Gestalt Groups 436
Types of Gestalt Groups 437
Role and Function of the Leader in Gestalt Groups 437
xvi Contents
Techniques Commonly Used in Gestalt Groups 438
Some Final Comments on Gestalt Groups 440
Case Study Example of Gestalt Group Therapy 440
Psychodrama 443
Types of Psychodrama Groups 443
Role and Function of the Leader in Psychodrama Groups 444
Techniques Commonly Used in Psychodrama Groups 444
Some Final Comments on Psychodrama Groups 446
Case Study Example of Psychodrama 446
Warm-up 447
Working Stage 448
Summary 450
Activities 450

Epilogue 452
GERTA BARDHOSHI AND BRADLEY T. ERFORD

Focusing on Process 452

Focusing on Theory 453
Focusing on Technique 453
Focusing on Ethics and Cultural Competence 454

References456
Index473
Figures

6.1 The Johari Window 113

8.1 A Focused Stress Management Needs Assessment 161
8.2 Aggregated Hierarchical Model for Evaluating the
Effectiveness of a School Counseling Program 172
8.3 A-B Design 178
11.1 Hill Interaction Matrix 259
Tables

1.1 Therapeutic Factors in Group Work 10

1.2 Strengths and Challenges of Group Work 15
2.1 Sample Disclosure Statement 42
2.2 A Sample Informed Consent Letter to Parents and Guardians 45
4.1 Selected Meta-Analytic Studies From the Extant Literature
of the Effectiveness of Group Work With Adults or
Heterogeneous (i.e., Child, Adolescent, and Adult) Samples 76
5.1 Amount of Group Structure Based on Counseling Theories 91
5.2 Self-Assessment of Basic Group Leader Skills 102
6.1 Member Roles and Leader Responses 122
8.1 Advantages and Challenges of Accountability Studies 156
8.2 Aggregated and Disaggregated Data of 50 Clients Treated
for Anxiety With a 24-Week Group Counseling Regimen
on the BAI 158
8.3 Data From the Stress Management Needs Assessment 163
8.4 Process and Outcome Measures Used in Group Work 170
8.5 Common Designs Used for Outcomes Research 174
8.6 Common Data Collection Methods 177
8.7 A School Improvement Team Example 180
9.1 Examples of Positive Interchange Techniques 193
12.1 Personal Growth Charts 285
12.2 Stems 289
12.3 Evaluation of Group Sessions: A Group Session Rating Form 290
14.1 Guidelines for Leading Discussions With a Goal of
Identifying Critical Issues or Points for Discussion and
Application of New Information 331
14.2 Guidelines for Leading Problem-Solving Discussions to
Articulate a Plan of Action 331
14.3 Agenda for a Three-Hour Mentor-Training Workshop 342
15.1 Suggested Format for Group Session Planning 349
15.2 Some Psychoeducational Activities for Working With
School-Aged Youth 366
Preface

The preparation of professional counselors has become increasingly more

specialized over the past several decades, stemming primarily from systemic
changes in the nature of what professional counselors do. These changes were
brought about by several professional and societal changes, including the
managed care movement, school reform, and calls for greater cost efficiency
and therapeutic effectiveness. Today, counselors need to know how to lead
task, psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapy groups, rather than
focusing only on traditional counseling and psychotherapy. In addition, while
underlying theoretical orientations are important, few group leaders anchor
themselves in a single approach to group work; the vast majority of group
leaders operate from a systemic, integrative perspective. Thus, in-depth study
of a dozen or more theoretical approaches is less important today than it was to
past generations of group counselors and psychotherapists. There is also often
a lack of focus in group work texts on what works and what doesn’t work in
groups, and how to help group leaders assess and evaluate the effectiveness
of group interventions. It is also critical that leaders address the multicultural,
ethical, and legal implications and applications within group work and address
leader and group member roles from a pro-developmental perspective (i.e., one
that does not pathologize members as problematic and helps leaders address
these members using positive approaches and interventions).
The overriding theme of Group Work: Processes and Applications is a focus
on the specialized group work that counselors perform from a systemic per-
spective in a multicultural context. A number of group counseling and psycho-
therapy texts focus exclusively on counseling or conducting psychotherapy
with small groups of clients, but counselors also run psychoeducational groups
and task groups to address the developmental needs of members and organiza-
tions. Most group counseling texts do not address psychoeducational and task
groups. In addition, today counselors leading counseling and psychotherapy
groups have a marked tendency to use a theoretically integrative counseling
approach, rather than a specific theoretical orientation, such as person-centered,
rational-emotive behavior, Adlerian, or Gestalt therapy. Other group psycho-
therapy texts make these theoretical approaches the core of the leader learning
experience. This text briefly covers these traditional theoretical approaches,
xx Preface
focusing more on the techniques and applications of the approaches, but the
core of the text involves the systemic approach to group work: that is, prepar-
ing group leaders to facilitate the systemic group process, from planning the
group through the four stages of group work: forming and orienting, transition,
working, and termination. Mastering the facilitation of these defined yet over-
lapping stages of group work allows leaders to work effectively with members
in all types of group contexts and topics, and from a theoretically integrative
perspective.
The content of Group Work: Processes and Applications (2nd ed.) is pre-
cisely aligned with the 2016 Council for the Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) standards because CACREP
defines the standard of quality in the counselor preparation field. Thus, this text
helps CACREP-accredited programs meet the CACREP standards, and helps
non-CACREP programs provide counselors-in-training with the most current,
highest-level professional training standards.
The text is divided into four sections: Section 1, “Foundations of Group
Work”; Section 2, “Systemic Group Work: Planning and Process”; Section 3,
“Task and Psychoeducational Groups”; and Section 4, “Group Work in Action:
Counseling and Psychotherapy Group Models and Theoretical Approaches.”
Students will appreciate that numerous specific group work techniques are
integrated and exemplified throughout the book; these techniques include
drawing out, giving feedback, I-statements, pairing, paradox, reframing, self-
disclosure, active listening, blocking, clarifying, confrontation, empathy, eval-
uating skills, initiating skills, instructing skills, linking, modeling, questioning,
summarizing, using enthusiasm, holding the focus, shifting focus, cutting off,
journal writing, rounds, dyads, sentence completion, scaling, values contract,
journaling, reunions, scrapbooks, comfort zone, and personal growth charts.
Numerous other techniques, covered in Chapters 16–19, are linked with spe-
cific theoretical orientations.
Section 1, “Foundations of Group Work” (Chapters 1–6), begins by
acquainting students with the four Association for Specialists in Group Work
(ASGW) functional group models and allows students to explore the historical
forces that shaped group work today, the therapeutic factors that underlie effec-
tive group approaches, and the advantages and disadvantages of group work.
These topics are covered in Chapter 1, “Introduction to Group Work: Historical
Perspectives and Functional Group Models,” by Bradley T. Erford and Gerta
Bardhoshi. This initial chapter leads the reader to appreciate the value of group
work approaches. To understand group work models, leaders need to consider
model characteristics, subtypes, and the classic role and function of the leader.
To accomplish this objective, Chapter 1 presents an overview of the four main
types of functional group models categorized by the Association for Specialists
in Group Work (ASGW): task groups, psychoeducational groups, counseling
groups, and psychotherapy groups.
In Chapter 2, “Ethical and Legal Foundations of Group Work,” by Lynn E.
Linde and Bradley T. Erford, readers encounter the essential ethical and legal
 Preface xxi
issues in group work, including confidentiality, informed consent, relation-
ships among group members, termination issues, group participation, diversity
issues, the Health Information Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA),
and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA).
In Chapter 3, “Multicultural Issues in Group Work,” by Bradley T. Erford,
students will build a foundation of multicultural group work attitudes, knowl-
edge, and skills. Chapter 3 addresses group work with diverse clients using
oppression and marginalization as the frameworks from which group leaders
can conceptualize group members’ problems, behaviors, and actions. Because
research indicates that people from oppressed backgrounds (e.g., ethnic minor-
ities, persons with disabilities, materially poor, or gay) are more likely to avoid
counseling experiences, drop out prematurely from counseling, and report
lower outcomes, it is important that group leaders become more responsive to
member experiences of discrimination, prejudice, and inequities. Leaders can
and should act to prevent or address these issues in the group. Also, because
oppressed and marginalized members are accustomed to being silenced, being
made to feel inferior, and having no voice, leaders must be skilled in working
with members who are quiet, suspicious, pessimistic, cynical, and even angry.
The authors also address how issues of oppression and marginalization may
influence each stage of the systemic group process and provide a discussion
of dilemmas that may arise when implementing groups with culturally diverse
members.
Outcomes research in group work and accountability practices and proce-
dures are presented to help leaders understand what works in group work and
to help them document the outcomes of the member experience to determine
the effectiveness of group interventions. Chapter 4, “Outcome Research in
Group Work,” by Bradley T. Erford, reminds the reader that group work lead-
ers have an ethical responsibility to use effective, evidence-based interven-
tions. Research has concluded that group work can affect members in powerful
ways, and Chapter 4 reviews research on the effectiveness of group work with
children, adolescents, and adults.
Leader skills are emphasized early in the text to help students understand
and master the role of the leader as a facilitator of group process. Techniques
are provided that help group leaders move groups in a positive direction.
Chapter 5, “Leading Groups,” by Amy Milsom, addresses the common con-
cern that leading a group can feel overwhelming for many leaders-in-training.
Dr. Milsom acknowledges that, for students who may be just starting to feel
comfortable conducting counseling sessions with one client, thinking about
how to effectively attend to and facilitate interaction among many members
might seem nearly impossible. Basic knowledge of important group leadership
styles, characteristics, and skills for effective group leadership are provided in
Chapter 5 to help ease the transition to effective group work.
While so many texts portray group member roles from a negative or destruc-
tive perspective, this text looks at the pro-developmental needs of group mem-
bers, with a focus on helping members to appropriately self-disclose and give
xxii Preface
and receive feedback to enhance the therapeutic value of the group experience.
Thus, Chapter 6, “Distinguishing Group Member Roles,” by Carmen Salazar
and George R. Leddick, provides a discussion of what members should both do
and not do. Chapter 6 begins by describing essential tasks for group members
(i.e., self-disclosure and feedback) and later identifies ways member behavior
might prove challenging for leaders. This approach does not pathologize the
group member. It helps the leader to understand effective leader techniques and
strategies to move the group forward, while emphasizing that members also
have responsibilities to the group and that those members who fill specific roles
can be handled in pro-developmental ways that help promote the group process.
Leaders almost always use a systemic process orientation when planning
and running groups (i.e., planning, forming and orienting, transition, working,
termination) rather than a strictly theoretical orientation (e.g., rational-emotive
behavior therapy [REBT], Gestalt). Section 2, “Systemic Group Work: Plan-
ning and Process” (Chapters 7–13), addresses this systemic approach to group
work and gives leaders real-life examples of leader and member responses
within the context of the group process under discussion. In Chapter 7, “Plan-
ning for Group Work,” by F. Robert Wilson and Michael D. Brubaker, planning
is proposed as an essential component of successful group work. Key elements
of planning, drawn from group work best practices and group work training
standards, are identified and discussed within this chapter. These key elements
include screening, selecting, and preparing members; selecting methods for
deriving meaning and transferring learning; determining needed resources;
measuring outcomes; and using closed or open groups. Planning for evaluation
is a core element of the planning phase. Chapter 8, “Accountability in Group
Work,” by Bradley T. Erford, addresses the following facets of accountability:
needs assessment, program evaluation, process evaluation, and outcome stud-
ies. Each facet contributes to a cycle of quality improvement for group work
practice. In addition, Chapter 9, “Forming and Orienting Groups,” by Nath-
aniel N. Ivers and Rachel M. Carter, provides an overview of the forming and
orienting stage of group work, including descriptions of primary tasks that are
accomplished during the forming and orienting stage, discussion of responsi-
bilities of the group leader during this stage, and case examples that illustrate
what might occur during an initial group session.
The theory behind the developmental and systemic tasks of the transition
stage in groups is explored in Chapter 10, “The Transition Stage in Group
Work,” by Bradley T. Erford. Topics include the internal and external determi-
nants of transition dynamics, how these dynamics manifest in the group, and
what leaders can do to effectively work with the sometimes intense emotions
and behaviors of this transition stage.
For as long as groups have been studied, researchers have noted the part in the
life of the group where members actively and freely work on group and personal
goals, honestly share aspects of self, courageously give feedback, and feel a sense
of “we-ness” that enables members to truly believe in the process of group like
never before. Chapter 11, “The Working Stage,” by Kevin A. Fall and H. George
 Preface xxiii
McMahon, provides an overview of the working stage of group work, with an
emphasis on member and leader functions within this important part of the group
process. Components of this stage related to group foundations and design are
also discussed to illustrate indicators for optimal working stage process.
Chapter 12, “Termination,” by Catherine Y. Chang and Bradley T. Erford,
provides an overview of the termination stage, including a general description
of termination characteristics, goals, and benefits and challenges. Following
these general descriptions, three types of termination are discussed: premature
termination, termination of group sessions, and termination of the group.
Chapter 13, “Group Work Across the Lifespan,” by Bradley T. Erford, high-
lights the special developmental issues of children, adolescents, young adults,
middle adults, and the elderly. The chapter also briefly introduces the reader to
group work approaches for addictions.
Section 3 of the text is entitled “Task and Psychoeducational Groups” and
includes entire chapters on using task groups and psychoeducational groups.
Each of these chapters describes in depth how to effectively facilitate task and
psychoeducational groups, and provides numerous real-life examples that help
expose students to and ground them in the true-to-life context of group work.
Task and psychoeducational groups require different skills and approaches
than do counseling and psychotherapy groups. Including all four approaches
to group work recognizes the role that mental health practitioners can play as
a systemic change agent.
Chapter 14, “Leading Task Groups,” by Bradley T. Erford, starts with the
observation that, if you look hard enough, task groups are everywhere. Clubs,
classrooms, and most meetings can all be defined as task groups because task
groups involve groups of people who come together to accomplish a common
goal. Chapter 14 provides strategies for using group dynamics, group process,
and leadership skills to create successful task groups. Guidelines for leading
effective task groups are included; these guidelines focus on task groups of stu-
dents (e.g., clubs, community service projects, student government) and also
task groups of staff (e.g., department or team meetings, curriculum commit-
tees, intervention teams). Case examples are included to illustrate successful
strategies and leadership styles.
Chapter 15, “Leading Psychoeducational Groups,” by Sam Steen, Julia
Bryan, and Norma L. Day-Vines, acknowledges that psychoeducational
groups provide unique learning experiences that support traditional learning.
Chapter 15 provides information about psychoeducational groups, with a focus
on both small-group and large-group formats and strategies for enhancing the
delivery of classroom or large-group guidance. A group model developed by
Dr. Steen, Achieving Success Everyday (ASE), and strategies for incorporat-
ing culturally relevant bibliotherapy into group work, as pioneered by Dr. Day-
Vines, are provided.
Finally, Section 4 of the text is entitled “Group Work in Action: Counseling
and Psychotherapy Group Models and Theoretical Approaches” (Chap-
ters 16–19). Nearly all mental health professionals use a focused, integrated
xxiv Preface
approach aimed at achieving group goals when running counseling or psy-
chotherapy groups. However, a working knowledge of various theoretical
approaches to group work is essential, whether one uses a single theoretical
approach or an integrative approach. Chapters 16–19 review the major theoret-
ical approaches to group work, with a special focus on the primary techniques
used by practitioners. In addition, transcripts of sessions and case studies are
provided to give the reader an idea of how the approach and techniques would
occur in diverse group formats. Here is a list of these chapters:

• Chapter 16, “Person-Centered and Existential Approaches to Counseling

and Psychotherapy: Theory, Techniques, and Applications,” by Laura R.
Haddock and Joel F. Diambra
• Chapter 17, “The Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Approach to Group
Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory, Techniques, and Applications,”
by Bradley T. Erford
• Chapter 18, “Reality Therapy, Solution-Focused, and Behavioral
Approaches to Counseling and Psychotherapy Groups: Theories, Tech-
niques, and Applications,” by Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi
• Chapter 19, “Adlerian, Gestalt, and Psychodrama Approaches to Coun-
seling and Psychotherapy Groups: Theory, Techniques, and Applications,”
by Darcie Davis-Gage, Laura R. Haddock, and Bradley T. Erford

Group Work: Processes and Applications (2nd ed.) provides a wealth of

information on the foundations, systemic perspectives, and current critical top-
ics and issues in group work practice, and was specifically designed to enhance
the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of group work leaders who conduct task
groups, psychoeducational groups, and counseling and psychotherapy groups.
Enjoy!

Supplemental Instructional Features

Supplemental pedagogical tools helpful to counselor educators choosing to use
this book as a course textbook are provided. PowerPoint slides are available for
each chapter from the publisher. The companion Instructor’s Manual contains
at least 25 multiple-choice questions, 10 essay questions, and 10 suggested in-
class or out-of-class activities per chapter. Numerous case studies and activi-
ties included in the text can also stimulate lively classroom discussions.
About the Editor

Bradley T. Erford, Ph.D., LCPC, NCC, LPC, LP, LSP, is a professor in the
human development counseling program of the Department of Human and
Organizational Development in the Peabody College of Education at Van-
derbilt University. He was president of the American Counseling Associa-
tion (ACA) in 2012–2013. He is the recipient of the ACA Research Award,
ACA Extended Research Award, ACA Thomas Sweeney Award for Vision-
ary Leadership and Advocacy, ACA Arthur A. Hitchcock Distinguished Pro-
fessional Service Award, ACA Professional Development Award, and ACA
Carl D. Perkins Government Relations Award. He was also inducted as an
ACA Fellow. In addition, he has received the Association for Assessment
and Research in Counseling (AARC) Research Award, Exemplary Practices
Award, President’s Merit Award, the Association for Counselor Education and
Supervision’s (ACES) Robert O. Stripling Award for Excellence in Standards,
Maryland Association for Counseling and Development (MACD) Maryland
Counselor of the Year, MACD Counselor Advocacy Award, MACD Profes-
sional Development Award, and MACD Counselor Visibility Award.
He is the editor of numerous texts, including Orientation to the Coun-
seling Profession (1st, 2nd, & 3rd editions, Pearson Merrill, 2010, 2014,
2018), Group Work in the Schools (Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 2010; 2nd ed.,
Routledge, 2016), Group Work Processes and Applications (1st ed.; Pear-
son, 2011), Transforming the School Counseling Profession (1st, 2nd, 3rd,
4th, & 5th editions; Pearson Merrill, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015, & 2019),
Crisis Intervention and Prevention (1st, 2nd, & 3rd editions, Pearson Mer-
rill/Prentice-Hall, 2010, 2014, 2018), Developing Multicultural Counseling
Competence (1st, 2nd, & 3rd editions, Pearson Merrill, 2010, 2014, 2018),
Professional School Counseling: A Handbook of Principles, Programs
and Practices (1st, 2nd, & 3rd editions, pro-ed, 2004, 2010, 2016), and
The Counselor’s Guide to Clinical, Personality and Behavioral Assess-
ment (Houghton Mifflin/Lahaska Press, 2006); and author/co-author of
five more books: Assessment for Counselors (1st & 2nd editions, Cengage/
Houghton Mifflin/Lahaska Press, 2007, 2013) Research and Evaluation in
Counseling (Cengage/Houghton Mifflin/Lahaska Press, 2008, 2015), 40
Techniques Every Counselor Should Know (Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 2010,
xxvi About the Editor
2014), Educational Applications of the WISC-IV (Western Psychological
Services, 2006) and Group Activities: Firing Up for Performance (Pearson/
Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 2007). He was also the general editor of The Ameri-
can Counseling Association Encyclopedia of Counseling (ACA, 2009). His
research specialization falls primarily in development and technical analy-
sis of psychoeducational tests and has resulted in the publication of more
than 70 refereed journal articles, 100 book chapters, and a dozen published
tests.
Dr. Erford was a member of the ACA Governing Council and the ACA
20/20 Visioning Committee. He was the 2017–2018 ACA treasurer. He
is past president of AARC; past chair and parliamentarian of the Ameri-
can Counseling Association—Southern (US) Region; chair of ACA’s Task
Force on High Stakes Testing; chair of ACA’s Standards for Test Users Task
Force; past chair of ACA’s Interprofessional Committee; past chair of the
ACA Public Awareness and Support Committee (co-chair of the National
Awards Sub-committee); chair of the Convention and chair of the Screening
Assessment Instruments Committees for AACE; past president of the Mary-
land Association for Counseling and Development (MACD); past president
of Maryland Association for Measurement and Evaluation (MAME); past
president of Maryland Association for Counselor Education and Supervi-
sion (MACES); and past president of the Maryland Association for Men-
tal Health Counselors (MAMHC). He is also Editor of Measurement and
Evaluation in Counseling and Development and a senior associate editor of
the Journal of Counseling & Development.
Dr. Erford was a faculty member at Loyola University Maryland from
1993–2017 and is a licensed clinical professional counselor, licensed pro-
fessional counselor, nationally certified counselor, licensed psychologist,
and licensed school psychologist. Prior to 1993, Dr. Erford was a school
psychologist/counselor in the Chesterfield County (VA) Public Schools.
He maintains a private practice specializing in assessment and treatment of
children and adolescents. A graduate of the University of Virginia (Ph.D.),
Bucknell University (M.A.), and Grove City College (B.S.), he teaches
courses in Assessment, Psycho-educational Assessment, Lifespan Devel-
opment, Research and Evaluation in Counseling, School Counseling, and
Stress Management (not that he needs it).
About the Authors

Gerta Bardhoshi, Ph.D., NCC, CSC, LPC, ACS, is an assistant professor in the
counselor education and supervision program in the Department of Reha-
bilitation and Counselor Education at the University of Iowa. She received
her doctorate in counselor education and supervision from the George
Washington University. Her areas of research pertain to counseling out-
come research and evaluation, school counseling program development,
and counselor burnout.
Michael D. Brubaker, Ph.D., is associate professor and program coordina-
tor of the counseling program at the University of Cincinnati. Licensed to
practice chemical dependency counseling in Ohio, he is also a nationally
certified counselor. He received his Ph.D. in mental health counseling from
the University of Florida, his M.S. in professional counseling from Georgia
State University, his M.Div. from Emory University, and his B.S. in busi-
ness administration from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Dr. Brubaker’s research, clinical, and advocacy interests have focused on
addressing the barriers to treatment and prevention services among under-
served and socially marginalized populations including those identifying as
homeless, GLBTIQQ, ethnic minorities, and those with disabilities. Tak-
ing a combined strengths and social justice perspective, he has highlighted
the importance of understanding communal supports, spiritual strengths,
and the power of the counseling relationship in promoting wellness and
improved mental health. He is an active leader in the counseling profes-
sion serving as president of Chi Sigma Iota (CSI) and trustee of the Asso-
ciation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling
(ALGBTIC).
Dr. Julia Bryan is an associate professor in the Department of Educational
Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education at the Pennsylvania State
University. Prior to joining the faculty at Penn State, Dr. Bryan was an
assistant professor at the University of Maryland at College Park and the
College of William and Mary. She conducts research on the role of school
counselors in school-family-community partnerships and has developed
a model of partnership building to facilitate counselors’ roles in meeting
xxviii About the Authors
students’ complex needs. Further, she studies critical educational issues that
face minority and low-income children such as college access; discipline
referrals; school bonding; and academic achievement, through the lens of
school counseling. She has contributed over 40 peer-reviewed empirical
publications and numerous conference presentations to the profession.
Rachel M. Carter is a master’s student in the clinical mental health counseling
program at Wake Forest University. She received her B.A. in psychology
from Eastern University. She has practiced counseling primarily in medical
settings where she works to improve every aspect of patients’ health.
Catherine Y. Chang, Ph.D., is a professor and program coordinator of the
counselor education and practice doctoral program in the Department of
Counseling and Psychological Services at Georgia State University. She
received her doctorate in counselor education from the University of North
Carolina at Greensboro. Her areas of research interest include multicultural
and social justice counseling and supervision, Asian and Korean concerns,
and multicultural issues in assessment.
Darcie Davis-Gage, Ph.D., received her master’s and specialist degrees from
Pittsburg State University and her Ph.D. from the University of Iowa. She
currently is an associate professor and clinical coordinator of mental health
at the University of Northern Iowa. She has presented and published in the
areas of group counseling, wellness, and counselor self-care.
Norma L. Day-Vines, Ph.D., is professor of Counseling and Human Develop-
ment at Johns Hopkins University. She writes extensively about culturally
responsive strategies for working more effectively with ethnic minority stu-
dents in general and African American students in particular.
Joel F. Diambra, Ed.D., LPC-MHSP, NCC, is an associate professor in coun-
selor education, associate department head, and director of graduate studies
in the Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling at the Uni-
versity of Tennessee. He teaches courses on theories, supervision, practi-
cum, internship, group counseling, and advanced group counseling. He has
published and presented in the areas of school counseling, human services,
student development, and service learning.
Kevin A. Fall, Ph.D., is professor and program coordinator of the professional
counseling program at Texas State University. Dr. Fall is the author of sev-
eral books, including Group Counseling: Concepts and Procedures (with
Berg and Landreth) and Theoretical Models of Counseling and Psychother-
apy (with Holden and Marquis). He has published articles and presented at
conferences on the topics of group work, ethics, and Adlerian theory. He
also maintains a private practice focusing on adolescents and their families.
Laura R. Haddock, Ph.D., serves as a core faculty member in the clinical
mental health counseling program at Walden University. She has been a
 About the Authors xxix
counselor educator since 2002, supported by more than 25 years as a mental
health clinician. Dr. Haddock is a licensed professional counselor, national
certified counselor, and approved clinical supervisor, and her clinical prac-
tice includes work with a variety of populations, with particular focus on
women’s issues. She is an active counseling professional and has served
on the Mississippi Licensed Professional Counselors Board of Examiners
and the executive boards for the Mississippi Counseling Association and
Mississippi Licensed Professional Counselors Association. She maintains
an active research agenda and routinely presents on the state, regional, and
national level and publishes scholarly writings for professional counseling
journals and textbooks.
Nathaniel N. Ivers, Ph.D., is an assistant professor and associate chair of
the Department of Counseling at Wake Forest University and a licensed
professional counselor in North Carolina and Texas. The majority of his
counseling practice has been with the Latino/a, Spanish-speaking, immi-
grant population in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Nathaniel’s research
interests and agenda are related to multicultural counseling competence,
counseling with Latinos/as, and bilingualism.
George R. Leddick, Ph.D., earned his doctorate at Purdue University and was
influenced by group work pioneers Allan Dye, Allen Segrist, John Sher-
wood, and Rex Stockton. For 36 years he conducted both beginning and
advanced group work practicums in graduate schools in Indiana, South
Carolina, New York, and Texas. He also taught organizational development
consulting courses and maintained a private consulting practice. He served
on the editorial board of the Journal for Specialists in Group Work and
later helped the journal negotiate new publishing contracts in 2003, 2008,
and 2017. He was elected a Fellow of the Association for Specialists in
Group Work in 1995, served as its president in 2004, and subsequently rep-
resented the ASGW on the Governing Council of the American Counseling
Association.
Lynn E. Linde, Ed.D., is the senior director of the Center for Counseling Prac-
tice, Policy and Research at the American Counseling Association (ACA).
She received her master’s degree in school counseling and her doctorate
in counseling from George Washington University. Her previous posi-
tions include being the director of clinical experiences at Loyola Univer-
sity Maryland and faculty in the school counseling program, chief of the
Student Services and Alternative Programs Branch at the Maryland State
Department of Education, the state specialist for school counseling, a local
school system counseling supervisor, a middle and high school counselor,
and a special education teacher. She has made numerous presentations over
the course of her career, particularly in the areas of ethics and legal issues
for counselors and public policy and legislation. Dr. Linde is an American
Counseling Association Fellow and the recipient of numerous national and
xxx About the Authors
state awards. She has held a number of leadership positions in the ACA and
its entities and was the 2009–2010 president and the 2012–2013 treasurer
of the ACA.
H. George McMahon, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Counseling and
Human Development Department at the University of Georgia. George has
been a counselor educator for 12 years, focusing on preparing future school
counselors and working with doctoral students. Dr. McMahon’s professional
interests include ecological school counseling, multiculturalism and privi-
lege, and group work. In addition to teaching and research, Dr. McMahon
has led trainings on various topics including group leadership in schools,
multicultural competence, privilege, leadership, and teaming and collabora-
tion. He has published in several counseling journals and presents regularly
at state, regional, and national conferences. Prior to becoming a counselor
educator, George earned his Ph.D. in counseling psychology from the Uni-
versity of Georgia and his M.Ed. in school counseling from the University
of Virginia. George worked as an elementary and middle school counselor
in New Orleans, Louisiana, from 1996–2000.
Amy Milsom, D.Ed., NCC, LPC, is professor and coordinator of the school
counseling program at Clemson University. She earned her doctorate from
Penn State University and is a former middle and high school counselor.
Her main research interests address career and college readiness and post-
secondary transitions for students with disabilities. She also has published
articles related to school counseling and group work.
Carmen Salazar, Ph.D., is a professor of counseling in the Department of
Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education at Texas A&M University-
Commerce. She is author of the book Group Work Experts Share Their
Favorite Multicultural Activities: A Guide to Diversity-Competent Choos-
ing, Planning, Conducting, and Processing and co-editor of the book Social
Justice in Group Work: Practical Interventions for Change. She has served
on the executive board of the Association for Specialists in Group Work
(ASGW) and the editorial board of the Journal for Specialists in Group
Work. She received the ASGW Group Work Practice Award in recognition
of her scholarly contributions to group work practice. Dr. Salazar is a senior
associate editor of the Journal of Counseling & Development, a Fellow of
ASGW, and a Fellow of the American Counseling Association.
Sam Steen, Ph.D., is an associate professor and director of counseling at the
University of Arizona, where he teaches courses in multicultural counseling,
theories, techniques, and group counseling. His research interests include
group counseling practice and evaluation with children and adolescents in
school settings. Specifically, his publications include topics such as cross-
cultural group counseling, using literacy to promote achievement in group
counseling, and integrating academic and personal/social development
 About the Authors xxxi
through group work. Prior to working in academia, he was employed as a
professional school counselor for 15 years in northern Virginia.
F. Robert Wilson, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus of the University of Cincin-
nati, where he served on the counseling faculty for 35 years, coordinated
the master’s program in mental health counseling, taught courses in clinical
mental health counseling, group work, and the foundations of counseling,
and supervised beginning and advanced master’s counseling interns. His
research and clinical interests included service to indigent and homeless
people with mental illnesses; assessment, problem identification, and diag-
nosis; and individual and group treatment modalities, with an emphasis
on ecological psychotherapy and evidence-based clinical practices. He is
also COO emeritus of the Health Resource Center of Cincinnati but con-
tinues his work at HRC providing mental health counseling services for
homeless, indigent, and low-income adults who have serious and chronic
mental, emotional, behavioral, and substance use disorders and training for
counseling students during their field practicum and internship experiences.
Dr. Wilson received his doctorate from Michigan State University and
completed postdoctoral training in Gestalt therapy at the Cincinnati Gestalt
Institute. He is a Fellow of the American Counseling Association and the
Association for Specialists in Group Work and was recognized as the Susan
J. Sears “Counselor of the Year” by the Ohio Counseling Association. An
active professional leader, he has served as president of the Association
for Assessment in Counseling and Education, vice chair of the Council
for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(CACREP), member of the Governing Council of the American Counseling
Association, and member of the governing board of the Ohio Mental Health
Counseling Association.
Section 1

Foundations of
Group Work
1 Introduction to Group Work
Historical Perspectives and
Functional Group Models
Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi*

Preview

This initial chapter provides a tour through the essential historical and
foundational issues of group work, leading the reader to appreciate
the value of these approaches. To understand group work models,
leaders need to consider model characteristics, subtypes, stages,
and classic roles and functions of the leader. This chapter presents
an overview of the four main types of group formats categorized by
the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW): task groups,
psychoeducational groups, counseling groups, and psychotherapy
groups. An overview of the group leader as a person, as well as using
theory as a guide, concludes this introductory chapter.

Defining Group Work

Throughout time, humans have naturally gathered together in groups for the
purpose of ensuring their survival and development. Most individuals spend
a considerable amount of time in groups for social, professional, religious,
and other purposes. But what exactly defines a group? Do specific parameters
exist? Researchers in the field have proposed varying descriptions to catego-
rize a group’s unique characteristics. Charles Cooley defined the primary group
concept as a face-to-face encounter between individuals, involving intimate
cooperation. Gladding (2016) expanded on these concepts by defining a group
as two or more individuals who meet interdependently, with the awareness that
each belongs for the purpose of achieving mutually set goals.
Gladding’s (2016) depiction of groups as functional organisms led to his
description and use of the term group work, characterized as the application of
knowledge and skill in group facilitation to assist members in reaching their
mutual goals. These goals include work or education-related tasks, personal
4 Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi
development, problem solving, and the remediation of disorders. These goals
can be accomplished through different procedures, processes, and approaches,
broadly categorized as the functional group models that will be explored later
in this chapter and throughout the remainder of this book. But first, to know
where you are going, it is often instructive to know where you have been,
and where you are coming from. With this objective in mind, let’s review the
historical foundations of group work as context for your future trajectory as a
group worker.

The History of Group Work

Each era in the history of group counseling has reflected the national, regional,
and local climate of that time period. Sociologists and social psychologists
began researching collective group behavior in the 19th century, although not
necessarily in direct relation to therapeutic possibilities. Early research topics
focused on exploring the impact of social experiences on behavior, specifically
the effects of working in groups on childhood performance in school, group
influences on thought processes, and the effect of competition on performance.
Today, group work is known to be an effective methodology for meeting vari-
ous human needs and finding solutions to a multitude of problems (see Chap-
ter 4). Group leaders are increasingly called upon to address problems that are
interpersonally based and have discovered that the social connections provided
by counseling groups are often the most effective forms of treatment.

The Late 1800s and Early 1900s

The development of groups in the late 1800s emerged from the fledgling dis-
ciplines of psychology, sociology, and philosophy as a result of the need for
social reform and education. Those who received treatment in group settings
at that time were generally immigrants, poor, or mentally ill. Joseph Pratt, a
Boston internist, is credited with establishing the first group experience that
was not intended specifically for psychoeducational or occupational purposes.
He used groups to save time in educating and supporting patients. The patients
shared the commonality of having tuberculosis, and over time they became
concerned with one another’s well-being. This sense of caring had positive
effects, and the patients’ spirits seemed to be lifted as they gathered together
for weekly meetings. Startlingly, 75% of Pratt’s patients eventually recovered
from the disease, despite the fact that they were given no hope of survival
upon their initial diagnosis. Pratt provided the first known description of group
counseling and the curative effect of group interactions on group members and
paved the way for present-day psychotherapy.
Building on Pratt’s initial findings, two pioneers of the school counseling
profession began to apply group work within the school context just after the
turn of the century. Jesse Davis, a school principal in Grand Rapids, Michi-
gan, introduced group work in a school setting in 1907. Davis’s groups were
 Introduction to Group Work 5
intended to provide students with effective tools for making educational, voca-
tional, and moral decisions (Erford, 2019). Davis emphasized the use of the
group as an effective environment for teaching life skills and values. Frank
Parsons, often cited as the founder of the vocational guidance or school coun-
seling profession, also used groups to facilitate career and vocational devel-
opment. However, despite their groundbreaking efforts in the field, neither
Davis nor Parsons conducted evaluations to empirically test the effectiveness
of group work on students.
During World War I (and later in World War II), the importance of group
work increased immensely as soldiers were tested and instructed in groups,
and teamwork was emphasized. Groups were also used on occasion to treat
combat fatigue, known today as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It is
fair to say that throughout the history of counseling, the cost-effectiveness and
time-effectiveness of group work has been demonstrated again and again dur-
ing occurrences of wars and natural disasters; indeed, during any circumstance
in which a large number of people required psychoeducational or counseling
services.

The 1920s and 1930s

The use of group work increased between 1920 and 1930, as did efforts to
measure its effectiveness. One of the first outcome studies was noted for indi-
viduals with schizophrenia who were previously considered “untreatable.”
When Edward Lazell, using a psychoeducational group model, presented lec-
tures on Freudian psychology to groups of these patients with schizophrenia,
the medical staff reported that patients consequently exhibited positive behav-
ioral changes and a reduction in the use of sedatives.
During the 1920s and 1930s, several early theorists of group work emerged.
Alfred Adler emphasized the innate social nature of human beings to support a
group treatment model. He conducted groups in the 1920s that investigated the
relationship between children’s problems and family experiences. Adler and
his associates developed group family meetings, or family councils, to obtain
input from each member about how to best approach disputes and improve
family relations. However, Adler did not seek external validation to demon-
strate the effectiveness of his techniques because he claimed that effectiveness
should be clearly evident to the group leader.
Another major development of the 1920s was J. L. Moreno’s creation of the
Theater of Spontaneity, the earliest form of psychodrama. Psychodrama was a
technique developed to bring about mental and emotional catharsis for the pur-
pose of tension relief. Techniques that arose from this early group work are still
frequently used today, including role play, catharsis, and a focus on empathy
and the encouragement of group members.
Also during the 1920s, some early pioneers began to look at the process
variables that underlie group work effectiveness. For example, Lewis Wender
articulated the first guidelines for group therapeutic factors (e.g., factors that
6 Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi
promote effectiveness of group work with members) after examining the many
difficulties associated with making successful psychotherapeutic interventions
with inpatient populations (i.e., patients hospitalized with severe mental dis-
orders). Individual transference relations (e.g., individual clients reacting to
therapists as they would toward a parent or sibling) were hard to accomplish
with inpatients, and the associated time and cost were often prohibitive. After
determining that analytic procedures were ineffective, Wender discovered that
group therapy produced desired qualities such as intellectualization, patient-to-
patient transference, and catharsis in the family, all of which promoted thera-
peutic progress.
What is known as the Developmental Period in group counseling began in
the 1930s and continued into the 1960s. During this time, group work in the
school underwent a transformation from predominantly psychoeducational
usage to a more balanced use of classroom guidance (psychoeducational) and
group counseling, both in elementary and secondary settings. From 1930–
1945, substantial laboratory research was conducted to quantify the influence
of social interactions on behavior and to determine how different methods of
group persuasion and peer pressure changed people’s convictions and beliefs.
Throughout this time period, research was focused primarily on individual
changes in a group setting, rather than on studying the dynamics within the
group itself.
S. R. Slavson, an educator and self-taught therapist, founded the American
Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA) in 1942, along with its accompany-
ing publication, the International Journal for Group Psychotherapy. AGPA
was an interdisciplinary organization for group psychotherapists dedicated to
improving the practice, research, and theory of group psychotherapy. Today,
AGPA has standards for ethical practice, clinical membership, and a voluntary
Clinical Registry of Certified Group Psychotherapists.
As research provided more evidence of the effectiveness of group therapy,
widening patient populations began to seek out this means of treatment for
personal growth. Another significant event of the 1930s was the founding of
the first major self-help group in the United States, Alcoholics Anonymous.
The originators of this group model recognized the power of bringing together
individuals in a supportive way to produce change. Listening, empathizing,
and teaching were hallmark characteristics.

The 1940s and 1950s

In the 1940s, more and more practitioners began to realize the powerful
dynamics created in group therapy settings. The use of this therapeutic medium
expanded tremendously during this time due to the needs of military person-
nel after World War II. Specifically, the war increased interest and innovations
in the use of groups due to a shortage of therapists and a need to treat large
numbers of veterans through rehabilitation counseling and psychotherapy,
as well as psychoeducational approaches for vocational planning and career
 Introduction to Group Work 7
development. Much of the emphasis in vocational approaches with returning
veterans was patterned after psychoeducational group work approaches that
had been used with high school students for several decades in schools.
Kurt Lewin, a major figure of this era, is known as the founder of the study
of modern group dynamics. In 1940, Lewin began the study of intragroup rela-
tions. He viewed groups as agents for change and has been credited with the
invention of training groups (or T-groups), which blossomed into the encounter
and sensitivity groups of the 1960s and 1970s and which were commonly used
in schools at that time. His approach, known as field theory, emphasized the
interaction between individuals and their environments, and he was heavily
influenced by the ideas of Gestalt psychology, which emphasized the relation-
ship of the part to the whole. Lewin’s research resulted in the identification of
predictable stages of group work, and specific change markers for individual
clients.
In the late 1940s, Wilfred Bion, a member of the Tavistock Institute of
Human Relations in Great Britain, studied group cohesiveness and stated
that group dynamics often differ greatly from the dynamics of a family unit.
The trend toward structured group counseling investigations continued in the
1950s, as additional research was conducted on group structure, climate, lead-
ership, and settings. Many therapists recognized that group work was more
effective and advantageous than individual counseling, but individual thera-
pists argued that changes made in group therapy were only superficial in nature
because proper transference with the therapist could not be achieved. This
argument was quelled, however, when evidence was consistently presented
to demonstrate that transference was not only achieved but also enhanced in
group therapy settings.
While educational institutions continued to implement career guidance, a
new emphasis was placed on group and individual counseling to increase aca-
demic achievement and enhance the school climate. The 1957 launch of the
Soviet satellite Sputnik I created urgency in the United States because many
U.S. leaders believed the United States had fallen behind in the so-called space
race and that public K–12 schools and colleges were not producing competent
math and sciences students to compete in the increasingly technological world.
In 1958, the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was signed into law;
it targeted money for the training and employment of school counselors in
U.S. public high schools. Primarily, these school counselors were given the
task of identifying and encouraging students with high math and science apti-
tudes to pursue college degrees in the sciences. By the end of the 1950s, class-
room guidance, a psychoeducational group work approach, while still used
quite often to achieve educational and career development goals, was largely
replaced by group counseling when the goal was to bring about behaviorally
based changes in educational environments (Erford, 2019).
The application of group work to family counseling settings experienced
considerable growth during the 1950s. Rudolph Dreikurs used Adler’s coun-
seling theory to set up and work with parent groups. Clinician John Bell also
8 Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi
conducted work with families, and his therapeutic practice was uniquely char-
acterized by treating the family members like strangers who were new mem-
bers of a counseling group. He stimulated open discussions and encouraged
silent members to share their thoughts and ideas with the other members. Other
significant figures of this decade included Nathan Ackerman and Virginia Satir,
who modified the psychoanalytic model of group therapy for family work, and
Gregory Bateson, who researched group dynamics within families.

The 1960s and 1970s

The popularity of groups flourished during the 1960s and 1970s, largely due
to the social climate of that era. The power of groups to create change became
evident in light of historical events such as the civil rights movement, the Viet-
nam War peace protests, and the so-called counterculture movement. Group
therapy research decreased from 1960 to 1980 (Gazda, Ginter, & Horne, 2008).
Although group treatment was used extensively in societal settings, there was
a greater emphasis on experiential rather than empirical validation of its effec-
tiveness. Many have speculated that this shift in research practice was fueled
by the general disdain for authority that was prevalent during that time period.
Several humanistic-existential therapists also aided in the development of
group therapy and practice during this time. Fritz Perls developed Gestalt ther-
apy, based upon Gestalt psychology, and demonstrated its use in a group setting
through workshops conducted at the Esalen Institute in California. Eric Berne
highlighted his transactional analysis approach to therapy in group settings.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Carl Rogers initiated encounter groups, also
known as sensitivity training groups, to encourage and assist the pursuit of
individual growth and development. These groups emphasized an increased
awareness of the group member’s emotions and the behaviors of other mem-
bers, and members were encouraged to explore interpersonal issues within
a connected and caring community. Rogers’s person-centered approach was
very applicable to school settings and helped group counseling to flourish in
schools.
Marathon groups also came into prominence during this era. As their title
suggests, marathon groups met together for extended periods of time, usually
between 24 and 48 hours, throughout which members were expected to become
more authentic and engage in true self-disclosure. Fatigue was important in
facilitating the breakdown in defense mechanisms and increased openness,
which would ultimately lead to deeper levels of personal growth. Proponents
of this type of therapy devised techniques to help people learn practical skills
for dealing with conflict that could be used in their everyday lives.
An unfortunate side effect of the tremendous popularity of group work was
an increase in the incidences of misuse by untrained practitioners seeking to
ride the wave of the movement. The exploitation of group therapy was sen-
sationalized by journalists during the 1960s and beyond, especially because
many participants with emotional disturbances were harmed by membership
 Introduction to Group Work 9
in groups that functioned without adequate prescreening. Leaders who abused
and distorted the group process set the field back considerably by garnering
bad press and ill will among the public. Unfortunately, some of this public
backlash also tarnished the use of groups in schools, as well as the reputations
of qualified and competent practitioners in clinical settings.
Group work in the 1970s continued to reveal an awareness of the potential
hazards of this treatment modality. The term groupthink was coined to describe
the power that members had over one another to conform. This was seen as a
hindrance to individual growth and problem-solving abilities. The power of the
group process has both positive and hazardous consequences; skilled leaders
know this and address harmful issues when they occur within the group.
Carl Rogers, the leading pioneer of person-centered therapy, bore witness to
the powerful changes in attitudes and beliefs that could be achieved in group
settings. While many practitioners shared Rogers’s enthusiasm for the medium,
others came to doubt its validity in the face of overzealous and undertrained
practitioners, whose practices were controversial and occasionally harmful to
clients. For this reason, the need for increasing professionalization of group
work was recognized.
In response to this call, the Association for Specialists in Group Work
(ASGW) was founded in 1973 for the advancement of professionalism in
group work. ASGW, a division of the American Counseling Association
(ACA), was founded to “establish standards for professional and ethical prac-
tice; to support research and the dissemination of knowledge; and to provide
professional leadership in the field of group work” (Association for Special-
ists in Group Work [ASGW], 2018) and has continued that mission through
the present day. In 2000, ASGW revised its Professional Standards for the
Training of Group Workers (ASGW, 2000). This important document provides
core training standards for all master’s and doctoral-level counselor educa-
tion programs, and specialization guidelines for counselor education programs
that provide advanced and specific group work training to counselors. An even
more important document, and one referenced throughout numerous chapters
in this book, was the ASGW Best Practice Guidelines (ASGW, 2007). ASGW
continues to be an association dedicated to the effective practice of group work
by providing consultation, sponsoring continuing education, and contributing
to the extant literature through their flagship journal, The Journal for Special-
ists in Group Work. Likewise, the American School Counselor Association
(ASCA) helped professionalize the practice of group counseling in the schools
by publishing its first position statement on group counseling in 1989 (see
ASCA [2014a] for the most recent iteration).
The percentage of research articles on groups in counseling journals rose
from 5% in the 1950s to 20% in the 1970s. Particularly important research was
conducted by Irvin Yalom, who analyzed group methods and processes and
described therapeutic factors within groups that had positive, curative effects
on members. In particular, group leaders’ styles and methodologies were
found to have a particularly strong impact on group success or failure. Yalom’s
10 Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi
research was published as the definitive resource on the therapeutic factors in
group counseling, and it has retained its prominence into the 21st century. See
Table 1.1 for a brief introduction to these therapeutic or curative factors. These
factors will be expanded upon in later chapters when contextually relevant.

Table 1.1 Therapeutic Factors in Group Work

In group work, a therapeutic factor is an element, generally created by the group

leader or relationships with other members, that improves a member’s overall
condition. Building on the work of several researchers (e.g., Corsini &
Rosenberg; Hill; Berzon, Pious, & Farson), Irvin Yalom developed what is now
considered the landmark classification of curative or therapeutic factors in the
1970s (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005).
1. Instillation of hope provides clients with a sense of assurance that the treatment
will work.
2. Universality is the awareness of the similar concerns of others. As members
interact, they come to realize that other members are going through similar
situations, and so they feel much less alone and isolated, creating a sense of unity.
3. Imparting of information about healthy living is important to the growth of
members and their ability to function more effectively. Leaders may provide
information about helpful techniques such as those that aid in socialization, while
members learn about how to deal with academic, career, personal/social, mental
health, mental illness, and other real-life problems.
4. Altruism is exemplified by members giving of themselves and working for the
common good.
5. Family reenactment helps re-create early childhood dynamics so that
members are able to relive early family conflicts and effectively resolve them.
Psychotherapy (and sometimes counseling) groups can create a caring family
environment in which issues of trauma can be safely aired and confronted.
6. Development of socialization techniques is necessary for members to function
successfully in their everyday lives. Group work allows members to give and
receive personal feedback, which facilitates learning about the desirability of
one’s behaviors.
7. Imitative behavior occurs when members have an opportunity to observe the
behaviors of other members and witness the positive or negative responses
elicited by their actions.
8. Interpersonal learning occurs through member interactions with others. Each
member affects the other in much the same way that they affect the people they
interact with in their everyday lives, and members receive feedback on their
conduct and can learn new ways of being while feeling safe and supported.
9. Group cohesiveness is similar to a feeling of unity and a sense of being bonded
together. Cohesiveness indicates that effective therapy is occurring because
it facilitates trust and a willingness to take risks. Groups provide acceptance,
belonging, and an outlet to express previously unexplored emotions.
10. Catharsis is the expression of strong and often hidden emotions by an individual.
Catharsis is characterized primarily by a sense of freeing oneself. Instead of
masking one’s true feelings, group work provides a forum for releasing tension
and venting about whatever a member has kept inside.
11. Existential factors are realized when members are encouraged to consider
important and sometimes painful truths about life, including an awareness of
one’s own mortality and the unpredictability of existence.
 Introduction to Group Work 11
During the 1970s, group work also received another strong push when
soldiers returning from the Vietnam War received rehabilitation counseling,
group counseling, and psychotherapy to help readjust to society. Counselors
relied on group work as a cost- and time-effective method for addressing the
complex issues of numerous soldiers. This trend continued even more recently
as soldiers from the first and second wars in Iraq experienced similar war-
related trauma and physical or emotional disabilities.

Case Study 1.1 Identifying Therapeutic Factors

During the final session of a heterogeneous group of adults in a clini-

cal mental health setting, the leader conducted a “round” asking each
member to share what was most appreciated or meaningful about the
group experience. Following are a few of the responses offered.
Maria: I loved learning how to be “real” from everybody. I learned a
lot of new relationship behaviors and attitudes by watching everyone
interact, like how to really listen to people and feel what they are feel-
ing. I admit I found myself trying them out in social situations outside
of group, and they usually worked great. Sometimes, the same things
I saw in here worked perfectly when I did them in social situations! So
I guess the biggest takeaway for me was watching and learning, and
then practicing new moves in the real world to get along better with
other people—which before group was something I really struggled
with. I mean, I know I am going to continue to struggle, but at least
now I know I can do it because I did it with you.
Trent: For me, the most important thing was just the feeling that
things can change and my life will get better. I guess that feeling of
hope is the reason I joined the group in the first place and why I know
my life is turning for the better. And I don’t think it is just me. I’ve heard
a number of you make similar comments. We all started this gig in
pretty weird spaces. I mean, I thought I was the only one in my social
circle who was messed up. But you all really opened my eyes. We’re
all struggling with issues—always have, always will—but now I am
more attuned to those challenges in others. I guess we really are all
in this together, and your friendship over the months has really made
a difference to me. So thanks.
Krystall: I also feel very close to everyone. And it’s not like we
agree on everything, we got into it on racism, sexism, politics, but
I feel like we talk about those disagreements respectfully—and pro-
ductively. It’s like we’re sisters and brothers—I guess that makes you
12 Bradley T. Erford and Gerta Bardhoshi

the dad, Dr. E.! I learned a lot from everyone about family dynam-
ics, social interactions, and how if you take a chance and be “real”
with people, they are more likely to support me than reject me. Hey!
Maybe I should try this out at the next family get-together . . .
Miguel: My turn? Wow—I’m just really different now than I was
before we started—a different place—happier and more even-keeled.
I mean, you know how I was in the beginning. I just needed to unload
all of my baggage. And you guys let me. I mean, good God, I even
cried! And you kept listening and listening, and pushing me to be
more—to understand the purpose in my issues and how understand-
ing and doing something about these issues helps me understand
my purpose in life. I have to admit. When I started group, life seemed
pretty meaningless and hopeless. Now I not only have hope, but also
am beginning to understand what it all means, the struggles and prob-
lems, and how to make life better, whether by just giving myself per-
mission to be authentic, or taking those baby steps in the right direction
until I build up the momentum and courage I need to succeed.
Kara: I just felt like I could be myself with you guys. I have always
thought of myself as a caring, loving, and giving person, and I really
felt like I could be that way in here. I definitely got a lot back from you
guys, but it felt awesome to give help and support week after week.
Gives me a warm feeling inside. I guess that was all possible because
of the closeness I felt with each of you, like we were all moving in the
same direction and even thinking and feeling the same ways at times.
I haven’t experienced this kind of closeness with people since high
school!

Questions

• Which therapeutic factors are evident in each group member’s

comments?
• How did each therapeutic factor appear to aid in the group mem-
ber’s growth and development?
• What activities and interactions throughout the group process
could you use to facilitate the positive therapeutic growth among
members?

The 1980s and Beyond

In the 1980s, group counseling continued to increase in popularity and pro-
fessionalism. The AGPA worked to refine group theory and practice through
Another Random Scribd Document
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Finch, Captain, cavalry attack in Saugor territory, 553
Finnis, Colonel, killed at Meerut, 52
Fisher, Colonel, killed at Sultanpoor, 168
Fort William. [Calcutta.]
Franks, Brigadier, operations in Oude, 402, &c.
Frazer, Mr, killed at Delhi, 74
Frere, Mr, Commissioner of Sinde, controversy with missionaries, 530
Fund, Indian Mutiny Relief, 226, 623
Furlough, peculiarities in native, 36
Futteghur, mutiny, flight, and murder of Europeans, 134
Futtehpoor, outbreak at, 172
Fyzabad, mutiny, flight of Europeans, 165-167

Gabbett, Lieutenant, killed at Nujuffghur, 300

Ganges, towns and canal of, 8, 104
Gardiner, Sergeant, gallantry at Bareilly, 494
Goldney, Colonel, killed during flight from Fyzabad, 167
Goorkhas, characteristics and services, 378, 348, 393, 529
Gordon, Captain, killed at Delhi, 72
Goruckpore, contests with rebels at, 393, 431
Graham, Dr, killed at Sealkote, 203
Grant, Mr, temporary Lieutenant-governor of Central Provinces, 214-
280
Grant, Sir Hope, defeats rebels outside Delhi, 238
—— —— —— —— at Serai Ghat, 380
—— —— —— —— at Meeangunje, 404
—— —— —— —— at Towrie, 499
—— —— —— —— at Nawabgunge, 523
—— —— —— —— in Fyzabad district, 543
——, Sir Patrick, temporary Commander-in-chief, 211
Greathed, Brigadier, services against rebels, 350, 352, &c.
——, Mr H. H., killed at Delhi, 314
Gros, Baron, French plenipotentiary. [China.]
Gubbings, Captain, killed at Sultanpore, 168
Gubbins, Mr, Commissioner of Oude, on causes of mutiny, 605
Guide Corps, march, services, and return from Delhi, 234-437
Gujerat, disarmed by Sir R. Shakespear, 501
Gulowlie, Rose’s victory at, 506
Gwalior, position and description, 187, 510
——, mutiny at, 112, 188
——, capture and recapture of, 509-512
——, conspiracy defeated, 559

Haliburton, Captain, disperses rebels near Benares, 279

Hall, Colonel, gallant defence at Shahjehanpore, 495
Harris, Lord, on newspaper press of India, 217
——, Major, killed at Mhow, 186
Hattrass, refugees, and fighting at, 112
Havelock, Sir H., commenced operations in the Doab, 247
—— —— ——, victory at Futtehpoor, 249
—— —— ——, —— at Aong, 251
—— —— ——, —— at Pandoo Nuddee, 251
—— —— ——, —— at Cawnpore, 251
—— —— ——, actions on road to Lucknow, 254, &c.
—— —— ——, second defeat of Nena Sahib, 258
—— —— ——, difficulties after retreat to Cawnpore, 259
—— —— ——, death at Lucknow, 369
——, Lieutenant, won Victoria Cross by gallantry, 253
Hayes, Major, killed near Minpooree, 113
Hazarebagh, mutiny at, 274
‘Headman’ of a village, position and duties, 119
Heat of India, influence on Europeans, 66, 519
Herat, cause of the Persian war. [Persia], 578
Hewett, Major-general, conduct at Meerut, 53
Hindoos, characteristics of, 105, 438, &c.
Hodson, Major, defeat rebels near Rohtuk, 299
—— ——, capture King of Delhi, 313
—— ——, killed at Lucknow, 426
——, Mrs, account of visit to King of Delhi, 356
Holkar, one of the Mahratta princes, 182
Holmes, Major, killed at Segowlie, 274
Home, Lieutenant, services and death, 315, 351
Hong-kong. [China.]
Honours conferred on faithful natives, 546, 548
Hoogly river, described, 98
Hope, Brigadier Adrian, services at Bithoor and Shumshabad, 391,
394
Hope, Brigadier Adrian, killed at Rhodamow, 473
Hospitals, periodicals supplied to by government, 538

India Bills, discussions on, in parliament, 561-573

Indian Native army, on reorganisation of, 386
Indore, mutiny and murder of Europeans, 185, 186
Industrial development of India, 7
Inglis, Sir J., heroic defence of Lucknow, 165, 259, 324, 327, 336

Jacob, Brigadier, of the Sinde horse, 206, 207, &c.

Jacobabad, station for Jacob’s Sinde horse, 207
Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, Sir, Parsee baronet, 501, 612
Japan, Elgin’s expedition to Nagasaki, 603
——, thence to Jedo, 603
——, treaty of commerce signed by Elgin, 603
Jedo. [Japan.]
Jehanghire, Mogul emperor, 61
Jelpigoree, conflict of mutineers, 375
Jelum, Sepoy mutinies at, 202
Jennings, Rev. Mr, killed at Delhi, 74
Jhansi, mutinies and fighting at, 179, 440, 478, 479
——, Ranee of, 180, 478
Jheend, Rajah of, rewarded for fidelity, 549
Jones, Brigadier, operations at Nageena and Shahjehanpore, 472,
496
Jowra Alipore, Gwalior rebels defeated by Napier at, 515
Jubbulpoor, precautions against mutiny, 178, 281, 346
Jugdispore taken by Lugard, 487
Jullundur, precautions against mutiny, 196
Julra Patteen, occupied by Tanteea Topee, 557
Jumma Musjid at Delhi, description, 65
Jumna, immolation of devotees in, 107
Jung Bahadoor, character and proceedings, 169, 423, 519
Junks, destruction of. [China.]

Kaiser Bagh, palace and garden at Lucknow, 421

Kantzow, Lieutenant de, gallantry at Minpooree, 113
Kattara, Tanteea Topee defeated by Roberts at, 557
Kerr, Lord Mark, contest with rebels at Azimghur, 469
Khan Bahadoor Khan, rebel leader at Bareilly, 170
Khoosh-aub, victory at. [Persia.]
Kirk, Dr, killed at Gwalior, 189
Kirwee, treasure captured at by Whitlock, 552
Koer Singh, leader of Dinapoor rebels, 269, 344, 469, 487
Kolapore, mutiny and murders at, 289
Kotah, recaptured from rebels by Roberts, 442
Kukerowlee, victory of Jones at, 492
Kumaon battalion, fidelity and bravery of, 529

Lahore, mutiny of native troops at, 204

——, position and description of, 193
Lake, Lord, reminiscences of, 67
Lawrence, Colonel, in Rajpootana, 354
——, Sir H., difficulties of position at Lucknow, 89-95
—— ——, disastrous battle of Chinhut, 164
—— ——, Muchee Bhowan fort blown up by, 164
—— ——, death and character, 165, 322
——, Sir J., energetic measures in Punjaub, 199-204
—— ——, siege-army for Delhi formed by, 240
—— ——, invaluable services to India, 384
—— ——, pension granted to, 574
—— ——, opinions on government of India, 607
Leslie, Sir Norman, killed at Rohnee, 151
Lloyd, Major-general, disasters at Dinapoor, 267, 268
Lorcha Arrow, cause of Chinese war. [China.]
Lotus flower, transmission among natives, 36
Lowther, Captain, Rajah of Assam captured by, 339
Lucknow, situation and description, 84
——, first symptoms of mutiny, 89, 96
——, invested by rebels, 164
——, details of siege by rebels, 317-333
——, effects of heat, flies, and impurities, 325, 326
——, sufferings of ladies and children, 325, 330, 335
——, scarcity, and high prices of provisions, 330, 332
——, brilliant achievements of defenders, 328, 331, &c.
——, great losses among garrison, 259, 263, 335, 366
——, relieved by Havelock and Outram, 263, 335
——, second relief, by Sir Colin Campbell, 368
——, spoliation of palaces, 360
——, evacuation by the British, 368
——, state of, after the evacuation, 413
——, reconquered by Sir Colin Campbell, 425
——, condition of in May 1858, 522
Ludlow, Mr, on causes of mutiny, 605
Lugard, Sir E., Koer Singh defeated by, at Azimghur, 469
——, ——, various victories over rebels, 487
Lumsden, Lieutenant, killed at Nujuffghur, 300
Lyell, Dr, killed at Patna, 153

M’Causland, Colonel, Bareilly rebels defeated by, 406

Madhoo Singh, surrender to Sir Colin Campbell, 610
Madras presidency and city, 15
——, number of troops, 26
——, 8th native cavalry disarmed, 288
——, troops in Central Provinces, 280
——, general fidelity of native troops, 288
——, missionary dispute, 535
Magazine at Delhi, blown up by Willoughby, 71
—— at Lucknow, blown up by Lawrence, 164
Mahomed Hussein, rebel leader in Oude, 166, 487
Mahrattas, nation, territory, and characteristics, 62, 181
Mail post, Indian runners, dâks, and eckas, 22
Malagurh Fort, blown up—Lieutenant Home killed, 351
Man Singh, rebel chief in Gwalior territory. [Gwalior]
Manson, Mr, assassinated near Nargoond, 532
March of Indian armies described, 29
Martial law proclaimed, 213
Martin, Lieutenant, shot at Mhow, 180
Martinière, college in Lucknow. [Lucknow.]
Massacres. [Cawnpore; Delhi; Jhansi; Meerut; &c.]
Maun Singh, of Shahgunje, 465, &c.
Maxwell, Colonel, rebels defeated by, at Chowra, 403
Mead, Mr, on causes of mutiny, 606
Meean Meer, cantonment for Lahore, 194, 287
Meerut, position and description of, 49
——, mutiny and massacre at, 50-53
—— mutineers march to Delhi, 52
——, Wilson’s brigade march from, 232
Metcalfe’s House, outside Delhi, struggles at, 297
Mhow, mutiny at, 186
Michel, Major-gen., victories over Tanteea Topee, 558, 611
Military stations and divisions in India, 208, 209, 293
Mill, Major, killed near Fyzabad, 167
——, Mrs, and children, eventful escape of, 167
Miller, Colonel, rebels defeated by, at Konee, 347
Millman, engagement with rebels at Atrowlia, 431
Minpooree, re-occupation of, 353
Mirzapore, description and defences, 106, 279
Missionaries, controversy with, at Hyderabad, 530
Missionary dispute at Madras, 535
Mohamrah, victory at. [Persia.]
Montgomery, Mr, Chief-commissioner of Oude, 465
——, proclamation for disarming Oude, 610
——, Major, defeat of rebels at Allygurh, 286
Mooradabad, mutiny at, 171
——, rebel chieftains captured, 491
Moosa Bagh, palace at Lucknow, 424
Moultan, disarming and mutiny at, 551
Moulvie of Fyzabad, stronghold captured, 425
—— ——, characteristics, 498
—— ——, killed at Powayne, 524
Muchee Bhowan, fort, at Lucknow, 322
Multhone, Tanteea Topee defeated by Michel at, 611
Mundoree, action at, 341
Munro, Sir T., opinions on press of India, 215
Murdan, mutineers captured at, 198
Murray, Honourable A. C. [Persia.]
Mutiny, discussions on causes of, 389, 605
—— Relief Fund, 623

Nabah, Rajah of, rewarded for fidelity, 549

Nadir Shah, early conqueror of India, 62
Nagasaki. [Japan.]
Nagode, mutiny and disaster at, 282
Nagpoor, position and defences, 176
Namtow, operations at. [China.]
Napier, Brigadier R., operations against Gwalior rebels, 515, 555, &c.
Nargoond, Rajah, treachery of, 532
Narratives of Delhi fugitives, 75-77
Naval Brigade, arrived at Benares, 340
—— ——, services at Lucknow, 366
——, —— at Chuckerderpore, 518
——, —— at Hurreah, 525
—— value of services, 539
—— [Peel; Sotheby.]
Native regiments. [Army.]
Nawabgunge, Grant’s victory at, 523
Neave, Lieutenant, killed at Gwalior, 511
Neemuch, mutiny and contests, 184, 386
Neill, Brigadier, services at Benares and Allahabad, 155, 157, 160
——, in command at Cawnpore, 144, 254
——, repulsed enemy at Cawnpore, 255, 258
——, killed at Lucknow, 632
Nena Sahib, history and character, 122
——, treacherous promises, 126, 127, 130
——, joined the rebels as leader, 129
——, massacred fugitives from Futteghur, 133
——, dreadful massacre at Cawnpore, 142
——, issued vaunting proclamations, 146
——, defeated by Havelock at Bithoor, 253
——, second defeat by Havelock at Bithoor, 258
——, chosen as Peishwa by Gwalior rebels, 508
——. [Cawnpore; Havelock; Wheeler.]
Nepaul. [See also Goorkhas; Jung Bahadoor], 169
Newberry, Cornet—killed at Nuseerabad, 183
Newspaper correspondents, 400
——. [Press.]
Newspapers of India, native, 46, 217
——, English, 205
Nicholson, Brig., character and services, 298, 314
——, operations against Sealkote mutineers, 204
——, disarmed native troops at Umritsir, 287
——, defeat of enemy at Nujuffghur, 299
——, killed at Delhi, 307
Nizam of the Deccan, fidelity to the English, 560
Non-regulation, provinces and districts, 15
Nowgong, mutiny and eventful escapes, 180, 181
Nowsherah, station destroyed by river-torrent, 551
Nujuffghur, Nicholson’s victory at, 299
Nuseerabad, mutiny at, 183
Nynee Tal, refuge at hill-station, 114, 115, &c.
Onao, battle won by Havelock, 255
Opium Trade. [See also China], 609
Orr, Mrs and Miss Jackson, sufferings at Lucknow, 423
Orthography of Oriental names and terms, 13
Osborne, Captain, skilful management at Rewah, 180
Oude, history and description, 83
——, royal family, relations of E. I. C. with, 84-88
——, queen, goes to England, 88
—— ——, petition from, 161
—— ——, discords in royal family, 520
——, army, mutiny, military events, 89, 399, 426, 543, 610, &c.
——, gradual pacification, 610
——. [Campbell; Havelock; Lawrence; Lucknow; &c.]
Outram, Sir James. [Persia.]
——, plan for reconquering Oude, 250
——, nobly yielded command to Havelock, 262
Outram, Sir James, wounded in entering Lucknow, 263
——, appointed to hold Alum Bagh, 370
——, defeated 30,000 rebels at, 391
——, defeated 20,000 rebels at, 401
——, operations in taking Lucknow, 415, 422
——, military councillor at Calcutta, 467
——, volunteer cavalry thanked by, 526

Palmerston, Lord, India Bill, 564

——. [India bills; Parliament.]
Paoree, Man Singh defeated by Napier at, 555
Parkes, Mr. [China.]
Parliament, discussions on the mutiny, &c., 218, 221, 448
—— discussions, on India bills, &c., 564
Parsee address to Lord Elphinstone, 289
—— rejoicings at Bombay, 611
Patna, disturbances and precautions, 152, 153, 267
Peel, Captain Sir W., services with naval brigade at Kudjna, 364
Peel, Captain Sir W., services with naval brigade at Lucknow, 366
Peel, Captain Sir W., wounded at Lucknow, 417
—— —— —— ——, died at Cawnpore, 475
Peh-kwei, governor at Canton. [China.]
Pei-ho, operations in river. [China]
Penny, Colonel, killed at Nuseerabad, 183
——, General, operations against rebels, 355, 491
—— ——, killed at Kukerowlee, 491
Pershadeepore, mutiny at, 168
Persia, disputes concerning Herat, &c., 578
——, war declared against, 579
——, expeditions to, 580
——, capture of Bushire, 580
——, action at Khoosh-aub, 581
——, suicide of Stalker and Ethersey, 582
——, operations at Mohamrah and Ahwaz, 582
——, Treaty of Peace, 583
Peshawur, mutinies and precautions, 197-199, 204
Phillour, precautions against mutiny, 197
Platt, Colonel, killed at Mhow, 186
Plowden, Mr, his position at Nagpoor, 177
——, Captain, services with Goorkhas, 432
Plunder, Sir Colin Campbell’s order concerning, 423
Polehampton, Rev. Mr, killed at Lucknow, 329
Police system of India, 200, 480
Poonah, precautions against rebellion, 290
Powell, Colonel, killed at Kudjna, 364
Presidencies, area and population, 31
Press of India, 46, 205, 215, 218, 400
——, liberty restricted, 215
——. [Newspapers.]
Proclamations, Viscount Canning’s, 450, 624
——, Sir Colin Campbell’s, 610
——, Mr Montgomery’s, 610
——, Queen Victoria’s, 611, 623
——. [Campbell; Canning; Ellenborough; &c.]
Prophecies and mysteries, native, 485, 531
Punjaub, history and description, 191, 192
——, precautions against mutiny, 200, 201
——. [Lahore; Lawrence; Moultan; Nicholson; Peshawur; Sealkote;
Sikhs; &c.]
Putialah, Rajah of, rewarded for fidelity, 549
Putiatine, Admiral Count. [China; Japan.]

Queen of Oude. [Begum; Oude.]

Queen Victoria’s proclamation, 609-612, 623

Raikes, Mr, on causes of mutiny, 606

Railways of India, lengths, &c., 119, 157, 224, 477
Raines, Major, rebels defeated at Rowah, 395
Rajahs, honours for fidelity of, 549
Rajpootana, situation and description, 189
——. [Napier; Nuseerabad; Roberts; Tanteea Topee; &c.]
Ramsay, Capt. (Major), operations near Nynee Tal, 115, 357
Ranee of Jhansi, killed at Gwalior, 511
——. [Calpee; Gwalior; Jhansi; Tanteea Topee.]
Rattray, Captain, services of Sikh battalion, 275, &c.
Rebels, discussions on punishment of, 455
Reed, Mr, American plenipotentiary. [China.]
——, Major-gen., brief services against rebels, 235, 242
——, resigned command at Delhi, 243
Rees, Mr, on causes of the mutiny, 605
Regiments. [Army; Stations; &c.]
Regulation districts, 15
Reid, Major, gallant achievements outside Delhi— 241, 297, &c.
Relief Fund, Indian Mutiny, 623
Religions of India, discussions concerning, 607
——, orders for respecting, 41
Renaud, Major, killed at Cawnpore, 254
Rennie, Capt., defeat of Persians at Ahwaz by. [Persia.]
Residency at Lucknow. [Inglis; Lawrence; Lucknow; &c.]
Revolt. [Barrackpore; Cartridge; Meerut; &c.]
Rewah, gallantly held by Osborne, 180, 345, &c.
Rhodamow Fort, disaster at, 473
Roberts, General, operations against Tanteea Topee, 555, 557, &c.
Rohilcund, position and description, 170
——, operations in, 114, 467, 495, 496, 610
——, rebel leaders in, 467
Rose, Lieutenant, killed at Gwalior, 513
——, Sir Hugh, operations at Mudenpore, 438
—— —— —— at Jhansi, 478
—— —— —— at Koonch, 505
—— —— —— at Gwalior, 510, 516
—— —— ——, address to his army, 516
Rowcroft, Brigadier, operations against rebels, 470, 610
Russell, Mr W. H., graphic descriptions by, 400, 414, &c.

Salar Jung, prime-minister to Nizam, 560

Salkeld, Lieutenant, heroism at Delhi, 315
Satara, Mahratta proceedings at, 290, 480
Saugor, fight between native troops at, 281
—— and Nerbudda territories, 178, 345, 553
Scindia, history and family, 182
——, offered aid to British, 110
——, difficulties with mutineers, 351, 507
——, expulsion from Gwalior, 508
——, reinstatement at Gwalior, 514
Sealkote, mutiny at, 202, 203
—— mutineers. [Nicholson.]
Seaton, Brigadier, services against rebels, 382, 475, &c.
Secrole, noticed, 105
Secunder Bagh, palace and garden at Lucknow, 365
Secunderabad, Rohillas defeated at, 291
Seetapoor, mutiny at, 168
——, operations commence from, 610
Seetabuldee, fort of Nagpoor, 177
Sepoys. [Army; Regiments; Troops.]
Seymour, Admiral Sir Michael [China.]
Shahjehan, Mogul emperor, 62
Shahjehanpore, mutiny and massacre at, 171
——, military operations, 495, 496, &c.
Shah Nujeef at Lucknow, 365
——, Peel’s services at, 366
Shang-hae. [China.]
Showers, Brigadier, operations against Delhi, 297
Sikhs, origin and description, 192
——, fidelity during mutiny, 156, 275, 344
Simpson, Sergeant, gallantry at Rhodamow, 473
Sinde, details concerning, 205-207
Sirmoor battalion of Goorkhas, fidelity of, 529
Smith, Brigadier, operations at Gwalior, &c., 511, &c.
Soldiers, English in India. [Army; &c.]
Sonthal Pergunnahs, mutiny at, 151
Soorut Singh of Benares, services to the English, 156
Soraon Field-force, services, 545
Sotheby’s Naval Brigade, services of, 402
Spencer, Major, killed at Meean Meer, 287
Spottiswoode, Captain, killed at Nuseerabad, 183
Spring, Captain, killed at Jelum, 202
Stalker, Major-general. [Persia.]
Stanley, Lord, India Bill and Council of India, 570
Steuart, Brigadier, operations in Deccan, 385
Stevens, Captain, killed at Chinhut, 164
Straubenzee, General. [China.]
Stuart, Brigadier, at Mundisore and Chendaree, 385, 439
Sultanpore, actions by Franks and Hope Grant, 402, 610
Sunstroke, fatal effects of, 496, &c.

Tanteea Topee, manœuvres and marches of, 478, 508, 555, 558, 611
——. [Michel; Napier; Roberts; &c.]
Tayler, Mr, proceedings at Patna, 470, 476
——, removed from office, 476
Telegrams. [Electric telegraph.]
Tien-Sing. [China.]
Tola Narainpore, rebels defeated by Eyre at, 272
Thalookdars and Thalookdaree, 360, 525
Thugs and Thuggee, 11
Travelling in India, 18, 20
——. [Marching; Railways; &c.]
Troops, number, clothing, &c., 25, 26, 29, 224, 250, 302, 535, 609
——, disarming, 149, 150, 194, 198, &c.
——, marching and transport of, 29, 222, 501, 611
——. [Army; &c.]
Tucker, Mr, killed at Futtehpoor, 172
Twigs, mystery of, in Gujerat, 531

Umballa, occurrences at, 118, 231

——, effects of cholera at, 201
Umritsir, position and description, 195

Vellore, revolt in, a premonitory symptom, 33

Venables, Mr, success against rebels, 278, 341
—— ——, death, and honourable testimonial, 519
Victoria Cross, bestowal for valour, 315, 464, 550
Vocabulary of Indian terms, 13
Volunteer cavalry of Oude, 526

Wake, Mr, heroic defence of house at Arrah, 268

Wallee Dad Khan, rebel leader near Meerut, 174
Walpole, General, disaster at Rhodamow, 473
——, victory at Sirsa, 473
Waterfield, Major, killed near Ferozabad, 500
Wheler, Colonel, and the religion of the sepoys, 101
Wheeler, Sir Hugh, defensive operations, sufferings, and death.
[Cawnpore; Nena Sahib.]
——, Miss, heroic conduct of, 139
Willoughby, Lieutenant, Delhi magazine exploded by, 71
Whitlock, General, operations in Bundelcund, 479
——, capture of treasure at Kirwee, 552
Windham, General, disaster at Cawnpore, 376
Wilson, Sir Archdale, Meerut column headed by, 232
—— —— ——, victories of Ghazeeoodeen and Hindoun, 232
Wilson, Sir Archdale, at siege of Delhi, 243, 245, 298, 306, 311
——, honoured and rewarded, 314
——, commanded cavalry in Oude, 409
Wingfield, Mr, commissioner at Goruckpore, 487

Yeh Mingchin, Chinese viceroy. [China.]

Yule, Colonel, killed outside Delhi, 238
 Edinburgh:
Printed by W. and R. Chambers.
 TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
1. Corrected for to four on p. 96.
2. Corrected withinside to within on p. 314.
3. Silently corrected typographical errors.
4. Retained anachronistic and non-standard
spellings as printed.
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