STANDARD LECTURE NOTES

COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY

FOR

DIPLOMA COMMUNITY HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT

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INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preliminary pages
 Table of contents
 General introduction to the unit

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to counseling
 Introduction
 Counseling and other related terms
 Psychotherapy and cousleing
 Importance of counseling
 Branches of cousleing
 Principles of counseling
 Emergence of counseling psychology
 Factors contributing to need to need for counseling

CHAPTER TWO
 Techniques of cousleing for social work
 Introduction
 Techniques used in counseling for social work
 Interview in cousleing
 Cousleing skills

CHAPTER THREE
Ethics in counseling
 Introduction
 Importance of ethics in counseling
 Role of records in counseling
 Storage of records
 Chapter four
 Counseling process
 Introduction
 Aims of exploration stage
 Challenges
 Gerard Egan‘s Three stage Model
 Challenges in counseling process
CHAPTER FIVE
Role of communication in counseling
 Introduction
 Challenges of each type of communication in coursing
 Communication skills in counseling

CHAPTER SIX
Setting up a counseling programme
 Introduction
 Role of social worker in managing a counseling programme
 Impact of counseling in society

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General introduction to the unit
This module is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will
enable him/her to effectively counsel and support clients n a society.

General objectives
By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. Appreciate the importance of cousleing services in society.
2. Explore counseling issues in society
3. Enhance awareness of ethical and professional issues in counseling.
4. Network with other organizations involved in counseling services.

Role of Learner.
The role of the learner in the study is to participate actively and read other sources widely. At
the end of each topic there are self examination questions. The learner s expected to attempt
answering all of them to enhance your own understanding. A list of reference books is also
provided at the end of the manual. The learner is encouraged to do further reading from as
many books as possible, which he/she may obtain from any library or bookshop.

Continuous assessment activities

The learner is expected to complete all the continuous assessment activities (CAA) and return
them promptly on the dates assigned to the college for marking.

Final examinations
The learner is expected to sit for the final examination at the end of the course duration. The
exact dates will be provided and arrangements for this will have to e organized with the
college.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING
Introduction
In this unit our focus is on the concept of counseling. We shall understand the meaning of
counseling by looking at several definitions that have been brought forth by several writers.
Other closely related terms will be defined and their similarities and differences with
counseling and branches of counseling. We shall also look at how counseling has emerged since
the beginning of mankind to the present day, where we shall highlight how counseling has
developed in Kenya.
At the end of the chapter you should be able to state at least three different definitions of
counseling by different authorities. You should be able to define other closely related terms as
well as discussing their similarities and differences to counseling. You should be able to
explain the importance of counseling, the principles of counseling and the various branches of
counseling. You shall be in a position to give the emergence of counseling with a bias to how
counseling has developed in Kenya. Finally, you will be able to discuss the counselor-counselee
relationship and the factors that contribute to nee counseling.

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Meaning of counseling
Counseling is a process which takes place on one-to-one relationship an individual beset by
problems which he/she cannot cope alone and a professional worker whose training and
experience have qualified him/her to help others reach solutions to various types of personal
difficulties (Ilahn and Machean, 1955)

Mc Guiness , 1998 defines counseling as a helping process that uses the safety engender by a
special kind of relationship to help the individual to get access to a greater part of their
personal resources as a means of responding to the challenges in life. It uses special skills and
techniques in threat relationships to help people become more competent, more contented
and more creative. It does not deal with the mentally ill but with normal individuals facing all
the difficulties involved in domestic, work oriented and social life. It is about helping people
grow in emotional fitness and health.

Inskipp and John in 1984 defines counseling as away of relating and responding to another
person so that the other person is helped to explore his thoughts, feelings and behavior to
reach a clear self understanding and helped to find and use his strengths and cope more
effectively in life by making appropriate decisions or taking relevant action. The British
Association of Counselors (BAC) also gave their definitions of counseling in 1990. they said that
it is the skilled and principled use of relationships which develop self knowledge and
acceptance, and growth of personal resources. The overall aim is to live more fully satisfying
lives. It may be concerned with addressing and resolving specific decision making, coping with
crisis through feelings and inner specific problems, decision making, coping with addressing
and resolving specific problems, decision making, coping with crisis through feelings and inner
conflicts and improving the relationship with other people.
As a profession, counseling focuses on helping ‗normal‘ people with personal, family ,
educational and career issues through individual , couples, family, or group therapy.

Counseling therefore is that interaction between to individuals called counselor and

counselee. The counselor here is the one who has attained professional training and
experience in the relevant area. The counseling takes place in a setting where a special
relationship between the counselor and counselee is built. This counselor-counselee
relationship is not casual or business like, but is characterized by warm responses and
understanding. Rao, 1991 p 23.

This relationship is solely for the purpose of facilitating changes on the behaviour of the
client. This happens over a period of time and lead to fulfillment of certain goals. The change
is involuntarily and the client alone responsible for the decisions he/she makes. Counseling is
not information giving, advice giving, making suggestions, and recommendations, influencing
client values, attitudes, beliefs, interest, decisions etc.

Counseling and other closely related terms

Guidance
Guidance is a continuous process concerned with determining the end and providing for the
developmental needs of other people. Guidance is a broad area of educational activities which
are aimed at assisting individuals to make and carry out adequate plans and achieving them. It
helps in adjustments in life (Petterson , 1971)
Guidance and counseling are similar in that they both involve a process and they are both
helping in nature.

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 However, there are distinct differences between the two that may be summarized as shown in
the table hereunder:-

Guidance Counseling
1) Guidance is knowledge based. The 1) Counseling is effective where exploration
persons guiding provides knowledge to feelings and emotions is done
the recipient.
2) Guidance is preventive 2) Counseling is remedial in nature
3) In guidance a relationship between the 3) In counseling a relationship between counselor
provider and recipient need not be and counselee must be created for it to be
created effective.
4) Guidance can be done openly an 4) Counseling is done privately and confidentially.
public. 5) Counseling is experimental.
5) Guidance is informative 6) Counseling involves the heart.
6) Guidance involves the body 7) In counseling, the counselee is assisted to
7) In guidance the instructor determines determine and provide his/her own solutions.
and provides the solutions 8) Counseling may be terminated
8) Guidance is continuous 9) Counseling deals with coping with life
9) Guidance deals with developmental challenges.
needs such as adolescence, career
choice and so on.

Psychotherapy and counseling

Psychotherapy is a long term process to assist with serious psychological problems.
Psychotherapy and counseling are similar in that they both involve a process and are
psychological in nature.
However, they are different in the following ways;-
Guidance Counseling
1) counseling focuses on resolution of 1) psychotherapy focuses on reconstructive
developmental and situational problems change
2) Counseling is involved with problem 2) Psychotherapy is analytical and aims at
solving such as behavior change providing insight more than change
3) Counseling focuses on the present and is 3) Psychotherapy focuses on the past more than
based on the reality principle on the present
4) Counseling deals with conscious 4) Psychotherapy deals with the
awareness preconsciousness
5) Counseling works with people who have 5) Psychotherapy works with neurotics i.e.
no serious severe or persistent problems people with severe, persistent emotional
problems such as depression, schizophrenia,
suicidal cases, emotional disturbances and so
6) Counseling involves a short term on
relationship, 8-12 sessions spread over a 6) Psychotherapy usually involves a long term

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 period of less than six months. relationship , 20-40 sessions over a period of six
months to two years.

Social work and counseling

Social work is a profession which promotes social change, problem solving in human
relationship and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well being. Utilizing
theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where
people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social systems, social
work intervenes at the points where people interact with other environments. Principles of
human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. (International Association of
Schools of Social work and the International Federation of Social Workers.)

Social workers and counselors other work towards helping individuals develop, adjust to a
change in life circumstances, or find new opportunities and resources.
The key difference is that while people come for counseling through choice, those using social
work services are often compelled by societal or legal mandates to address a particular area
of their lives, or are driven to ask for help by poverty or some other type o disadvantage. The
dimension therefore that clearly differentiates counseling from social work is context.

Another difference is that counselors do not have to engage with service delivery of directly
with their clients‘ social environments.
Counselors can offer confidentiality in a distinctive way and can operate in neatly contracted
hourly sessions within discrete agencies. Confidentiality is not necessarily offered in social
work and there are no contracted sessions.

What counseling is not

Counseling is not:-
 Information giving
 Advice giving
 A conversation or a good chat
 Exchange of opinions
 Discussion
 Befriending
 Confession
 Interrogation
 An interview
 Teaching

Importance of f counseling
Counseling enhances greater self awareness of the individual. According to Blocher (1996)
counseling helps an individual become aware of him/herself and the way he/she is reacting to
the behavioral influences of his environment. He/she is able to establish personal meaning to
the behaviour and to develop, clarify a set of goals and values for the future behaviour.

Counseling enables the individual meet vocational and personal problems of adjustments to
their life. People are constantly facing adjustment problems brought about by the rapid social
change caused by industrialization and urbanization. Change is being required in all life
aspects – educational, vocational, marital , parental, personal and so on. These changes at
times bring them heavy demands causing tension and conflicts to the individual.

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Counseling assists individuals to enhance their personal, social, emotional and intellectual
development thereby making themselves sufficient and self directed.

Counseling improves personal effectiveness where the individual is able to define and solve
problems. He/she attains originality and creativity in his/her thinking. An effective person is
also able to control impulses and respond appropriately to frustrations, hostility and ambiguity
and not commit him/herself to projects, to invest and time, to take appropriate economic ,
psychological and physical risks.

Counseling improves decision making thus fostering personal growth. Counseling stimulates the
individual to evaluate, make, accept, and act upon his/her choice. Vague goals are clarified
and their implications appreciated. Clients are able therefore to make informed and
responsible decisions.

Counseling assists in modification of behavior e.g. removal of undesirable behavior or action.

Counseling also assists in the reduction of irritating symptoms enabling individuals to attain
satisfaction and effectiveness.
Counseling is also therapeutic in nature. The counselor provides a suitable environment that
enables and allows for purging of emotions by the counselee. These are emotions that have
been suppressed for a long time and in most cases have had a bearing on present non effective
behavior. Once these are released, the counselee feels relieved, free and better able to
control their lives.

Branches of counseling
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is concerned with the alleviation of human suffering through the reconstruction
of the individual at both conscious and unconscious level. It is concerned with alleviating
pathological condition etc, it uses psychological analysis, and hypnosis etc. psychiatry also
adds physical and chemotherapy.

Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology studies behavioral disorders and people with emotional disturbances, and
the effectiveness of different treatment models.

Comparative psychology
Comparative psychology compares and contrasts behavior, of other species with humans in
terms of studying needs, abilities and actions.

Developmental psychology
It studies the changes in behavior over a lifespan (emotional, intellectual and social)

Educational psychology
It develops tools to assess educational development, ways to improve education. It also studies
how people learn at different stages.

Industrial psychology
It studies how people work in various environments, what rewards work best, personnel tools
such as hiring criteria, which leadership and management styles are most effective.
Organizational psych is a related study.

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Social psychology
Social psychology is concerned with the social, behavior of individuals and groups, how
individual behavior is affected by others, formation of attitudes, political behavior and
communications.

Physiological psychology
It is concerned with how the body functions, particularly the nervous system and hormones,
and how they affect behavior.

PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELING
One of the principles is that counseling is based on the context of a relationship between the
client and counselor.
Another principle of counseling is that given the right environment a client is able to
understand their problem situation and to make an informed rational decision or choice.
Another principle is that the quality of a counselor is therapy. He/she must therefore be a
professional and competent he/she must be trained.

Another principle in counseling is that advice is not help in counseling and should be
consciously avoided.

The client and counselor perception of issues can be different in counseling. This needs to be
respected by the counselors.

Counseling is confidential. The client must be granted respect and dignity using the three
conditions of empathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard. Counseling is client
initiated and client driven. It must focus on the client and be to the benefit of the client.
Application of appropriate skills an the core conditions is the basis of a counseling process.

COUNSELOR – COUNSELEE RELATIONSHIP

The nurture of the counselor – counselee relationship determines the success of the counseling
interviewee. An effective relationship is therapeutic and leads to the counselee resolution of
problems.

Characteristics of an effective relationship

What are the characteristics of an effective relationship?
Firstly, an effective relationship reflects permissiveness, kindness and warmth. To be
permissive, the counselor need to have a lot of tolerance and indulgence with the client .as a
counselor be open and accept what the client says without judging it as necessarily right or
wrong. Most of the times we judge people based on our values and beliefs. Consider a case
where a counselee comes to you because they are in a temptation is to judge whether to
become a dingle parent. As a Christian counselor the temptation is to judge this counselee as
unchristian (as a fornicator). But in order to create a therapeutic relationship with this
counselee, you suspend your judgment, let the client be and value her opinions and
experiences. McKinney 1958 said that the relationship is objective where the counselor
accepts everything the counselee says as experience that can occur in human beings without
taking responsibility for it or without evaluating it.

The counselor – counselee relationship is also characterized by the counselor‘s unconditional

acceptance of the client. This means that the counselor should not prescribed or demand
compliance of the client. This means that the counselor should not prescribed or demand

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compliance to his expectations as a condition to accepting the client. In the above example
the Christian counselor may tempted to demand that counselee stops having such thoughts
because of her stand as a Christian. But as a professional counselor you accept the client first
because she is human irrespective of how repulsive her behaviour may be. It is Agape love. For
his counselee the counselor may show this acceptance by valuing the circumstances that are
leading her to want to have a baby out of wedlock.

In this relationship, the counselor‘s genuineness encourages and enhances counselee‘s self
disclosure. This is the degree to which the counselor is freely and deeply him/herself. It is also
the ability to relate with the client in a sincere and undefensive manner.

The counselor-counselee relationship is also enhanced by the counselor‘s expertness and

competence. This is perceived from his level of training and experience from his language and
from his verbal and non-verbal behavior. The counselor‘s language needs to show relevance,
concreteness and confidence. His interrelations also need to be relevant to the issue at hand.
Are the questions provoking, direct and relevant?

Counselor‘s attractiveness also enhances counselor – counselee relationship. This refers to the
counselor‘s friendliness, likeability and similarity to the client. Maintaining an open posture,
smiling and head nodding are some non verbal behaviors that contribute to attractiveness
similar to those being shared by the client enhance the attractiveness.

Finally, the counselor- counselee relationship is enhanced by the counselor‘s trustworthiness.

This is the client‘s perception and belief the counselor will not mislead or injure him in any
way (Fong and Cox, 1983). Here the counselee is finding out can he depend on you? Is there
consistency between your talk and actions e.g. promise keeping in areas of confidentiality and
appointments? Are you open and honest? Is the information being provided by the counselor
accurate and reliable?

Emergence of counseling psychology

Counseling in some way or another has been used by different people since the beginning of
mankind- by parents, teachers, friends, elders and so on (Fuster 2005). In the international
scene counseling before 1990 was in the form of advice or information giving. The industrial
revolutions of the mid 1800 spurred the development of counseling in the United States of
America to improve those affected.

In early 1900, the helping process was dominated by Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory. Jesse N.
Davis was the first to set a systematic guidance programs in the public schools (Aubrey 1977).
Frank Parons founded Boston‘s vocational bureau and worked with young people on career
choice and decisions. This institutionalized vocation guidance. Clifford Beers advocated better
facilities and reform in the treatment of the mentally ill. The 1910‘s saw the founding of the
National Vocational Guidance Association, he passing of the Smith Hughes Act and the
development of psychological instruments such as army alpha beta intelligence tests. Regular
bulletins were published by the NVGA and funding for public schools in support of vocational
education was given.

The 1920‘s gave exclusive emphasis of vocational guidance in education courses for
counselors. Counselors were certified in Boston and New York and standards developed for
preparation and evolution of occupational materials. Publication of new psychological
instruments was accomplished as well as the establishment of the first marriage and family-
counseling center in New York by Abraham and Hannah Stone.

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The great depression of the late 1930‘s influenced the researchers and practitioners to
emphasize helping and counseling methods related to employment. Counseling and guidance
was incorporated into the school curriculum as a subject at the proposal of Brewer in 1932.
the US Employment service was also established.

In the 1940‘s Carl Rogers challenged the Freudian psychoanalysis and Williamson‘s counselor
centered approach. He emphasized on the client and the nondirective approach. The US
government realized the need for counselors and psychologists to help in selection and training
of specialists for the military, after the advent of world War 2.

The 1950‘s have been singled out for the most profound impact on counselors (Aubrey 1977).
The American Personnel and Guidance Association an Division of counseling and psychology of
the American Personnel Association were established. The National Defense Education Act was
passed promoting and funding development of counseling. New theories also emerged such as
behavioral theories, cognitive theories and transitional analysis.

In the 1960‘s theories on humanistic counseling by Abraham Maslow among others emerged an
emphasis was given to behavioral counseling. Sound code for counselors was published by
APGA in 1961. The government funded the establishment of counseling and personnel clearing
house in the University of Michigan and sponsored conferences in counseling.

After the 1970‘s counseling diversified into other settings such as the mental health centers
and community agencies. Counselor education programs increased and new concepts of
counseling developed. Helping skills were developed. Counselors wee given state licenses
through the APGA and educational standard s for masters degree and Doctoral in counseling
were set.

In Kenya, the traditional culture and structures in place ensured that guidance and counseling
took place throughout the life of a person. This done thorough song, dance, games and co-
education. Advisory councils, who represented the community at large offered education,
guidance and counseling in a formal way during the rites of passages from one stage in life to
another. At circumcision, counseling was done through the sponsor where the initiate opened
up to the sponser before the rite so that if he or she has broken any of the prohibitions of the
Kikuyu social code the service of a family purifier would be sought Kenyatta (1978).

African people were also ‗notoriously‘ religious. Everything they did was ritualized and a
prayer offered for it either as an individual or a community. Prayer was an act of pouring out
the soul of the individual community. Prayers help remove personal and communal anxieties,
fears, frustrations and worries. The medicine man acted not only as a doctor but also as a
listener to people‘s troubles of all kinds and as their counselor or advisor (Mbiti 1991).

In Kenya, development of formal counseling started in the 1970‘s and early 1980‘s when the
Ministry of Education realized the need for teachers to have some counseling skills to assist
their students go through the developmental stages in life. It was then that the unit of
guidance and counseling was introduced into the schools‘ training curriculum. The Ministry of
Education also gave the definition of guidance in 1971.

Counseling was however not taken seriously until in the 1980‘s when the reality of HIV/\AIDS
pandemic hit Kenya. It is only then that the various institutions such as the church and Health

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providers realized the need to counsel their members on the impact of the pandemic to the
affected and infected. Counseling was introduced as a unit in the training programs for
religious clergy and hospital staff. Voluntary counseling and testing centers for HIV were
introduced in most health institutions. The Government of Kenya was also actively involved in
activities aimed at curbing the pandemic. This was direct interventions being funded by the
government, counseling continues to be part of these interventions.

The 1998 incident of the bomb blast that targeted the US Embassy and saw death of thousands
of people in and around the affected buildings was a wakeup call for Kenya in as far as disaster
management is concerned. The need for counseling skills in the area of debriefing and trauma
counseling was greatly felt. This made people start to appreciate the services provided by the
counseling institution.

The need to have properly trained counselors from all walks was felt and led to the inception
of the Kenya Association of Professional counselors in 1991, whose aim is the provision of
training information research and membership activities in sub-Saharan Africa.
The Kenya counseling association was also formed in the 1990‘s as a professional body, for
counselors in Kenya. It has provided the code of ethics within which counselors in Kenya
operate. It has been involved in the development of a core curriculum for counseling training
and provides a network where counselors share experiences. In 2007 the psychologists and
counselors bill was passed in parliament and this set the stage for its final enactment as an Act
of Parliament. This was a major milestone in the development of counseling in Kenya.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO NEED FOR COUNSLEING

To be very dynamic in order to cope and fit. This bound to cause adjustment problems both in
the domestic, social and workplace circles.
Another factor is the social and vocational mobility due to industrialization. This means that
there is more movement among people both locally and internationally in search education
and work. There is need adjust to the different culture, languages and people‘s was of doing
things. This causes anxiety, stresses and other individual problems that require assistance in
resolving.

Economic changes and challenges also contribute to need for counseling. Economic
development has led to wide range of occupations to choose from. These are highly dynamic.
There is also change unemployment patterns and trends, as well as in industrialization and
automating. This leads to confusion in the individual about to the job market, and also the one
willing to sustain or advance in his current job.

Assistance is needed to make appropriate choice.

The emergence of human rights movement has emphasized on the concern for an individual‘s
freedom, rights, dignity and worth as a human being. The highly traditional an conventional
lifestyle where the social aspect was emphasized and people assisted and shared each others‘
problems has been replaced by the modern way of doing things.

This liberalization and democracy has left the individual with more anxiety and need for
counseling where they can be listened to and offered some form of support as they sort out
their problems.

The need to be mentally healthy is also a factor that contributes to need for counseling.
Mental health is not just absence of disease. According to Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow a
mentally healthy person has a positive self concept and is motivated to strive for self

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actualization. Mental health is mandatory is order to able to respond constructively to stress
and change. As people become more informed about integrated care for the body, mind and
spirit and how each of these parts affects their total health, the more they fell the need for
mental health counseling.

Test your understanding

1. Define counseling
2. How similar or different is counseling from what you expected? Expect your answer
fully.
3. What is your on the role of giving advice to the client?
(a) Because I see the counseling process is helping the client I would freely give advice
if I thought this is what the client wanted.
(b) I would rarely, if ever give advice, for even if advice was good, it would tend to
make the client dependant on me.
c) If I did not give advice I would not feel though I was helping the client.
d) I think I would tend to give advice to client when I client when I has strong
preference for a direction I hoped he or she should choose.
4. All of us need guidance but not all of us need counseling. Do you agree with this
statement.
5. Guidance can lead to counseling. Discuss.
6. Counseling and psychotherapy are terms that are often confused to mean the
same thing. What are the similarities and differences of the two?
7. List and discuss the principles of counseling.
8. Mr. Kamau is a parent in Maji Mazuri High school. His son has dropped in
performance and the class teacher says that his concentration in class has also
dropped. She recommends counseling for him. Mr. Kamau on the other hand
feels that counseling is a waste of time and resources. What would you advice
be to Mr. Kamau?
9. How many branches are there in counseling? Discuss any two of them.
10. A teacher informs as you that one of her students. Mary frequently comes to
class with bruises and cuts on her body. She has talked with the other students
about Mary‘s conditions and they report that she comes from a poor home and
that her parents beat her severely. The teacher has tried to talk to Mary about
the bruises and cuts, but she will to say a word about them. The teacher is
firmly convinced that Mary is suffering from child abuse and wants you as a
principal to do something. What do you do?
11. You have been asked to give a talk in you local church on the history of
counseling. What are some of the issues you will talk about in your speech?

Chapter two
Techniques of counseling for social work
Introduction
This unit focuses on the counseling techniques used in social work. These include the
techniques used in the face-to-face interview and in the group interview.
By the end of this of this chapter you will be able to explain the different areas of counseling.
You will also e able to list and discuss the techniques used in counseling for social work in both
the face to face and group counseling. You will be in apposition to discuss in detail the
interview in counseling and the counseling skills.

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Family counseling
This counseling deal with the individual who seeks to be helped to deal with his/her issues.
These range form relationship problems, domestic or work related problems.

Family group counseling

Family group counseling reaches out to families of counselees with behavioral problems. They
provide social services and assistance to improve the social psychological functioning of
families and to maximize their well-being.

Family counseling
This counseling deals with families that are in problems. It is concerned with the family system
and changes that can be made in that system. The client is the family. The goal is to create a
new way of living – express emotion, healthy family relations and responding (not reacting) to
the system.

Child, family, and school counselors/social workers

This counseling provides social services and assistance to improve the social and psychological
functioning of children and their families and to maximize the well-being of families and the
cadmic functioning of children.
In schools counselors often serve as the link between students‘ families and the school,
working with parents, guardians, teachers, and other school officials to ensure students reach
their academic and personal potential. They also address problems such as misbehaviour,
truancy, and teenage pregnancy and advise teachers on how to cope with difficult students.

Counseling the delinquent (Rehabilitation Counseling)

Delinquency is a symptom of emotional immaturity leading to socially unacceptable or
reprehensible behavior of youth e.g. petty offences, gangstarism, horror, crime, drug
addiction and other antisocial behavior.

Marriage counseling
It consists of three ghareas; pre-marital, better marital harmony and to eliminate or forestall
a marriage from breakup. The client is the marriage relationship. Marriage counseling is
usually a crisis intervention. Preventive aspect is dealt with first then intervention. Crisis is
mainly caused by intrusion of third party casing emotional turmoil, change of family structure
and illness in the family among others.

Career counseling
This counseling is concerned with empowering the individual to face the challenges of
transition in life situations. The challenges have been brought by the impact of education,
wide and attractive career and employment choices, affirmative action policies and self
sufficiency in economic empowerment. The counselor must be creative, innovative and
ingenious.

Counseling for weaker and less privileged sections of the society.

This counseling is concerned with the social economically weaker sections such as the street
children and families and those living in the slums. These are people with serious feelings of
inferiority that contribute to a dented self image. Special attention and care is needed. The
relationship must be mutually responsible with good communication and establish a dynamic
emotional bond and sustain it.

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Counseling for addictions
This counseling deals with individuals with substance abuse problems, including abuse of
alcohol, tobacco or other drugs. Such services include individual and group therapy, outreach,
crisis intervention, social rehabilitation and teaching skills needed for everyday living. They
also may help plan for supportive services to ease clients‘ return to the community. Substance
abuse counselors are likely to work in hospitals, substance abuse treatment centres, individual
and family services agencies, or local governments.

Medical and public health counseling

This is counseling that provides psychosocial support to people, families or vulnerable
diseases they can cope with chronic acute terminal illness such as diabetes,

Counseling at the work place

This is counseling for common problems as they occur at the workplace. Such problems include
performance related problems, relationship problems, career problems, stress and anxiety,
redundancy and retirement, organization change, and so on.

Techniques used in counseling for social work

Face to face
Counseling techniques are specific procedures and skills used b the counselor to achieve his
counseling goals and objectives. In this section, we shall look at theses techniques as they are
used by the counselor in the face to face interview:-

(1) Structuring
Structuring is one of the techniques. Structuring is done before the onset of the session and
also during the session. It is where the counselor explains to the counselee the practical
mechanics of the counseling relationship. He explains to the counselee what may take place in
the counseling session. This includes explaining the limits of counseling, the roles of counselor
and counselee, the length and frequency of the sessions, the fees and the goals of counseling.
This helps to dispel misconceptions and anxiety. Consider a situation where the counselee
expects to be advised on their issues or to be given material help or even expecting the
counselor to make decisions for them. This is clearly a misconception which is only cleared by
the counselor when he explains the role and goal of counseling.

(2) Degree of lead

This is the kind of communication verbal or otherwise made by the counselor to help invite,
direct or prod the client towards making a response. The counselor may use silence as an
indication to the counselee that he is listening and ready to receive what the counselee has to
say.

The counselor may also restate what the counselee has said in a question like tone. Consider
this example:
Counselee: I do not know what to do. I am so confused!
Counselor: You are so confused?
Counselee: Yes. My husband keeps quarrelling me……

The counselor may also reflect thee feelings that the counselee is trying to express back to
them. This encourages the client to understand his feeling and talk more about it. An example
would be:-
Counselee: My boss made noise at me yesterday and I felt bad.

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 Counselor: You felt very annoyed with your boss because he made
noise at you.
Counselee: Yes I felt angry because he criticized me in front of the
junior staff. And you see it was not the first time he was doing that.
The counselor may also use verbal statements like ―yes go on‖ or ―tell me more about it‖ to
encourage the client to continue talking.

(3) Timing of when an intervention

Another technique in face to face interview regards to timing of when to apply an
intervention. This implies that counselor needs to do things at the appropriate time to
maximum results. He needs to know when he should or should not act for success in the
counseling process. For example, the counselor should not use the challenging or confrontation
skill until the client is ready. An indication that the client is ready to receive and
engage/and/or confrontation is when he/she moves form talking about others to talking about
self and from talking about the past to talking about not.

(4) Regard to content

Other technique is with regard to content. The counselor‘s main concern is with the being
communicated by the client and not on the content.

(5) Selection of feelings

Other technique regards the selection of feelings to reflect to the counselee in order to get
the counselee along certain channels which he deems important. For example a counselee may
verbalize anger and hurt at the same time. The counselor will have to get one of the feelings
that he deems important depending on the context and reflect to the counselee.

(6) Use of language

Other techniques regard the use of language. The counselor needs to be careful at the
utterance of his words. This must be free of any judgment. Use of tentative language is useful.
This is a language that suggests and gives the counselee room to agree, disagree clarify. It is
also called emphatic language. The following are examples of emphatic language:
Sort of hear you say….‖
Is like you were…...‖
Sick from you like you were….‖
Its like you have not resolved..‖

Group counseling
Group is made u[ f three or more people. One of the advantages of group counseling; lower
costs. The group members may be put in one hall as opposed to the many rooms required for
each person in individual counseling. The rime is better maximized while counseling a group.
The charges for individual counseling range form five hundreds shillings per sessions while for a
group of between ten to fifteen members the cost range from 2,500 per session. This has an
effect of each member paying about two hundred and fifty shillings only.

Other advantage of group counseling is the broader distribution of available counselors and
therapists. One counselor can handle a group of up to fifteen members at a time thus reaching
out to more people.

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Group counseling is also more effective than individual counseling as group members practice
new skills within the group and can benefit from the feedback and insight of other members
and practitioners and also offer opportunity for modeling. Corey 200:3

Type of group
The techniques in a group counseling is where the counselor has to decide the type of group to
form. The group may be either a close or an open one. According to Corey 2000 p 91, a closed
group is one where no new members are added for the determined duration of this life. This
offer stability of membership, enhancing continuity, and cohesion. Members are able to
discuss and share openly and freely, thus enhancing the therapeutic effect.

An open group is one where members join and leave at will. New members replace the ones
who are leaving. The new members often find difficulty becoming part of the group and the
cohesion of the members is greatly interfered with.

Membership
The other technique is with regard to the membership of the group. This may either be
voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary membership is where the members make the decision of
being in the group have a commitment towards it and work towards achievement of the
objectives. However, when expectations are not met, it may be hard to pull out of the group
ad members May then find it a waste of time.

Involuntary membership is where the members have no interest in joining the group but are
forced by circumstances.
Yalom (1985) says that to benefit from a group experience, a person must be highly motivated
and that people with deeply entrenched unwillingness to enter to enter a group should not be
accepted.

Size of the group

According to Corey 2000, the desirable size of the group depends on factors such as age of the
clients type of the group experience of the group counselor and the type of the problem
explored.

Frequency and length of meeting

Klein, Brabender & Fallon; 1994 say that no systematic research data is available to answer
the question of what length of session is most desirable for what type of clients. At the same
time Corey 2000 contends that for adults who are functioning relatively well, a two hour group
meeting each week is enough to allow for some intensive work. The important thing is that as
the counselor you ought to inform the members of how long they can expect each session to
be. You can also adopt flexibility as one of the norms so that should the session extend a little
longer due to the issues being handled it may be taken well by the members.

Meeting place.
Another technique in group counseling regards choice of the meeting place by the counselor.
According to Corey 2000 privacy, a certain degree of attractiveness and a place that allows or
face-to-face interaction are critical.
The counselor needs to choose a place that is convenient to all the members. The place should
be relatively secluded and safe so that there are minimal interactions and enough privacy. The
sitting arrangement during the sharing is usually a circle or semi-circle . It enhances face-to-
face interaction. The meeting place should be made as attractive as possible.

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Similar chairs are used for all the group members to de-emphasize class differences. There
should be no tables or obstacles in between. The group members should be able to have a
clear view of one another.

Group duration
Another technique is with regard to the duration of the group. This varies depending on the
type of group, members and the group requirements. The duration for short term groups might
well vary from several weeks to fifteen weeks. Some closed groups that have long term goals
may last up to fifty weeks and some for over a year. (Corey 2000 pg 3)
The important thing for you as the counselor is to facilitate for the duration to be agreed at
the onset of the groups so that the members can have a clear idea of the limit.

Development
Another technique in group counseling is that of group development. One of the ways in which
the counselor ensures that the group develops is to have a theme for each sessions.
This helps the group to focus and to be systematic in its movement.
According to Shulman (1979) the group process should support open expression of feeling and
sharing of information relevant to the purpose of the group.
The counsellor also encourages group participation. Pavitt and Sackaroff (1990) discovered
that members expect leaders to be enthusiastic and well organized, to encourage participation
and to suggest procedures. This is fulfilled by the counselor asking a member to participate in
the starting and when he/she finishes to prompt the neighbour to also share and in turn
prompt the other neighbour. This goes on until all have shared. This is called sharing in
around. The counselor also directs the sharing through giving instructions or a structured
question to which the members will respond. According to Brandler and Roman (1991:4)
sharing ideas and experiences fosters an atmosphere in which many positive in which many
positive changes may occur. First, there is a sense of validation, of belonging, of universality
of experience and feeling.
Group participation is also achieved when members are invited to respond to certain issues
that came up from the sharing of some of the members. All issues raised by the members are
equal in importance.

Keeping the group moving

Another technique in group counseling is for the counselor to keep the group moving using
several interventions. These are as follows:-
The counselor should call the group to order when the time to start the activities of the day
reaches.
Another intervention is effective structuring where the group is informed of the activites of
the day and the order with which they will follow each other. Time limits are also set.
The counselor also keeps the group moving by summarizing at various points what has been
achieved so far. This is done especially a the end of each round of sharing where the ground
covered is summarized.
An example would be where members had been asked to share an instance when they had a
conflict with their parents and how they resolved it. After all the embers have shared, the
counselor summarizes by saying something like ―From the sharing some of the conflicts
encountered are….(Mention them). Members resolved the conflicts through discussing with
their parents, changing their attitude….(Mention)‖
This gives the members a feeling of forward movement and motivation to move on.

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Skills used
Another technique in group counseling is use of skills. Like in face to face counseling, the skills
of genuineness, unconditional positive regard and empathy are used. (These three are also
called core conditions). Here as the counsel or you appreciate and prize all members fully and
unconditionally in a non judgemental way. As the counselor you are also involved in the
sharing just like the other group members. This enhances genuineness.

The application of the core conditions during the session facilitates deep sharing by the
members, and cleaning or purging of emotions, which according to Wilson (1999) can take
place with the group one member‘s ability to come to grips with a particularly painful issue
may stimulate others to deal with their own struggles.
Another skill used is structuring. This has been discussed in detail previously and is where the
counselor creates structure and desirable norms.

The counselor uses words of inclusion such as ―we‖ and ―out‖ to enhance the group‘s
cohesiveness.
The counselor also uses listening skills. These include active listening to the sharing of all the
members. Silence skill is also used to allow for purging of emotions by members. For example
when a member breaks down crying because whatever they are sharing is too emotional
members remain quiet to allow him/her to finish crying and recollect him/herself.

Questioning, exploration, rephrasing and confrontation skills are also used by the counselor
when responding to the members‘ issues.
The counselor also uses group termination skills at the end of the session. The counselor
provides a summary of what has taken place during the session and the ground that has been
covered. Group members are also complimented for their cooperation and participation (1999)
the group leader should reward group members for their cooperation and participation. Finally
group members‘ area asked to summarize the insights each has gained from the session. A
date for the next session in then set and agreed upon before dismissal of the members.

Group Dynamics
Another technique used in group counseling is group dynamics. One of the ways in which the
counselor ensure that all the members or an agreed quorum has been reached before starting.
Then welcome the members to the session. Members who come in when the session is ongoing
are acknowledged by being welcomed and updated as to the exercise that is being carried out.
This way all the members feel prized and welcome to the session.

Group dynamics is also enhanced when the counselor has an awareness of what is happening to
the group. This calls upon the counselor to be psychologically present for the members. This is
accomplished by active listening and silence skills. Which allows the counselor to know when
and which intervention to apply. The counselor is also able to tell when the members need
more time and is able to take appropriate measures such as extending the session time. He is
also able to tell when certain members need further follow up in individual counseling and he
advises them on the same.

Interview in counseling
Interview is a face technique of obtaining information for a variety of purposes. However, the
counseling interview has therapy as its goal.
One of the basic requisites of an interview is that the interviewer must create a rapport by
building trust and confidence of the interviewee. Creating rapport means:-
 Being friends – crating a friendly atmosphere

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  Being welcoming – making a counselee feel at home
 Being open in introducing yourself – name and simple background
 Being respectful – treating a counselee as a respected human being
 Wanting to know the counselee‘s name and background
 Accepting the counselee as he or she is
 Being appropriately dressed
 Being honest – showing a measure of trust and reliability
 Being able to conduct oneself with a measure of confidence
 Assuming the counselee with a measure of confidentiality

First counseling session

The first encounter with a counselee is of great importance. The counselee is usually very
sensitive to the counselor‘s manners, observing to see if he/she is friendly and non-
judgmental. The first meeting will set the style and tone for the kind of interaction which will
follow. It is essential for the counselor and the counselee to understand that they are entering
into a professional relationship which is different from a social one, although personal issues
will be discussed and feelings may be aroused in both of them.

Sine one of the major goals of counseling is to help the individual understand her/himself
better through self exploration, the atmosphere created must be one in which the counselee
feels free to talk about the most sensitive issues, even some of which she/he may not be
initially aware of.

Counseling room
Counseling is done preferably in a room and in a quiet place where the counselor and the
counselee can talk in confidence. A counseling room needs to have few materials such as
pictures and any other that may distract the attention of the counselee. The counselor sits in
a position favorable to help observe the counselee‘s body language.

Counselor‘s sitting position – SOLER or ROLES

Counselee‘s comfort and welcome

A person coming for counseling is likely to be anxious and to be wondering what to expect
from the counselor. He/she may be thinking of a situation like that of a doctor and a patient
where the doctor does mot of the questioning and makes the decisions. It is important to
differentiate the two settings. The counselor should rise when the counselee comes into the
room. He/she should introduce him/herself, ask for the counselee‘s name and offer him/her a
chair. It is important to the counselee to know how much time you will have together and that
confidentiality will be maintained.

There is considerable advantage in sitting on a similar chair without table between as this de-
emphasizes differences in status. A table or desk may create a viewing of authority and act as
a barrier to successful counseling.
Invite the counselee to talk by asking him/her questions like ―Would you like to share with me
your areas of concern‖? or ―What can I do for you?‖ it is not appropriate to say to the
counselee ―tell me what your problem is.‖
During the interview the counselor assumes the attitude of an interested, sympathetic and
friendly listener. He does not judge or evaluate the counselee‘s statements. He makes him
aware of being unconditionally accepted. The counselor does not put any anxiety or stress on
the counselee.

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Counseling skills
The oxford dictionary defines a skill as the ability to do something well and expertly. In
counseling use of skills is important to enable achievement of the goals.
In counseling there are nineteen skills commonly used. In this section we shall define the skills
and explain how they are applied in the counseling process.

1. Attending Skill
This skill involves being physically and emotionally present. It is having uncluttered and
focused thoughts. It involves paying careful attention to client‘s words and actions. (Carkhuff
R, 2000).
Attending is accomplished by the counselor‘s position explained by SOLER or ROLES.
S – Sitting position R – Relax
O – Open posture O – Open posture
L – lean forward appropriately L – Lean forward
E – Eye contact without staring E – Eye contact
R – Relax S – Sitting position (sit squarely)
Attendance helps the client to be more at ease. It is comforting to the client when the
counselor pays attention to them.

2. Structuring skill
As explained earlier structuring is making clear to the counselee what may take place in the
counseling session.
The counselor and counselee agree regarding the fees, length and number of sessions,
confidentiality and limits to it, the place, time and venue among others.
Structuring occurs at the beginning and also throughout the counseling process and leads to
positive outcomes as well as minimizing chances of negative outcomes.

3. Unconditional positive Regard 9UPR)

This is accepting and caring of the counselee irrespective of how offensive their behavior
might be. It is an accepting attitude that involves respecting counselee as separate human
beings with dignity, worth and rights to their own thoughts and feelings. It is also suspending
judgment on the counselee‘s goodness or badness and accepting the counselee without laying
down any conditions.

Consider an example of a form two student who comes to you as the counselor because he was
caught sneaking out of school and in a drunken state. What is your first reaction? UPR is about
is about accepting and not judging this counselee (no scolding or telling him that he is useless
or that he is letting his parents down etc.)
The counselor will show unconditional positive regard to this counselee by being there, for
him, showing genuine interest and taking his point of view seriously even when it needs to be
challenged.
UPR enhances the counselor-counselee relationship as the counselee feels understood, trusted
and cared for. This clears the way for openness in disclosure of issues and feelings.
It also assists the counselor in the pursuit of the counselee‘s agenda.

4. Active Listening
In active listening the counselor listens and understands the messages being sent by the
counselee through what they say and what they do i.e. their words and their body language.
It is listening with the third ear (Reik 1948).

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The counselor listens to understand what the counselee is saying and communicates to him
that he has understood by summarizing and paraphrasing.

Active listening involves the counselor shutting out any other thoughts (such as thinking about
what you will do after the sessions or what happened in the morning or what you forgot to tell
your spouse and so on) and concentrating on the counselee fully.
Active listening establishes trust. This enhances the choice of the counselee to tell their
stories and share their inner world with the counselor. The counselee feels safe and
understood.

5. Silence
The silence skill goes hand in hand with that of active listening. The counselee should be given
time to talk and the counselor should be silent to allow this.
Use of pauses and silences enhances the capacity of the counselor to be a rewarding listener.
This makes the counselee to feel more understood and appreciated. The counselor pauses
each time the counselee stops speaking before responding to see if he whishes to continue.

6. Minimal Prompts
These are small verbal and non-verbal rewards-brief expressions of interest by the counselor
designed to encourage the counselee to continue talking (Richard Nelson Jones 2004).
Non-verbal prompts include bodily movements, gestures, nods, eye movement, smiles and so
on while verbal prompts may be encouraging sounds such as ‗aha‘ , ‗mmh‘, ‗sure‘, ‗yes‘, I see
and so on.
Minimal prompts are tactics for helping counselees talk more freely and concretely about any
issue as they assure the counselees that the counselor is with them and understands them.

7. Empathy
Empathy is understanding the thoughts, feelings, behaviour and personal meanings from the
counselee‘s internal frame of reference. It is being in tune with their perspective, seeing the
world through their eyes. It is responding as if within counselee‘s view points (Rogers 1957)
The counselor communicates to the counselee his sensing of her world through reflections.
That is mirroring the counselee‘s attitudes and feelings. Empathy shows and confirms to the
counselee that he has understood and creates a safe emotional climate for him to tell his
stories

8. Questioning
This is the ability of the Counselor to use probes to help counselees name, take notice of,
explore, clarify or further define any issue (Egan G 2002).
Probes may be in the form of statements, direct questions, words or phrases that are in effect
questions of requests.
In questioning always use open ended questions as these assist the counselee to explore and
encourage them to answer in whichever way they want and thus assisting them to understand
their internal viewpoints. Open end questions use the words what, when and how. Compare
the following examples:-

Open ended questions Closed questions

 What did you have for dinner that day?  Did you eat ugali that day?
 I wonder what your husband‘s reply  Did your husband‘s reply make feel

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 made you feel angry?
 Where were you when the accident  Were you at home when the
happened? accident happened?

Why questions should not be used as these judgemental and put the counselee on the
defensive.

9. Paraphrasing
This is restating the counselee‘s basic message in similar but usually fewer words (Stewart
1973). It is a skill that shows understanding, during active listening. Paraphrasing makes the
counselee feel understood and gives him a clearer perception of what he said. This gives him
a sense of direction and encourages him to go on. Paraphrasing is also a tool that the
counselor uses to test his understanding of what the counselee has said. If he is in agreement
he answers in the affirmative and if he is not in agreement he amends by stating the correct
thing.

10. Reflection of Feelings

This is expressing in fresh words the emotions and feelings stated on strongly implied by the
counselee. It involves feeling with the counselee‘s flow of emotions and experience and
communicating this back to him.
Reflection of feelings assists the counselee to focus on feeling rather than on content. It also
assists him to bring vaguely expressed feelings into clearer awareness.

Counselee: I would not believe it when my sister said that I had burnt the food on purpose. I
thought that she understands me better than that and that she would be on my side.
Counselor: You felt hurt because your sister betrayed your trust.
Counselee: Yes……..(Silence and client cries).

11. Observation
This is the ability of the counselor to read the no-verbal messages from counselees without
distorting or over interpreting them.
The counselor should verify his interpretation by asking the counselee, or trough continues
observation.
Observation of counselee‘s body language adds to the meaning taken form the words of the
counselee. It may emphasize an support the verbal expressions or modify them.
Example – Counselee: I notice that your fist is clenched even as you are talking about
your son‘s behaviour
Counselee: Yes because he annoys me and I fee like beating him up!

12. Summarizing skill

This is the process of tying together into one statement all that has been talked about during
part or all the session or process.
It draws together the main threads of what has been discussed and clarifies what has been
accomplished and what still needs to be done.

13. Confrontation / assertive skills

It is an invitation to the counselee to examine thoughts or behaviour that seems to be self
defeating, harmful to others to both, and to change that behaviour (Egan 1994).
It is used when the counselor experiences discrepancies in the messages verbalized by the
counselee, or between the past and present statements
Example

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Counselor: During the last session you had indicated that you loved one spouse and you would
not like anything bad to happen to him. But it is like now you are saying that you do not care
where your decision hurts him or not. I wonder what this means to you?

14. Concreteness
This is the counselor‘s ability to get counselees to be specific in what they are saying or about
their present feelings. It facilitates accurate and clear communication.
Example
Counselor: What exactly annoyed you in the speech?
Or
Counselor: I wonder what it is that you would want to see happen.

15. Genuineness
This is the counselor‘s ability to be freely and deeply himself and to relate to the counselee in
a sincere and undefensive manner. It is being authentic with counselees. Genuineness
facilitates the development of a trusting relationship between the counselee and counselor
and sets an example to the counselee to be honest and genuine in his sharing.

16. Focusing
It is not possible counselees to deal with all their concerns at once. There is therefore the
need for them to prioritize and focus on once concern at a time.
Focusing is where the counselor directs and guides the conversational flow into the areas he
wants (Ivey 1994). It serves to pinpoint the talk on something or an aspect that the counselor
thinks would be useful or productive to explore.
The counselor may do this by asking the counselee to choose an aspect on which to focus. He
may ask the counselee questions like:
―Which issues is more important?‖
―You have mentioned ……………and ……………..perhaps it might be helpful to focus on one
specific issue. Where would you like to start?‖
―Which issue is causing most distress?‖
―So we has identified that ……and it seems as though the most pressing issue is……………… would
it be helpful to look at that first?‖
―Which issues if tackled would lead to the greatest positive outcome?‖
―Which issues have immediate concern and which might be left out?‖

The counselor may also help the client to focus by picking out a word of phrase from the
clients‘ talk and repeating it with a question mark. Focusing reduces confusion and vagueness.

17. Self disclosure

In self disclosure the counselor shares with the counselee some experiences in their own life in
order to challenge and promote new awareness. It relates to the way in which the counselor
lets himself known to the counselee. These disclosures must be done appropriately, timely and
must be focused.

Self-disclosure helps counselees to feel that the counselor understands what they go through.
This enhances a trusting relationship. It also provides testimonies that people can change and
beat their non-desired behavior for example in substance abuse.

18. Immediacy
This is focusing on what the counselee is thinking and feeling ―now‖ an on what is happening
in the counseling relationship between you as the counselor and them. Immediacy is an

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important tool for monitoring and managing the counseling relationship. It is used when there
is tension, lack of direction, when there are boundary issues or when trust is an issue.
Counselor: It looks like we are on our third session but we do not seem to be making any
progress in as far as your issue is concerned. I wonder what this means to you?
Or
Counselor: I notice that when I mentioned what you thought about the relationship with your
boss you changed the subject. I wonder what caused this.

19. Advanced Level Empathy

This is he counselor‘s ability to discern and understand the deeper meaning sin what
counselees are exploring.
Advanced level Empathy is being able to perceive accurately the implied feelings of the
counselee (such as disappointments, helplessness, hopelessness, boredom etc) and to
communicate this understanding to him.
Example
Counselee: My husband had promised to take me to dinner. I prepared and waited
for him but he did not come until after midnight. He did not even
mention about the dinner and neither did he explain why he came late. I
felt very bad.
Counselor: It is like you felt disappointed whey your husband did not fulfill his
promise to take you to dinner. It also a\hurt you when he did not offer
any explanation. It really annoyed you!
Advanced level empathy fosters counselee self exploration and enables him to come to deeper
level of self understanding.

Test your understanding

1. The purpose of summary in counseling includes:-
a. To outline relevant facts, thoughts, feelings and meanings
b. To promote further exploration of a particular theme
c. To help both counselor and client find direction
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
2. Define the skills listed below. Give the purpose of the ach skill and explain how you will
demonstrate each.
a. Immediacy
b. Confrontation
c. Summary
d. Paraphrasing
e. Active listening
f. Advance level empathy
g. SOLER
h. observation
3. Silence and minimal prompts are skills used to encourage the counselee to talk. What is the
meaning of silence minimal prompts in a counseling relationship? Discuss
4. Counselor self disclosure occurs in order to challenge and to promote new awareness by the
counselor strength with the counselee some experience in their own elaborate.
5. The first encounter with a counselee is of great importance. Discuss how you would prepare
for the encounter and how you will ensure that counselee‘s co comfort.

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CHAPTER THREE
ETHICS IN COUNSELLING
Introduction
In this unit our focus in the ethics for the counseling profession. We shall start by first trying
to understand the meaning of counseling ethics and the principles upon which they have been
developed. Importance of ethics in counseling will also be discussed as well as ethical issues in
counseling. Types, uses and storage of records in counseling are other issues that will be
discussed.

By the end of this chapter you will be able to explain what counseling ethics is. You will also
be able to list and discuss the principles of counseling ethics and the importance of ethics in
counseling. You will be in apposition to discuss in detail the ethical issues in counseling with
relevant examples. You should also be able to enumerate the types of records kept in the
profession, how they are stored and their uses.

Meaning of counseling ethics

Ethics is a set of law or rules that govern that govern an institution or certain profession and
professionals regarding their behaviour. Professions such as the legal, teaching, accounting,
medical and so on all have set rules and standards that govern their behavior and operations.
Counseling ethics is the laid down rules and regulations that govern the professional conduct in
counseling. They are the set of moral standards that govern the operation of counselors.

Principles of counseling ethics

1. Respect for autonomy
Autonomy is the freedom of the individual to make their own choices and to decide their own
actions or destiny.
Individuals have a right to self determination. As a counselor you need to appreciated that
counselees have their own resources, capacity and potential. They are able to come with heir
own decisions on what to do when faced by certain situations

Each person is unique and reacts and behaves differently. The counselor needs to allow each
counselee to be different and independent. The counselees have a right to think the way they
want and to feel the way they are feeling even if others disagree.
One of the ways in which a counselor respects the counselee‘s autonomy is by respecting their
values and beliefs. As a counselor you must not impose your values on the counselee.

The counselee has a right to withdraw from the sessions as and when he/she wishes.

The counselee needs to make an informed choice when entering into the counseling contract.
As a counselor define your role and the counselee role as clearly as possible. Explain
confidentiality and its limits and all other relevant aspects such as fees, frequency and length
of sessions and so on.

Respect for autonomy assures that individuals are capable of understanding the implications
and consequences of he decisions or choices they make.

Can a child‘s autonomy be respected?

Yes when they reach an age that they understand their decisions.

2. Beneficence (Beneficial)

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This is the working to promote the greatest good to our counselees. Counselors have the
obligation to benefit their counselees through their interventions. Counselors must do what
they can to help their counselees.
This means that if for one reason or another you as the counselor are not able to be of
postponing the session or even referring the counselee to another counselor.

3. Non malficience (no harm)

This regards the counselor ensuring that he does no psychological harm to the counselee. One
of the ways to do this is to make accurate assessment of the counselee. Chose any strategy
and intervention wisely and use skills correctly. The impact on the counselee also needs to be
monitored closely.

Another way that the counselor ensures no harm is done on the counselee is by practicing
within the limits of his/her competence. If your level of training is for that of general
psychology and a counselee comes who has drug addiction problems, it is wise to refer them to
a counselor specifically trained in drug and substance abuse addictions.

Counselors also ensure no harm is done to the counselee by ensuring that they get regular
supervision of their work. The ode of ethics requires that a counselor goes for supervisor after
every eight counselee hours. This supervision must e conducted by an accredited supervisor.

Counselees should not be exposed to research or experiments which have high risks and little
hope for benefit.

4. Justice (fairness)
These are standards for fairness and equal distribution of costs and benefits. We need to treat
all counselees equally despite their race, gender, religion, status and so on. As counselors we
should display respective and unbiased attitude when counseling counselees.

5. Fidelity
This is promise keeping and the value of trust, which is paramount in maintaining a good
working relationship. It is about enhancing disclosure and being loyal to the counselee and to
the profession.

Fidelity is about not abandoning our counselees in the middle of the counseling contract. Any
situations that may arise making the counselor unable to attend a session or continue with the
contract need to be communicated to the counselee in good time. Examples include going
outside the country, being sick or being held up by emergency situations. Proper arrangements
for referral need to be made if necessary.
Fidelity principal relates to the existence of loyalty, reliability, dependability and acting in
good faith.

Importance of ethics in counseling

Ethics in counseling provide a framework for counselors to consult when faced with ethical
dilemma or uncertainty.
Ethics promote standards of practice and quality of service available to counselees. They
establish a framework within which malpractice can be identified and disciplinary procedures
applied.
Ethics enhance the image of counseling-Counseling code of ethics focus discussion on ethical
issues for future improved codes and standards of practice.

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Ethics provide a mechanism for self regulation and self governing of the organization produced
the code.

Ethical issue sin counseling

Generally, any involvement by a professional with a counselee, that may impair his judgment
or result in exploitation or harm to the counselee is considered unethical. Specifically, the
following are ethical issues that arise in counseling.

1. Informed consent
The counselor is responsible for informing the client of the limitations of the confidentiality.
Disclose the limit of confidentiality to the counselee during structuring by telling him/her that
the only time when you will disclose his/her information to other parties is if there is danger
to. life e.g. any plan to harm his/her life or anybody else‘s life. Specifically, breaking
confidentiality is mandatory when:
1. Counselees pose a danger to others or themselves such as suicidal case, child/elderly
abuse, acts of terrorism and so on.
2. A counselee under the age of 16 has been the victim of incest, rape, child abuse or
some other crime.
3. When information is asked for in a court of law.
4. The counselee has a right to either consent or refuse to consent to counseling after
understanding the limits of confidentiality.

2. Confidentiality
Counselors treat with confidence personal information about counselees. Whether obtained
directly or indirectly or by inference. Such information includes name, address, biological
details and other descriptions of the counselee‘s life and circumstances, which might result in
identification of the counselee. Treating with confidence means not revealing any of the
information noted above to any other person or through any public media expect to those
whom counselors owe accountability for counseling work (incase of those working within the
agency of organizational setting) or on whom counselees rely for support and supervision on
issues of responsibility.

A counselor must not break confidentiality without the consent of the counselee. Safe
guarding information about an individual that has been obtained by the counselor in the course
of his practice is a primary obligation. Such information must not be communicated to others
unless certain important conditions are followed.
Clinical and other materials should be used in teaching only when the identity of the persons
involved is adequately disguised.
The confidentiality of professional communications about individuals must be maintained. Only
when the originator and other persons involved five their express permission should a
confidential professional communication be shown to the individual concern.
The counselor should make provisions for the maintenance of confidentiality in the
preservation and ultimate disposal of confidential records.

3. Intimate and Sexual Relationship

A counselor must not be involved in intimate sexual relationship with the counselee during or
even after termination of the therapeutic relationship. Engaging in sexual relationship with a
counselee whilst also engaging in therapeutic relationship is unethical.
Ethical behavior should make provisions for the maintenance of confidentiality in the
preservation and ultimate disposal of confidential records.

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4. Dual Relationships
A counselor must no engage in dual relationships with the counselees. This is when counselors
blend their professional relationship/role with another kind of relationship or role at the same
time or sequentially with a counselee. When there is dual relationship, there is potential for
crossing boundaries and not acting in the best interest of the client. Counselors are
responsible for setting and monitoring the boundaries between a working relationship and
friendship or for making the boundaries as explicit as possible tot h counselee.
Examples of dual relationships include assuming more than one professional role such as
instructor and therapist, blending a professional and non professional relationship such as
counselor and friend or counselor and business partner, bartering therapy for goods and
services, socializing with clients, accepting gifts form clients, becoming emotionally or
sexually involved with a client or former client and so on.

5. Counselor competence
Counselors commit themselves to basic training course in counseling and undertake further
training at intervals.
Counselors seek ways of increasing their professional development and self awareness.
Counselors monitor the limits of their competence. It is unethical when a counselor handles
cases beyond his/her competence. This sis for example when a general practitioner handles a
complicated case say in marriage and family or drugs and substance abuse, or any other
specialized area that he/she is not trained in.

Counselors with their employers or agencies, have a responsibility opt themselves and their
counselees to maintain their own effectiveness, resilience and ability to help the counselee
and to know when their personal resources are so depleted as to make necessary for the seek
to seek help and / or withdraw from counseling whether temporarily permanently.

6. Counselor Values, Attitudes and Beliefs

Another unethical issue is when the counselor imposes his/her own values, attitudes and
beliefs onto the counselee. The counselee must e respected. Counselors respect counselees as
human beings working towards autonomy, able to make their decisions and changes in the
light of their own beliefs and values.

Some of the areas that may cause a clash with the counselee are values and beliefs about
divorce, abortion, sexual orientation, religious orientation and so on.
Aw need to note here that for the counselor to be able to respect the counselee‘s values,
attitudes and beliefs, he ought to be clear about his own values, attitudes and beliefs and how
influences his work and the direction taken by his clients.

7. Fees
Overcharging of fees by the counselor is unethical. There should be a standard fee per
counselee per session. Let the counselee know the standard fee even if the session is being
offered voluntarily.

8. Creating Dependence
Creating unethical of fees by the counselor is unethical. The counselor should challenge the
counselee to explore their own resources in order to use them. Help the counselee to be able
to find their own solutions and be able to move on. Dependence is created when the counselor
offers advice, solutions and becomes too directive in the counselee‘s issues.

9. Improper Advertisement

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Another unethical behavior relates to the counselor giving improper advertisement without the
consent of the counselee. This includes publishing counselee material in books and periodicals
without the counselee‘s permission. Only after explicit permission has been granted shall an
identity of research subject be published. When data has been published without permission to
reveal identities having been given, the counselor assumes responsibility for not adequately
disguising the source.

10. Privacy where to meet

Ideally a counselee should be able to come to a service without necessary revealing to others
that he or she is there for counseling. Privacy during the session is of paramount importance to
some degree. Ideally, counseling should take place in a room with no one but the counselor
and the counselee present. It is important that others should not interrupt sessions and it is
best to ensure that telephone calls are not put through.

Role of records in counseling

Type of records
Counselors are encouraged to keep as part of their records certain information. These are
discussed here below.
A counselor must keep for each counselee written and signed consents to all treatments. An
example of an therapy consent form would be as follows:-

COUNSELEE CONSENT FORM

1/we ……………………………………………………………….agree to be counseled by ……………………………………
counselor and to abide by the following terms of contract:
1. To pay Kshs. ……………..per session payable before session.
2. To be committed t therapy sessions and maintain punctuality.
Counselee sign ………………………………..
Counselor sign…………………………….….
Date……………………………………………

A counselee intake form is also maintained. This usually summarizes some minimum details
about the counselee, the fees and some administrative information. An example is as follows:-

COUNSELEE INTAKE FORM

Code number of counselee…………………………..
P.O. Box …………………………………………………………..
Phone ………………………………………….
Next of kin…………………….. Phone…………………………..
Counselee Information
Age …………………… sex ………………………… Nationality …………………
Religion …………………………………Occupation……………….
Status ( ) Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) separated ( ) other …………
Problem and background
Presenting problem ………………..
Referral source …………………
Administrative Information
Time counselee is available ………………………………………………
Language counselee is comfortable in ………………..
No. of sessions contracted……………………….
Mode; Weekly ( ) Fortnight ( ) Monthly ( ) other ( )
Date of first session……………………

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Counselee code ……………………….

The counselor is also supposed to keep a record of the confidential information shared by the
counselee. This is supposed to conceal any information that may expose the identity of the
counselee. Counselee code is used in place of his/her name. This record is kept I place
different from where the counselee consent form is kept.

The counselor is also supposed to keep a counselee‘s record of appointments including those
not attended by the counselee. The reason for non attendance or cancellation of the sessions
should also be indicated.

The counselor should also record any consultation he makes with anyone about the counselee
e.g. supervision.

The counselor should keep copies of any correspondence from the counselee relating working
with him.

The counselor must record and keep any instructions give to the counselee whether he/she
acted on it or not. This may be in form of homework or any or any questions given to the
counselee to carry home for further reflection.

Finally the counselor should record and keep his/her own thoughts and feelings about the
sessions.

Storage of records
The counselor‘s code of ethics requires clients to be informed about the degree of security
under which records are kept.
Good practice suggests that records are kept with sufficient security to prevent them landing
with unauthorized people. This is ensured by locking records in a desk or cabinet. This
prevents interception by anyone with access to the room but it is inadequate against
breakages. In such cases use of safes is an appropriate alternative.

Another method of storing records is the use of codes exclusive for counselee‘s information.
The counselor may adopt a simple coding system that is easily understood by him/her. An
example of such as code would indicate the initials of the counselor, number allocated to the
counselee and the year when the session is held. If for example the counselor is Elija
Mkokoteni Ngari, and he is seeing the 50th counselee, and the session was in 2007, the code
may be something like EMN/50/2007.
Finally the counselor may use a split system of record keeping. Here two cards re maintained,
one with personal identifiable details including the code given to the counselee. The other
card has the details of the sessions and the code of the client. The two cards are kept in
separate places.

Records and technology

Technological advancement has been on the increase with the increased use of computers in
daily operations of most offices. This means that client information may also be recorded in
the comp0uter. This is done minimizing access of the computer to only authorized personnel.
The client records are also safeguarded by use of passwords that deny access to them.

Destruction of counselee records

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When the counselor is working for an institution or organization, he should follow the laid
down procedure in destruction of counselee records. These will detail the period of retention
of such documents and the method of destruction.
In the absence of such institutional or organizational procedure, one year retention period
might be appropriate. However it is important to note that where there are unresolved issues
a much longer period might be required. In the absence of better guidelines three years are
maximum time which the records can be kept hoping that if there are any legal proceedings
they will have been finalized.
While destroying the records, complete destruction must be ensured. This implies shredding of
the documents or burning them completely. At no time should the documents be thrown in the
paper basket whole or in a manner that predisposes them to being priced and read by third
parties.

Uses of records
Keeping of records by counselors is important as it summarizes what they have done with the
counselees. It is part of the professional way of doing things.
Records need to be kept safely. The counselee needs to be made aware that his/her records
will be kept.
Counselees should be availed the records as and when they request for them. The records
could also be released to the people allowed by the counselee. The counselor should assure
the counselee of the safety of the records.

There have been differing views on record keeping. Some of the views are in favor of keeping
client records while other views are against.

Test your understanding

1. My position on the ethics involved in the role of values in therapy is that:-
a. Counselors never impose their values on counselees
b. Counselors should teach counselees proper values
c. Counselors should openly share their values when appropriate
d. Values should be kept out of the relationship
2. If counselee evidenced strong feelings of attraction or dislike for me, I would
(a) Help the counselee work through these feelings and understand them
(b) Enjoy these feelings if they were positive
(c) Refer my counselee to another counselor
(d) Direct the session to less emotional areas
3. What might you do if your counselee had values sharply contrasting with your own, to the
point where you found that it interfered with your therapeutic relationship?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. The ethical codes of most professional organizations require the counselees be presented
with enough data to make informed choices about entering the counselor/counselee
relationship. What are some matters you should explore with your counselee at first and
second counseling sessions?
5. Assume that during an initial session with a counselee you determine this individual would
best be helped by a referral. If there are no referral sources available what would you do?
6. What information would you give your counselee about the nature and purpose of
confidentiality?

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7.What would you say if a counselee asked you under what circumstances you would break
confidentiality?
8. How would you explain the limits of confidentiality to your counselee during the initial
session?
9. Do you think dual relationships are an inevitable part of practicing in any setting? Explain
10. If you were involved in a dual relationship with a counselee, what procedure would you
follow to minimize the risk of harm?
11. In the course of counsel ling session, a youth tells you that he is planning to do serious
physical harm to his fellow student. What would you tell your counselee? How would you
proceed?
12. Your counselee is a 15-year old girl sent to you by the parents. One day the parents
request a sessions to discuss their daughter‘s progress and to what they can do to help. What
information can you share with the parents, and what can you disclose? What might you
discuss with the girl before you see the parents? What will you do if she makes it clear that she
does not want you to see her parents or tell them anything?

CHAPTER FOUR
COUNSELING PROCESS
Introduction
In this unit our focus is in the counseling process. We shall review the different models of the
counseling process. However, we shall concentrate ourselves on the three stage model where
we shall analyze the Gerald Egan three stage model.
At the end of the chapter you will be able to define what counseling process is. You should be
able to mention the various models, and describe in detail the general three stage model. You
will also be able to explain the three stages and the aims of each stage. You should be able to
discuss the Gerald Egan three stage model in sufficient detail as well as the challenges of the
counseling process an dhow to deal with them.

Meaning of counseling process

The Oxford dictionary defines a process as connected series of actions, methods and changes.
It is a forward movement where progress is observed.
A process is a identifiable sequence of events taking place over a period of time. Imagine what
goes on in a manufacturing plant. Material in put in the machine in one form – what is called
raw form or raw material. It undergoes conversion through different stages and finally comes
out in a totally different and improved form – what we call a finished product.
In counseling as a process as a term implies continuous change and changes that take place (or
should take place) in the counselee and that promote personality changes in a desired
direction.
This change includes counselee self awareness, behavioural change in a desired direction
which will lead to goal achievement and understating of potentialities and limitations and how
to utilize them best in achieving his/her goals both now an in future.
Successful and effective counseling may take 30mins, a few second or months. The sequence
of events, the dynamics involved and the nature and extent of exploration differ with each
individual counselee.

Stages in counseling process

Different writers have different views about the number of steps involved in the counseling
process. Some writers advocate for a three step process, others a four step process, a five step
process and so on. In this unit we shall confine ourselves to the three step process.

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In the three step counseling process there are three stages. These include exploration,
understanding and action. We shall look into each of these stages separately.

The Exploration stage

What is to explore?
According to the Oxford dictionary, to explore is to look for , to search in order to discover, to
try and find out something.
In counseling the counselor helps the counselee to articulate their concerns, to go far and
deeper in order to find out what is hidden. He helps the counselee to search within themselves
for hidden motives, thoughts and feelings that have been pushed away unconsciousness.
The counselor helps the counselee to talk about themselves and their concerns specific and
focused way.

What are the aims of the exploration stage?

Firstly the counselor needs to establish a working relationship with the counselee. For this
happen the counselor needs to accept the counselee unconditionally, reflective of how
offensive his behaviour might be. The counselee needs to feel valued and experiences will
appreciate and valued. The counselor also needs to be genuine empathic with the client. As
the counselor you need to show some expertness, attractiveness and trustworthiness. These
are discussed in greater detail previously the counselor-counselee relationship. It would be
helpful for you to revisit the section once more and ensure that it is clearly understood.

Secondly, exploration aims at clarifying and defining problems. The counselor and counselee
need to know clearly and precisely what issues and concerns they are about addressing. As the
counselor you will seek to establish how the counselee view themselves and their problems –
what do they believe? What do they feel? Who else involved? Help them to clarify what
concerns them.

Another aim of exploration stage is to enable the counselor to make an assessment through
exploration that the counselor collects and processes information from which develop the
counseling program. He determines the counselee‘s goals and expectations from the
counseling sessions. Using these he is able to plan the intervention and strategies to use to
provide effective treatment.

It is during exploration that a contract is negotiated. A contract is a negotiated agreement

between you and the counselee. Here the counselor and counselee must come to common
understanding that counseling is being offered, that the role of the two clearly understood,
and that there is an understanding of what the counselee wants to achieve and what the
counselor is prepared to offer. Details of what is contained in counseling contract have been
discussed in detail previously. You need to revise to ensure you understand.

For exploration to be possible the counselor needs to be able to create a rapport client.
Revisit the topic on first session handled previously and ensures that you understood.

Skills used in the exploration stage may be grouped and summarized as follows:
Core conditions – These are empathy, genuineness and unconditional position. Attending skills
i.e. SOLER or ROLES, structuring, active listening, minimal paraphrasing, reflection of feelings,
summarizing, concreteness, focusing at using and
These skills have been handled in detail in a previous section. It is important to revisit the
section, read and understand clearly each skill and how it is used.

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Ending the counseling session.

It is important to end the sessions on time. It helps the counselee to feel safe. Inform the
counselee that the session is nearing the end. You can say something like ―We have about 15
minutes left out of this session. Perhaps it would be helpful to summarize what we have talked
about today.‖
It would be beneficial to ask the counselee to summarize what has been discussed during the
session. You may tell them something like ―What will you take away with you today?‖ ―What
insights have you gained from this session?‖
Then provide your closing sentences that need to be clear and indicative that is time to end
the session. Remember to agree on the date and time for the next session.

The understanding stage

It is concerned with helping the counselee see themselves and their concerns in a new and
empowering perspective. This is the time you assess the counselee to adjust the frame of
reference and to adopt different views through challenging strategies. Challenging stimulates
the counselee to review and to question their current frame of reference and place a demand
on them, to risk facing aspects of themselves.
Challenging also helps the counselee to focus on concerns they may be avoiding or
overlooking. Challenging is therefore a journey deeper into oneself to clarify the impact of our
feelings, values, attitudes and beliefs on our current behavior and experience.

Aims of understanding stage

During the understating stage the counselor assist the counselee to reassess. This means
helping the counselee gain a deeper understanding of themselves and understand their
problems forma perspective that is more empowering.
Consider a situation of a counselee who presents an issue about how it is impossible to live
with her spouse because he is extravagant and does to support the family financially. During
exploration the counselee says that they do not talk about the family needs and each person
handles their money in the way they consider best. As the counselor you will assist the
counselee to reassess the situation so that she appreciates that is she could communicate with
her husband the family needs they could be able to work together in fulfilling them. This help
her to gain an understanding that what she needs to work on is communication and assertive
skills which will enable her involve her spouse in supporting the family. Her position changes
from that of helplessness and resignation to that of being empowered of seeing that there is
something she can do to resolve her issue.
Realize that to help the counselee to reassess the counselor needs t understand and take the
counselee‘s views and reality into account.

The second aim of the understanding stage is to maintain a working relationship. Remember
that as a counselor you have already invested a lot in creating a relationship with this
counselee. Remember also that the relationship is special in that some work needs to be done.
Understanding helps maintaining a conducive relationship as it makes the client feel free and
accepted and thereby able to question themselves.

Deeper exploration challenges the counselee to reassess their position and this is generally
uncomfortable. Consider our example above. The counselee came with the view that it was
the husband who was impossible to live with. But now she has to reassess this to seeing her
lack of communication as the issue. She has to let go her habitual way of viewing herself and
her husband and be prepared to change. This may be risky for the counselee. As the counselor

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therefore you need to maintain a supportive and understanding partnership. One that will help
the counselee to express and tolerate their discomfort and anxiety.

Another aim of the understanding stage is to pursue the work of the contract. Remember that
there is a contractual agreement between you as the counselor and the counselee. The
counselor should keep the contract in mind as a guide. This means that you continually ask
yourself questions like ―Is what I am dong helping the counselee towards fulfilling their
contract?‖ ―What am I doing to help clients understand themselves? Am I helping the client to
understand their concerns and to see possibility for change?‖

What strategies does a counselor use to achieve these aims?

The main strategy used is challenging. To challenge is to question, to dispute , to stimulate
and to arouse. Challenging facilitates deeper exploration.
When questioning we focus on what the counselee hints at or imply.
In disputing, the counselor identifies themes and patterns that permeate counselee‘s life and
communicates this to the counselee.
Stimulating means the counselor makes connections e.g between events.

What do we challenge?
Counselors challenge the way the counselee interprets events to make sense of and to fit their
view of the world.
Counselors also challenge when they notice that the counselee is overlooking resources and
deficits.

Challenging is also done when there is discrepancy in what the counselee does and says. An
example would be when a counselee says she wants to leave her husband but at the same time
she is organizing for a repainting of their house. The counselor would ask something like ―I
heard you say that you are planning to leave your husband and now you are again saying that
you are organizing to repaint the house. I wonder what this means to you?‖

Challenging is also done when there is lack of understanding from the counselee about the
consequences of their behavior. For a counselee who is in a dilemma as to whether abort or
not, the counselor would ask something like ―What are some of the things that would happen
to you during and after the abortion?‖

Counselors also challenge any irrational beliefs that counselee may have including the
inferences they make of them e.g. a counselee saying that all men are beasts.
Counselors also challenge underlying feelings that are not being expressed by the counselee
e.g. when a client shares a hurting experience and yet refuses to verbalize it.

How do we challenge?
Be tentative about what you are saying. This means telling the counselee that what you are
saying is open to his/her reflection and challenges. You would say something like ―correct me
if I am sensing like your husband‘s behavior make you very angry?‖ or ―I am sensing like …..am
I right?‖
Remember that we go by what the counselee says and we should be ready to be challenged.
While challenging the counselor needs to be concrete. This means that you state clearly,
precisely what you have noticed or thought about the client.
The counselor also needs to avoid blaming. This means that as a counselor you do not criticize
the counselee but instead accept and understand them.

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Accurate paraphrasing and restating what the counselee has said encourages and facilitates
self challenge by the counselee. When they hear what they have said being repeated they are
able to evaluate it and to see whether it is realistic or not and so on. Another way of
challenging is by offering conclusions drawn from what you have shared i.e summarizing.
An important caution to the counselor is that the needs to consider whether the client is able
to receive the challenge before using it. You remember the technique of timing in face to face
counseling? It comes in handy here!

What skills are used in understanding stage.

Confrontation skills – done through giving feedback and providing information. Other skills are
counselor‘s self disclosure, immediacy, and advanced level empathy. Again revisit the topic on
counseling skills for better understanding.

The action stage

The action stage in counseling deals with goals, actions and termination.

Planning and taking effective action are made possible by the work done at exploration and
understanding stages. Some counselees might choose not to travel any further with you. Once
they have explored their problems and gained a new view, they see clearly what they want to
do and set about how to achieve it. Others will need help to decide what change they want
and support while they try new behaviors.

The process of action planning includes a careful evaluation of alternative goals to help the
client reach a goal and then a mutual agreement to implement the chosen action.

What are the aims of counseling at the action stage?

One of the aims is to assist the counselee to decide on the appropriate change by identifying
the specific goal that he/she wants to take. The counselor also helps the counselee to check
that these changes will have the impact they want on their problems. Also confirm that the
outcomes are within their resources with costs and benefits that are acceptable.
Another aim is to implement change. The counselor helps the counselee to decide on what
action to take and to take that action. This involves exploring different options, choosing one
that seems appropriate well as timing and sequencing any action. Another aim is to assist the
counselee to transfer learning. Through exploration and another aim is to assist the counselee
to transfer learning. Through exploration and challenging clients to learn about aspects of
themselves and their behaviour. They may identify resources which they have not been using
fully, as well as skills which they need to develop the basic assumption is that they will be
able to transfer learning from counseling to situations outside of it.
Help the counselee to identify obstacles to change and planning how to overcome or minimize
those obstacles. It can also involve coaching clients in new behaviour. And the final aim of
action stage is to end the counseling relationship. The counselor and the counselee recognize
the loss of relationship as well as celebrating counselee‘s new learning. Counseling have an
opportunity to explore what the end of the counseling relationship means for them and plan a
good ending with you.

Strategies for achieving the aims

One of the strategies is a goal setting – This helps to generate and to decide and to generate
an optional change. Goals are what clients want to achieve action plan states specifically how
counselee will reach the goals.
In developing goals the counselor needs to ensure that the goals should be wanted by the
counselee. This is done by letting the counselee to tailor their own goals. The counselor tells

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the client something like ―After the sharing that we have done so far about your issue, I
wonder what is it that you would want to do differently?‖ or ―What is it that would want to be
accessible and observable. Sometimes the counselee is vague instating their goals. The
counselor needs to help them to be clearer. For example the counselee may state her goal as
―I will become a better wife‖. The counselor should seek more clarity by asking something
like ―I wonder what you will need to do for you to tell you are a better wife‖.
The goals must be in line with the counselee‘s values.

Another strategy in action stage is planning and taking action. Once the counselee has decided
what goals he/she wants to achieve he/she will then need to consider them. The counselor
helps them identify as many options as possible. Brainstorming here is very useful. The
counselor asks the counselee something like ―What are some of the things you can do in order
to.?‖
The client may fail to change and remain trapped in their limited options for action. This
process of identifying an choosing the suitable action plan demands that you continue to
explore with and challenge the client.
Some clients may avoid certain possibilities for action because of their untested beliefs.
Others may be responding to outdated should, ought and musts which do not reflect the
current reality.
There are several techniques for helping clients to choose what actions out of many, and
possibilities to take. Balance sheets are useful for reviewing the cost and benefits, probability
of success of any action.
The counselor assists the counselee to review the costs by asking something like ―What are
some of the challenges that you will encounter as you…?‘

Sometimes clients are stopped from acting by having the skills. Here the counselor needs to
teach the skills for example problem solving skills, coping skills, relaxation skills,
communication/conflict resolution/assertive skills and so on. Sometimes the counselor will
need to model on the use of the skills.

Sometimes counselees fail to act because there are risks involved. There could also be
constraints involved. Sometimes the rewards are not perceived as great enough. There are also
times when the counselee wants a perfect action plan.

The final strategy in action stage s taking action in counseling. Here the counselor helps the
counselee to identify a suitable reward system. A reward is suitable if it fits the counselee‘s
values, if it is adequate and if it is realistic.
The counselor also helps the counselee to establish a support system e.g. a family, church,
friends, colleagues, AA, NA etc. these are people to whom the counselee can turn to when
they feel anxious or like giving up.

Gerard Egan‘s Three Stage Module

Stage I – Current Scenario
In this stage the counselee to understand their present state of affairs. Allow the client to tell
the story uninterrupted.
Ask questions: where are you in life now? What is going on in your life now?
In telling their story the counselee gets an undistorted picture of themselves and their
problems.
Help identify the areas causing the problems to the counselee form seeing themselves, their
problem situation and their unexplored opportunities as they really are. A counselee may for

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example be blaming others for his relationship difficulties while in reality it is his hostile and
rude attitudes that keep others away from him.
Ask questions such as:
What is causing the situation? What are the problems, issues, concerns or undeveloped
opportunities that the counselee should be working on?

Finally in this stage the counselor helps the counselee choose the right problems and /or
opportunities to work on. The counselee may be having a range of issues. The counselor helps
them to work on issues that will make a difference. This is called leverage. The question being
answered is: How do you get out the situation?
Stage I may therefore be summarized in the diagram below.

CURRENT SCENARIO

STORY

BLIND SPOT

LEVERAGE

Stage II – preferred Scenario

This stage is concerned with helping the counselee determine outcomes. The question seeking
to be answered is what solutions make sense for me? The counselee is helped to explore and
choose possibilities for better future.
The first step as a counselor is to help the client use their imagination and brainstorm
possibilities for a better future.
Question that may be asked include:
―What would you ant your future to look like?‖
―What would your relationship life look like if it were not intolerable?‖ or ―……….. if there
were less fights with people?‖
Secondly, the counselor helps the counselee to turn these possibilities into goals – the
counselee‘s agenda for change. Questions to ask here may include: ―What are some of the
things you would do in order to have less fights with people?‖ ―What would you do differently
in order to make your relationships less intolerable?‖
The goals set should be clear, related to the problems the counselee has chosen to work on,
realistic, sustainable, flexible and consistent to the counselee‘s values.
The counselor them helps the counselee find the incentives that will help them commit
themselves to the change agenda. The question being answered by the counselee is. ―What am
I willing to pay for what I need and want?‖
The counselor may ask the counselee questions like ―What are some challenges you think you
will have to face as you listen more to others?‖

Stage II may be summarized in the diagram below.

PREFERRED SCENARIO

IDENTIFY CHANGE

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CHANGE AGENDA
Stage III : Action
Stage three deals with defining what the counselee needs to do in order to translate goal to
accomplishments.
Firstly the counselor helps the counselee see that there are many different ways of achieving
their goals. This is done by exploring various options.

The skills to be used by the counselor should be those that enable the better future for
counselee. They should also assist the counselee to heave creativity and divergent thinking.
Future orient probes and brainstorming are used.

The counselor then helps the counselee to choose the option that best fit their talents,
resources, personalities, environment and timetable.
Finally the counselor helps the counselee to organize the specific actions they need to
accomplish their goals. These need to be simple specific and time bound.

Stage III may be summarized as below:

ACTION

POSSIBLE ACTION (OPTIONS)

THE BEST

PLAN

Challenges in the counseling process

Types of challenges
These may also be termed as difficult moments that the counselor may face in the counseling
room.

Silent counselee
One challenge is when a counselee remains silent. These are times when a counselee refuses
to talk or co-operate with the counselor. The counselee may refuse to talk to the beginning of
the session either because they do not know where to begin, or because they ‗fear‘ the

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counselee or just refusing to cooperate. At other times the counselee may suddenly go quiet in
the middle of the session. This may make the counselor uncomfortable.

Counselee breaking into tears

Another challenge is when a counselee breaks into tears. This may happen because of several
reasons such as when the issue being shared is very painful, or when the issue triggers some
pent up emotion or such like reasons. These may make the counselor uncomfortable and not
knowing what to do.

No solution to the problem

Another challenge is when a counselee believes there is no solution to the problem. Some
counselees come in with an attitude that their problems are too big or that they have tried all
ways of solving them without success. They have given up.

This may cause anxiety to the counselor and especially the counselor in training counselor an
results in their becoming ―stuck‖ i.e not knowing how to proceed.

Suicidal counselee
Another challenge is when a counselee threatens to commit suicide. This may make a factual
error about something a counselee had said earlier, or may pay prove incorrect information.
This anxiety mainly occurs when the counselor feels that always be right and must never make
mistakes.

Lack of knowledge
The counselor could feel challenged due to lack of knowledge on factual question. Sometimes
the counselee may ask factual questions such as the name of a special certain area, or the
effects of a certain condition or such like questions. The co may not be having the particular
knowledge on the spot. This may make him or embarrassed.

Reluctant counselees
The counselor will feel challenged when counseling reluctant counselees. The counselees who
are reluctant to discuss matters, show open defiance or express reluctance in passive ways.
This is mainly common in referral cases.

Counselor‘s gender
It is also a challenge when a counselee is not comfortable with the counselor‘s. The counselee
may say ―I don‘t think I can talk to a woman (or man) about this was expecting a woman (or a
man)‖.

Insufficient time
It is challenging when a counselor is short of time. It is important to understand the time the
counselor will take with the counselee. However there may be occurrence when the counselor
does not have enough time. This may be so when the cause up or brings in an issue when time
for the session is almost up. This may cause ….to the counselor who may not know whether to
defer the issue to future session or deal with it and extend the time.

Inability to establish good rapport.

Inability to establish good rapport is another challenge. A counselor may fail to establish a
good rapport with the counselee due to difficulties known to unknown to him/her.

Embarrassing subject matter

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There may also be times when the counselor is embarrassed by the subject are able to identify
areas in which they feel most vulnerable. The counselor may be embarrassed by the subject
matter brought by the counselee such as issues of masturbation, same sex inclination,
promiscuity, adultery and such like.

Management of challenges
(a) When a counselee remains silent
These are times when a counselee refuses to talk or co-operate with the counselor. If it
happens at the beginning of a session, it is best for a counselor to gently call attention to it by
may be saying ―I can see that it is difficult for you to talk?‖.
It is often that way when someone comes to see me. I wonder if you are anxious. You may say
―you know something, when someone comes to see me and doesn‘t really want to be here
she/he does not say anything‖

If silence occurs in the middle of a session, the counselor has to judge why it occurred. It may
be that the counselee is finding it hard to make an admission to a secret or that he/she
unhappy with the counselor has just reacted to a statement or an issue. The counselee may
feel guilty with the experience r may be experiencing self-criticism or searching for what to
say. It may be a moment for the counselee to reflect on a reality. There is need for the
counselee to reflect on a reality. There is need for the counselor to observe the expressions of
the counselee.

(b) When a counselee breaks into ears

A counselee who cries or sobs may make the counselor uncomfortable. The best way to handle
the situation is not to comfort the counselee to stop crying. Crying may occur for different
reasons: For some counselees it is a very healthy way to release of emotions. An appropriate
response is to wait for a while on feels sad. There are times when crying is used by a
counselee to elicit sympathy or stop any further exploration. It may be a way the counselee
tries to manipulate the counselor. It is best to let the counselee cry indicating that although
you are sorry she/he feels sad, it is nevertheless a good thing to express her/his feelings.
Some counselors will want to comfort the counselee by touching him/her. It is necessary to
understand the culture of the counseled by touching him/her. It is necessary to understand the
culture of the counselee especially when it involves the opposite sex. It is important for the
counselor to maintain the professional relationship distance.

(c) When a counselee believes there is no solution to the problem

This is an anxiety often expressed by many trainees and result sin their becoming ―Stuck i.e
not knowing how to proceed. It is important to remember that the primary focus of counseling
is the person, not the problem. A counselor can help the counseled in any situation to develop
mechanism to cope and continues on. One of the most appropriate ways to deal with a
counselee who insists on a solution to the problem as she/he defines it is to say that while you
may not be able to change some things in your experience, getting to know the person better
is always helpful and sometimes the perspective on things. Then the dealing with the
difficulties including the underlying causes of it.

(d) When a counselee threatens to commit suicide.

Many counselees who threaten to commit suicide do not commit suicide, but are desperate
enough to cry out for attention. A counselor ought to remember that it is virtually difficult to
stop someone from committing suicide. Panic reaction from the counselor may be more
frightening to the counselee. It is appropriate to say that while no one can stop a person from
taking his/her own life, you would feel very said if that was to happen. Those who commit

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suicide feel hopeless and feel that they have no relationship with anyone who cares. The life-
line that the counselor gives the counselee is that there is someone who cares and who may
give the counselee sufficient hope to want to continue living. Young people may threaten
suicide in order to manipulate a way to let things done their way. They are equality in dire
need of help and must be shown that there are other ways to attention. It is love and concern
that they need. The better the rapport with counselee, the less likely it is for suicide to be
committed. Much emphasis needs to be placed, form the very onset of the first session, on the
establishment of the rapport.

(e) When a counselor makes a mistake

Counselor may make a factual error about something a counselee had said earlier, or may
provide some incorrect information. The counselor may become embarrassed or angry and
something the counselee has said. It is important for a counselor to be honest to the counselee
and have basic respect for him/her. This is one of the kept principles of counseling. respect
and confidence in the counselee can be demonstrated by admitting that you have been
mistaken. An apology is appropriate if you were wrong. It is easy for a counselor to say ―I am
sorry ….‖.

(f) Lack of knowledge on factual questions

It is all right for the counselor that he/she does not know the answer but will try to get
information for the counselee. It is also appropriate for the counselor to identify another
source of that information for ht counselee. Evading the question or answering without
counselor is establishing with the counselee.

(g) When a counselee refuses help

The counselor need to probe to get a reason. This commonly happens where a counselee is en
tot the counselor and she/he does not believe she/he has a problem. If the counselee refuses
to talk in all the sessions he comes and is sad and unhappy, stress the positive at least she/he
responds. Express happiness that you have met him/her and that he/she may consider talking
another time. Suggest another appointment and leave it open. The counselee then has a
―lifeline‖ and may indeed come back.

(h) Counseling reluctant clients.

They are reluctant to discuss matters, show open defiance or express reluctance in passive
ways. This is mainly common in referral cases. The counselor may become anxious and feel
inadequate or become angry with the client. ―Counselor must learn to deal with him/herself
defensively in order to successfully cope with reluctant clients.‖ (Rao, 1991:pg 232)

(i) When a counselee is not comfortable with the counselor‘s gender

The counselee may say ― I don‘t think I can talk to a woman (or man) about this‖ or ―I was
expecting a woman or a man‖. The counselor may raise the issue in a manner like, ―I wonder if
you were expecting to see a man (or woman)?‖ or ―Some people are at least more comfortable
with someone of the same (or opposite) sex, but in my experience that usually becomes less
important once they get to know each other. Why don‘t we try to continue and see we get
on?‖

(j) When a counselor is short of time

It is important to understand and note the time the counselor will take with the counselee. On
occasions when the counselor does not have enough time, it is important to inform the
counselee and apologize, indicating that she/he will have to meet the counselee again at a

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specific time. It is important to make use of the time with the counselee instead of sending
him/her away.

(k) Inability to establish good transport

It is inappropriate for a counselor who fails to establish good rapport to end a counseling
session or refer the counseled to someone else. The counselor should seek for help from her
counselors in reviewing the sessions to understand better the difficulties. This may enable
him/her to understand what makes the counselee uncomfortable. The period of establishing
rapport vary some people take a short time while others take a long time.

(l) Counselor is embarrassed by subject matter

Counselors who have had more training on sensitive subjects are able to identify areas in
which they feel most vulnerable. When a counselor is embarrassed by the subject matter, it is
best to be honest with the counselee. The counselor may say something like ―you have noticed
that when you mentioned the fact that you are masturbating for a moment, I was taken a
back. That sometimes happens when people are not expecting something, but in fact, I am
glad you brought it up and may it would be useful to talk about that.
Test your understanding
1. How might a counselee‘s expectations affect the way they behave in counseling? What
can you as a counselor do to negotiate expectations with counselees?
2. How do you think you would tend to deal with the silence during counseling session?
(a) I would be threatened and tend to think I had done something wrong.
(b) I would ask the client questions and to get him or her going
(c) I would discuss with the client my own feelings about the silence.
(d) I would sit it out and wait for the client to take the initiative.
3. Name and explain the skills that you would use to challenge a counselee to review his
thoughts or behavior.
4. Mary has been sent to you by the headmistress of her school because of her
involvement in a wayward group. She is defiant to discuss with you as she says she has
no problem. How would you go about creating a rapport with her?
5. Which of the following is not an aim of the exploration stage in the process of
counseling.
6. The understanding stage in the process of counseling is concerned primarily with
helping clients to look at themselves and their concerns in anew and more empowering
light. Which is an aim of the understanding sage.
(a) To reassess
(b) To maintain a working relationship
(c) To pursue the work of the context
(d) All of the above
7. As clients approach the action stage in the process of counseling, some of them face
impediments or blocks from acting. Which is it that stops client form acting?
(a) They do not have skills
(b) There are risks involved
(c)There are constraints involved
(d) All of the above.
8. Discuss the action stage in the process of counseling. Focus on the:
 Aims
 Strategies for achieving the aims
 The skills to be used
9. Name and explain the stages in the Gerard Egan‘s three stage model.

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10. What are some reasons why a counselee will refuse help? How would you handle such a
counselee?

CHAPTER FIVE
ROLE OF COMMUNICAITON IN COUNSELING
In this until we focus on the role of communication in counseling. We sill define what
communication is. We shall look at the various types of communication in counseling
and the challenges in each type. Finally we shall look at the communication skills in
counseling.
By the end of the chapter you should be able to define what communication is and how
communication takes lace both verbally and non verbally. You should also be able to list
and explain the different types of communication in cousleing an the challenges of each
type. Finally you will be able to discuss the communication skills of counseling.

Meaning of communication
Communication is the exchange of a message or messages between two or more persons.
The message may be verbal, non-verbal or both verbal and non-verbal. For
communication to take place there must be a sender, a message and the receiver. The
message received may be different form the message sent because the perception of the
receiver may differ from the sender‘s perception.
The sender of the message can only be certain that is has been rightly received after he
gets a response (feedback) from the receiver. This again may be verbal, non-verbal or
simultaneously both.

According to Gichinga (2003) there are three components to the message, Each
contributing different portions to the communication. One is the spoken word (verbal)
that is said to contribute 7%, body posture and gestures contribute 38% while the voice
tone and the inflection contribute 55%.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN COUNSELING

Written, oral
This is the written or spoken message. In cousleing a lot of the communication that takes place
is oral. The counselor communicates to the counselee through the spoken words, and the
counselee also replies in spoken words. However, as we have seen from the explanation above
oral communication only takes a portion of the entire communication.

Written communication is also used in counseling as a form of therapy. This is used for
example in instances where the counselee has some unfinished business with someone who has
since died or who is beyond their reach. The counselee is asked to communicate to the person
through a letter and express their feelings about the business. While doing so there may be a
ventilation of emotions, after which the counselee experiences relief. A counselee who for
example still harbors bitterness towards a relative who has long died could be asked to write
to the relative, explain to them the event that brought the bitterness and finally express their
forgiveness to them.

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Optical ,pictorial
Optical communication has to do with sending of messages through a media that requires
one to use the sight senses to receive. This is mainly the use of drawings, pictures and
paintings to communicate. A lot of emotion is communicated through such pictures,
drawings and paintings.
In counseling optical or pictorial communications can be therapeutic especially when
used by children or counselees who are not very good in expressing their feelings
verbally. Drawing or painting can be used to ventilate locked up feelings and emotions.

Artifacts
This is the sending of messages through use of culturally held symbols such as drums,
cow horn, carvings and so on. These symbols hold a specific meaning to a person
depending on the cultural beliefs. Exploration about such communication to a person meaning
could be therapeutic to some counselees.

Body language, touch

This communication deals with how closely the participants are to touching, the physical
contact, and the body part positioning. It also deals with how people are touching one
another including holding; feeling, prolonged holding, spot touching, pressing against,
accidental brushing, or not touching at all.
Touch may be used as a form of therapy to communicate feelings of ―I care‖. It is a reassuring
gesture used during traumatic moments and also during grief.

Special/spatial
This refers to use of the body spacing and what it means/communicates. Social ,intimate and
personal distance is correlated with physical distance. Edward T. Hall in the Wikipedia
encyclopedia physical distance of 1.5 feet to 4 feet is considered as personal distance and is
normally reserved for interactions among good friends.
5 feet to 12feet apart if considered social distance and is for interactions among
acquaintances. 12 feet to 25 feet is public distance used for public speaking. The distance
maintained in counseling between the counselor and counselee communicates te kind of
interaction between the two.

Olfactory (smell)
The communication deals in the kind and degree of odour or smell detected by each person
from the other what it means to them. Different smell could be interpreted differently by
different people. While odour feelings are very personal perceptions, individual reactions are
related to gender, age, sate of health, and private affectations. Use of perfume by the
counselor could be interpreted as a turning on communication by one counselee while it could
be repulsive to another.

General observation
This communication deals with messages that the receiver is able to see or hear without
much effort. They have to do with the general behaviour, and presentation of the sender.
For example the way one is dressed can be easily observed, or the way one moves their
certain body parts e.g fist, lips, eyes and so on. The tone and quality of voice can also be
observed.
General observation about a counselee can communicate certain feelings an emotion and

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their intensity. It can also communicate and initial state of the counselee. For example a
counselee who comes into therapy dirty and shabbily dressed could communicate a
condition that may require further assessment.

Temporal
Temporal communication has to do with relying messages conserving the dynamics of
the present moment. It is communication of the feelings and demotions of the present
moment—the here and now.

Challenges of each type of communication in counseling

Some of the challenges of oral communication include the reluctance of the counselee to
talk which mean that the counselor may not be able to access that information.
Oral communication also requires that the counselor is able to listen very actively in
order to receive the said, implied and unsaid message. The counselor must also be able to
use the skills adequately in order to enable the counselee to explore deeper and get in
touch with the effective part of other communication.

Some counselees may not consent to written communication as they may find it too
threatening.

Optical and pictorial communication requires a counselor who is trained in interpretation

of pictures, paints and drawings so that they are able to monitor the emotions and their
intensity.

Artifacts communication requires that the counselor understand the culture of the
counselee in order to fully perceive and appreciate it.

Body language and touch cold send the wrong message and is prone to misinterpretation
and abuse. It also brings the challenge of boundary setting in the interaction of the
counselor and counselee. It presents an ethical issue.

Special communication presents a cultural challenge. Hall notes that different cultures
maintain different standards of personal space. In Latin cultures, for instance, those
relative distances are smaller, and people tend to be more comfortable standing close to
each other; in Nordie cultures the opposite is true. Comfortable personal distances also
depend on the culture, social situation, gender, and individual preference.

Olfactory communication is prone to misinterpretation and misunderstanding. A

counselor‘s use of perfume may be interpreted as sending some particular message. Some
smells and odour may cause feelings of transference in the counselee.

General observation may be misinterpreted. A counselor may classify a counselee‘s case

under abnormal psychology because of the unkempt way they look, while in reality the
counselee could have undergone some experience such as fire to his property and so he
has no clothes to change. Other observations may require the counselor to seek for
clarification from the counselee, failure to which he will misinterpret them.

Communication skills in counseling

Communication skills in counseling include attending skills. These communicate the

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counselor‘s presence to the counselee. These have to do with the room arrangement and
with the sitting position (remember SOLER)

Another communication skill is active listening which is purposeful listening. It involves

listening to both the said and unsaid messages. It goes hand in hand with the skills of
paraphrasing, summarizing, silence and reflection of feelings.

Another communication skill is that of giving feedback. This is providing the counselee
with information about how you as the counselor experience them. In giving feedback
you need to concrete, own your feedback, avoid blaming the counselee and offer both
positive and negative feedback.

Another communication skills is that of providing information. This is providing the

counselee with information that they may be lacking, and that could help them to
reassess their concerns. In providing information, ensure that it is brief, that the counselee
understands what you are saying and that you do not confuse the information with advice.

Other communication skills include self disclosure and immediacy. For the counselor to
use these skills effectively, he/she needs to ensure that the time he uses them is right. He
also needs to be clear and to the point i.e concrete.

Test you understanding

1. What do you understand communications to mean?
2. Sometimes the message received is different from that sent. What are reasons for this
distortion?
3. What do the following mean in counseling?
4. Optical, artifacts, touch, special, olfactory and temporal
5. Describe the communication skills used in counseling

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter we defined what communication is and how communication takes place
both verbally and non verbally. We also explained the different types of communication
in counseling and the challenges of each type. Finally we discussed the communication
skills of counseling.

CHAPTER SIX
SETTING UP A COUNSELLING PROGRAMME
Introduction
In this unit we shall focus on how to set up a counseling program. We shall look at the
stages in developing a society counseling programme and the role of a social worker in
managing counseling services. We shall also look at the impact of counseling in society. At
the end of this chapter you will be able to explain the process of setting up a counseling
programme in the society. You should be able to discuss the role of the social worker in
managing counseling services. You will also be able to sate the impact of counseling in
society where you will be able to discuss the challenges and their management.

Stages in developing society counseling programme

The following are the stages in developing a counseling programme. They have been

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adopted from Wango and Mungai (2007) guidance and counseling programme for
schools.

First a human resource network needs to be put in place. This is where the social worker
or counselor needs to identify the people in the particular community who she/he will
work with. These could be a group of other counselors or individuals or individuals in the
community who are involved in community work. The counselor / social worker will
coordinate the programme.

The second stage involves selecting a committee or team to coordinate the programme.
Members of the team cold include administrative structure representatives e.g. village
elders, chief, church elders etc.
This team will be involved in the panning, development and coordination of counseling
activities in the community. They will stock of activities or initiatives already in
place and consider community aspects or areas that require counseling intervention. They
are the ones who will promote the counseling programme and
give orientation to the community. It will be their responsibility to monitor and evaluate
progress and efficiency of the counseling activities in the community. This will be done
by evaluating the counseling programme periodically.

Stage three identifying the community needs. This is where a needs assessment survey is
conducted to identify what is needed and how it should be provided. A questionnaire is
developed and competed by a representative sample population of the community. The
findings of the assessment will form a basis from which to draw the counseling
programme.

Area to look out for in questionnaire include problems faced by the various community
groups, areas that require improvement and suggestions on how to improve. Collect
views of stakeholders and their expectations. These should be aligned to the survey
results and a report should then be drawn.

In stage four other stakeholders in the community are informed on the details about the
programme such as purpose of counseling in the community, the working relationship
and any other parameters.

This resolves all potential areas of conflicts e.g. the counselor‘s presence is not to undermine
anybody in the community but rather to work together to provide the counseling services.
Areas that require counseling in the community should also be shared with the
stakeholders. These will be drawn from the findings of the needs assessment survey and may
be broken down into the various groups in the community.

Stage five involves setting clear aims and objectives for the programme. These should be
practical and purposeful to the community. Some of the objectives would be to help build
positive self image among members of the community, to develop necessary life skills (such
as problem solving, critical thinking, decision making, assertiveness and others) among the
youth, to enable community members to develop skills on how to cope with other issues or
concerns e.g. HIV/AIDS drugs and substance abuse, unemployment, conflict resolution and
management, disaster preparedness trauma management, health, safety and security,
personal
social, ethnical, emotional and psychological.
Another objective would be to seek for specialized counseling services for issues beyond

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the counselor.

Stage six is about deciding on a target audience for each need. This is done by the entire
team.

In stage seven the needs for each group of community members are prioritized e.g. youth
out of school, single mothers, retired mothers, young married couples etc. these could be
counseled together. A counseling programme time table can then be
drawn for each group. Below is a sample of such a time table that could be drawn for the
youth out of school.

Counseling timetable for youth out of school

ITEM NO. TOPIC DATE SCHEDULED RESOURCE COMMENTS

PERSON
1 Self concepts Jan.
2 Drugs and substance abuse March
3 Entrepreneurship May
4 HIV/AIDS Septembers

In the eighth final stage the counselor draws up a community counseling programme policy.
This one should include the counseling that is being offered and extent to which the services
will be provided stated clearly and the issue of costs and how/who meets the costs.

Role of social worker in managing counseling services

One of the roles of the social worker is to offer individual and group counseling to the
Community / society.
The social worker also provides information on the counseling services available, role of
the counselor and sets boundaries of confidentiality.
The social worker also works together with the counseling team and entire community in
setting up the counseling programmes.
He/she keeps suitable record of counseling cases safely.
He/she continously briefs the stakeholders and committee on status of the counseling
program and reports on a regular basis on the members that use the service and gives a
general overview pertaining to issues or concerns to the administrations.
Another role of the social work is to liaise closely with stakeholders and committee on
other support services to be offered in the community.
The social worker also networks with personnel from other agencies for referrals and
accessibility of specialized counseling consultancy services.
Another role is to deice and deliver a programme of training for the counseling team as
well as peer counselors to support the counseling programme.
Finally the social worker continuously monitors, evaluates and reviews the services
offered.

Impact of counseling in society

Challenges
 One of the challenges is that counseling has not yet been appreciated as a profession.
 People are still looking at it as talking or discussions and do not appreciate its
 therapeutic or helping nature.

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  Society has misconception about counseling. Many people still think it is meant for the
 mentally ill and depressed. This has led to stigmatization of those who seek counseling
 services.
 People still view counseling as guidance or advice giving. This affects their
expectations
 even as they got to the counselor.
 People have not yet appreciated that counseling services need to be paid for, as they
 confuse it for a chat or discussion.
 Society is made up of many cultures which have different challenges, values and
beliefs.
 Counseling has to be dynamic enough in order to meet the different cultures in their
 contexts.
 Counseling empowers the individual thereby encouraging individualism. This goes
 against the African culture and way of life where the society was valued more than the
 individual. This has a negative impact with most societies disapproving counseling.

MODULE 2
Counselling

INTRODUCTION

Counselling is a concept that has existed for a long time. We have sought through the
ages to understand ourselves, offer counsel and develop our potential, become aware of
opportunities and, in general, help ourselves in ways associated with formal guidance practice.

In most communities, there has been, and there still is, a deeply embedded conviction that, under
proper conditions, people can help others with their problems. Some people help others find ways
of dealing with, solving, or transcending problems.

In schools, if the collaboration between teachers and students is good, students learn in a practical
way. Young people develop degrees of freedom in their lives as they become aware of options
and take advantage of them. At its best, helping should enable people to throw off chains and
manage life situations effectively.

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Unprecedented economic and social changes have, over the years, changed the ways in which we
manage our lives. Consequently, not all the lessons of the past can effectively deal with the
challenges of modern times. Effective counselling, especially in institutions of learning has now
become important. Boys and girls, and young men and women, need to be guided in the
relationships between health and the environment, earning skills, knowledge, and attitudes that
lead to success and failure in life.

The need for counselling has become paramount in order to promote the well-being of the child.
Effective counselling should help to improve the self-image of young people and facilitate
achievement in life tasks. Counselling should empower girls and boys to participate fully in, and
benefit from, the economic and social development of the nation.

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UNIT 1
Development of
Counselling Rationale

RATIONALE

Counselling, in different forms and with different interpretations, has existed in societies
for a long time. Counselling has now become institutionalized. Schools, for example, have to a
large extent taken over the task of providing psychological support to boys and girls.

The differences and contradictions in present-day counselling have their origin in the social and
historical forces that have shaped modern culture. People in all societies, and at all times, have
experienced emotional or psychological distress and behavioural problems. In each culture, there
have been well established ways and methods of helping individuals with their problems.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:


 explain what giving advice entails;

 explain the role of learning in African societies;
 trace the history of counselling in western countries;

 describe the purpose of counselling in educational systems;
 explain the role of counselling in improving the well-being and achievement of girls, and

children in general;

 discuss the different fields of counselling;
 describe the three stages of the helping model.

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CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Counselling in Africa
Topic 2. Definition of Counselling
Topic 3. Aims of Counselling
Topic 4. Fields of Counselling
Topic 5. Three Stages of the Helping Model

Topic 1.
COUNSELLING IN AFRICA
Most sub-Saharan African societies have, in the past, been held together by elements unique to
the region. The most outstanding of these elements are:
1. the extended family system, including the clan and the tribe;
2. chieftaincy;
3. taboos;
4. various forms of initiation; and
5. close links with ancestors and elders.

The village is the focal point of society. While each one of these elements is important, only a few
are used to illustrate the role of counselling in present-day sub-Saharan African societies.

Basically, traditional chiefs had multiple roles which included serving as a symbol of authority
and as a regulator. Since these roles were accepted and respected by all, there was a clear
direction in the day-to-day affairs of society. The elders, the chief included, were a valuable
source of guidance and counselling for boys and girls.

In most cases, the chiefs were regarded as a vital link between ancestors and the present
generation. This link was strengthened by the rituals, ceremonies and taboos attached to them. It
was easy to guide and counsel the young, since the rituals or ceremonies were also aimed at
preparation for adult roles in society.

The extended family, the clan, and the village, made society supportive. No individual regarded
him/herself as alien. Counsel was readily sought and provided.

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At present, sub-Saharan African countries experience many changes, which in turn have resulted
in the weakening of the structures of society. The most outstanding examples are:
1. a gradual shift from the extended to the nuclear family unit, or single parent family unit;
2. a heavy reliance on a cash economy in poor countries;
3. political demands and expectations;
4. a rapid rate of urbanization with a high unemployment rate compounded by a high
illiteracy rate;
5. a high population growth rate, which leads to large classes in schools;
6. the infiltration of foreign culture through films, television, videos, live performances,
and magazines, which are counter-productive;
7. wars, political instability and epidemics, leading to increased numbers of orphans and
refugees; and
8. moral decay due to elements from within and outside the nation.

Forms of Counselling in Traditional African Societies

In traditional African societies, counsel was given in various forms, the most common of which
were giving advice and sharing wisdom.

1. Giving Advice

Giving advice has been a common way of providing help for other people. The advice offered was
frequently instrumental in helping people to consider their future. In many instances, the extended
family was the main source of advice for girls and boys. There was usually no shortage of people
willing to share their wisdom with others.

Giving advice often promoted the dependence of the young person on the advice given. In most
cases, it was largely subjective and did not promote the personal development of young people.

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 Activity 1.1: Giving Advice
For class discussion:
1. Identify situations in the school where direct advice is given.

Group Work:
1. One person can play the role of a student with a personal problem; another
can act as a teacher trying to help without giving advice.
2. After playing the role, hold a group discussion.
a) How effective was the teacher at avoiding giving advice?
b) What methods or means did the teacher use to avoid giving advice?
c) How could the teacher have helped the student more effectively?

2. Wisdom
Wisdom generally refers to experience and knowledge about life and using them judiciously. In
African societies, it was considered the responsibility of elders to provide wisdom or counsel to
young boys and girls. The wisdom provided by elderly men and women was part of the
counselling function of the family or society for boys and girls.

Another aspect of wisdom is sharing proverbs or folk stories. A well-known African proverb is,
‘When elephants fight, the grass suffers.’ Folk stories about the ‘hare’ are told in many parts of
Africa.

Activity 1.2: Wisdom

1. Think of some wisdom you received from a family elder which had a positive effect on
you.
2. Think of a proverb told in your vernacular. Translate it into English to the best of your
ability.
3. Break into groups with 4 people in each group and share these experiences with one
another.

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Counselling in the Educational System

The ever growing complexity of society, coupled with social problems like HIV/AIDS and the
rapid development of science and technology, place heavy demands on education. The school, as
an important social institution, is required to adapt quickly to changing patterns, and help prepare
citizens for tomorrow's challenges. Counselling in the educational system should help boys and
girls alike, to develop their capacities to the full. These include intellectual, social, physical and
moral capacities.

Education and Counselling of Girls

Disparities in gender, social and cultural practices, beliefs and perceptions, are widespread in
many societies. Unless there are systematic interventions to remove the gender gaps in education,
half of the human resources in most countries will be underutilized. Socio-cultural beliefs and
practices in schools often discourage girls from learning and subsequently lower their aspirations.
The provision of effective counselling should help to improve the self-image of girls and boys,
and broaden their educational and occupational ambitions.

Activity 1.3: The Education and Counselling of Girls

1. List five socio-cultural beliefs and practices that discourage girls from learning.
2. How best can you change the situation and/or offset the negative effects of these beliefs
and practices?

Topic 2.
Definition of Counselling
It is difficult to think of a single definition of counselling. This is because definitions of
counselling depend on theoretical orientation.

Counselling is a learning-oriented process, which occurs usually in an interactive relationship,

with the aim of helping a person learn more about the self, and to use such understanding to
enable the person to become an effective member of society.

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Counselling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care and concern towards the
person with a problem, and facilitates that person's personal growth and brings about change
through self-knowledge.

Counselling is a relationship between a concerned person and a person with a need. This
relationship is usually person-to-person, although sometimes it may involve more than two
people. It is designed to help people to understand and clarify their views, and learn how to reach
their self-determined goals through meaningful, well-informed choices, and through the
resolution of emotional or interpersonal problems. It can be seen from these definitions that
counselling can have different meanings.

Counselling is provided under a variety of labels. For example, there are instances where
counselling is offered when a relationship is primarily focused on other, non-counselling
concerns. A student may use a teacher as a person with whom it is safe to share worries. In such a
situation, the teacher uses counselling skills, but does not engage in an actual counselling
relationship. The teacher counsels but is not a counsellor.

Activity 1.4: Definition of Counselling

Group Work:
1. Brainstorm in your groups and present at least three differences between a counsellor
and a teacher who counsels.
2. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

Topic 3.
Aims of Counselling
The aims of counselling are broad. They may depend on the situation and the environment, and
on training. The basic aims of counselling include the following:
1. To help students gain an insight into the origins and development of emotional
difficulties, leading to an increased capacity to take rational control over feelings and actions.
2. To alter maladjusted behaviour.
3. To assist students to move in the direction of fulfilling their potential, or achieve an
integration of conflicting elements within themselves.

57 | N S P S I C O L L E G E - K E R I C H O
4. To provide students with the skills, awareness and knowledge, which will enable them
to confront social inadequacy.

In a school, boys and girls face many difficulties and problems which may be expressed in the
following ways: withdrawal, unhappiness, annoyance, anger, inability to meet needs, lack of
knowledge, partial or total failure, inability to realize aspirations, anxiety and hyperactivity.
Added to these is the problem of HIV/AIDS for which a great deal of psychological support may
be required for boys and girls, particularly those already infected, or who are orphans as a result
of this disease.

Young boys and girls are a large segment of the population. It, therefore, makes strategic sense to
target them through guidance and counselling.

Counselling is important at this stage, because this is when boys and girls develop positive sexual
attitudes and practices. It is when students begin to understand who they are, and how they can
contribute to healthy relationships. They start to develop attitudes of respect toward members of
the opposite sex, and see how each community member can contribute to development.

Personal and social counselling should also assist in awakening students to educational and
vocational opportunities. The image of a girl in most African communities is that of a passive,
submissive person, who remains in the background. Generally these girls have a negative self-
image and a feeling of inferiority. This is increased by the attitudes of parents, teachers and
society. Personal counselling empowers girls, and teaches them to develop positive attitudes
towards themselves, and is marked by an ability to acknowledge areas of expertise and to be free
to make positive choices.

Activity 1.5: Aims of Counselling

1. Do all the difficulties or problems listed above carry the same weight, or are some more
destructive than others?
2. What are the three greatest drawbacks to the growth of young people today? List them
and describe how to minimize their effects.

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Topic 4.
Fields of Counselling

1. Educational Counselling

A term first coined by Truman Kelley in 1914 (Makinde, 1988), educational counselling is a
process of rendering services to pupils who need assistance in making decisions about important
aspects of their education, such as the choice of courses and studies, decisions regarding interests
and ability, and choices of college and high school. Educational counselling increases a pupil's
knowledge of educational opportunities.

2. Personal/Social Counselling

Personal counselling deals with emotional distress and behavioural difficulties, which arise when
individuals struggle to deal with developmental stages and tasks. Any aspect of development can
be turned into an adjustment problem, and it is inevitable that everyone encounters, at some time,
exceptional difficulty in meeting an ordinary challenge. For example:
 Anxiety over a career decision

 Lingering anger over an interpersonal conflict

 Insecurities about getting older

 Depressive feelings when bored with work

 Excessive guilt about a serious mistake

 A lack of assertion and confidence

 Grief over the loss of a loved one

 Disillusionment and loneliness after parents' divorce


3. Vocational Counselling

Vocational counselling is defined as individual contacts with those counselled, in order to

facilitate career development. This definition and category encompasses counselling
situations such as these:
 Helping students become aware of the many occupations to consider

 Interpreting an occupational interest inventory to a student

 Assisting a teenager to decide what to do after school

 Helping a student apply to a college or university

 Role-playing a job interview in preparation for the real thing

59 | N S P S I C O L L E G E - K E R I C H O
Topic 5.
Three Stages of the Helping Model
1. The Present Scenario

a) Help clients to tell their stories.

In telling the story, clients reveal and discuss their problems and missed opportunities. Some
clients are articulate while others may be mute. Some will be reluctant to reveal everything that is
bothering them, while others do so easily. The story needs to be told either at the beginning of the
helping process, or in bits and pieces.

For this to happen, counsellors need to develop an effective helpful relationship with clients. They
need to assess rather than judge their clients. They need to assess such things as the nature and
severity of the problem, other problems that are not discussed, the impact of the clients'
environment on problems, the personal and interpersonal resources available to clients.

b) Help clients become aware of, and overcome, their blind spots
and develop new perspectives about themselves and their problems.
Many people fail to deal with problems, or fail to exploit opportunities, because they do not see
them from new perspectives. They lock themselves in self-defeating patterns of thinking and
behaviour.

Using imagination and brainstorming as a means of problem management and opportunity

development is one way in which counsellors can empower clients. Challenging blind spots is not
the same as telling them that what they are doing is wrong. It is helping them to see themselves,
others, and the world around them, in a more creative way.

c) Help clients search for leverage.

Clients should be helped to identify and work on problems, issues, concerns or opportunities that
make a difference. Leverage includes three related activities.

First, the cost of the problem has to be considered in terms of the effort and time spent on it.
Secondly, if clients, when telling stories, reveal a number of problems at the same time or if the
problem is complex, then criteria are needed to determine which concern is to be dealt with first.
Lastly, the problem, issue, and concerns, need to be clarified in terms of specific experiences,
behaviour and affects (feelings, emotions).

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2. The Preferred Scenario

a) Help clients develop a range of future possibilities.

If a client's state of affairs is problematic and unacceptable, then he/she needs to be helped to
imagine, conceptualize, or picture, a new state of affairs, that is more acceptable. Ask future-
oriented questions like:
‘What would this problem look like if I managed it better?’ ‘What
changes in my present life style would make sense?’ ‘What would it
look like if it were better?’
Clients should be helped to find appropriate and realistic models. Another way could be to review
better times or become involved in new experiences. The use of writing fantasy and guided
imagery has also proved beneficial for many clients.

b) Help clients to translate possibilities into viable agendas.

The variety of possibilities constitutes the possible desired outcomes of the helping process. The
client is helped to choose the possibilities that make the most sense, and turn them into an agenda,
i.e. a set of goals that need to be accomplished.

c) Help clients identify the kinds of incentives that enable them to

commit themselves to the agendas they prepare.
Ideally the agendas a client chooses are appealing. If not, then the incentives for commitment
need to be discovered. The goals that are set in the agenda need to be accepted and appeal to the
client. It is better if they are chosen from among a number of options. The focus should be on
those that reduce crisis or pain.

Challenging goals should not be avoided. The counsellor can help clients see ways of managing
the obstacles that stand in the way of goal attainment. Contracts can help clients to commit
themselves to choices, and the client needs to be helped to identify strategies for accomplishing
goals.

3. Strategies (Getting There)

a) Help clients brainstorm various strategies for implementing their agenda.

Clients are helped to ask themselves questions like, ‘How can I get where I want to go?’
Strategies tend to be more effective when chosen from among a number of possibilities.
A strategy is the action needed to achieve a goal.

If the strategy is complex, then it needs to be divided into a number of interrelated outcomes or
accomplishments. Each of these sub-goals then has its own set of strategies. This divide and
conquer process can lead to the achievement of what once seemed impossible.

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One reason why people fail to achieve goals is that they do not explore the different ways by
which a goal can be reached. Brainstorming plays a role by suspending judgement, producing as
many ideas as possible, using one idea leading to others, removing constraints to thinking, and
producing more ideas by clarifying items on the list.

b) Help clients choose a set of strategies that best fits their

environment and resources.
‘Best’ here means one strategy, or a combination of strategies, that best fits the clients' needs,
preferences, and resources, and that is least likely to be blocked by the factors present in the
client's environment. They should be clear and specific, tied to the desired goal, realistic,
effective, accepted by the client, and in keeping with his or her values.

c) Help clients formulate a plan, a step-by-step

procedure for reaching each goal.
A plan has strategies for reaching goals, divides them into workable bits, puts the bits in order,
and prepares a time-table.

Formulating plans helps clients find useful ways of reaching goals, that is, even better strategies.
Plans provide an opportunity to evaluate the realism and adequacy of goals. They tell clients
something about their strategies. Clients are also helped to discover obstacles to the reaching of
goals.

Summary

People have provided help to one another from time immemorial. Much of this help has been in
the form of giving advice or wisdom. In school, counselling helps boys and girls learn to deal
with the problems they encounter in their daily lives and equips them to become adults.

Counselling aims to give students an opportunity to explore, discover, and clarify, ways of living
that are more satisfying and resourceful.

People's concerns or difficulties are mainly social and personal. It is here that men and women,
boys and girls, require counselling.

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Key Terms

Advice
Wisdom
Gender
Counselling
Elder
Theory
Client
Empowerment
Behaviour change
HIV/AIDS

Evaluation

1. Discuss the role of advice in families and communities.

2. Identify areas where counselling must be provided for young boys and girls.
3. Discuss how traditional African ways of helping young boys and girls can still be used.
4. How can you assist the achievement of girls through the provision of guidance and
counselling?
5. Explain what counselling is.
6. Explain the purpose of personal and social counselling.
7. Identify an institution in your area which may be providing ‘counselling’. Describe the
counselling which it offers.

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UNIT 2
Theories of Counselling

RATIONALE

How do counsellors counsel? What do they say, think, and do? And how do their actions

influence the person counselled?

The ‘hows’ of counselling are many. Each approach is one (or more) helper's attempt to construct
a set of procedures and methods based on a personality theory, or a set of hypotheses about
human functioning, which is effective and different from earlier approaches.

Some major counselling/psychotherapy approaches have been selected for presentation in order to
illustrate and explain the ‘hows’ of counselling.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:


 explain the different theories of counselling;

 describe how to translate theory into counselling practices;
 explain a list of theoretical terms and concepts routinely used in talking about
counselling;

 form a personal theory of counselling.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Client-Centred or Person-Centred Theory
Topic 2. Rational-Emotive Theory Topic 3. Behavioural
Counselling

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Topic 1.
CLIENT-CENTRED OR PERSON-CENTRED THEORY
The name of Carl Rogers is associated with client-centred counselling, for he was its founder and
leader, having devoted his entire professional life to the practice, teaching, research, and
refinement of the approach. It is still one of the most important approaches to counselling.

The core of the theory is that humans have an inherent self-actualizing tendency, a movement
towards developing capacities in ways which serve to maintain and enhance the individual. By
following this innate drive, people can meet their needs, develop a view of themselves, and
interact in society in a beneficial way. This may not occur without distress or ‘growing pains’, but
theoretically, if humans can be helped to follow their nature, they will move towards a state of
relative happiness, contentment, and general psychological adjustment (Patterson, 1980).

Problems in the personality development process arise when significant people in our lives, (for
example, parents, teachers, peers), place a condition of worth upon us, rather than accept us
unconditionally. They value us only if we meet certain conditions and expectations. Because
humans need the regard of others in order to have self-respect, we strive to meet the expectations
of others, though this often requires us to suppress, or ignore, our self-actualizing tendency and
the opportunity to accept and value ourselves unconditionally. A false self-image is created, based
on meeting the conditions of worth, and we then distort and deny reality, in the quest to confirm
our maladjustment.

The key to healthy personality development and self-generated rehabilitation of psychological

problems, lies in the ‘necessary and sufficient conditions of personality change’ (Rogers, 1957).
These conditions consist in the counsellor expressing, and the client perceiving, unconditional
positive regard, empathetic understanding, and congruence, or honesty. When clients interact with
counsellors who behave in this manner, they begin to share their experience; the self-actualization
tendency is activated; they question and cast off conditions of worth, and move towards
unconditional acceptance and respect.

Case Example
Jack is 27 years old and is employed as a carpenter. His wife, Karen, is a full-time home-maker
with three youngsters to look after. When Jack and Karen were first married, they both had jobs,
but for the last three years of their marriage Jack has provided the sole income. Rising inflation,
increasing family expenses, and a wage that cannot be raised, have placed Jack and Karen in
financial difficulties. Worse is the strain on their marriage that has arisen from their practical
problems. These concerns are related by Jack in part of an initial interview with a professional
counsellor.
Excerpt from First Session
Jack: The bills are just killing us. It seems, as the children get older, they need more and more. I
don't know how other families do it!

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Counsellor: Yes, it is hard to see how others make ends meet when your pay cheque doesn't go far
enough.
Jack: I work harder than most people, and still there's not enough money to meet expenses. It just
is not fair. And now Karen is pushing me to enter a partnership with my father. He is a
small contractor here in the city, but I don't want to leave carpentry. It's my work!
Counsellor: You'd like to be a carpenter, but it just doesn't seem to pay enough, and now you feel as
though you are being pushed into something you don't want.
Jack: Yes… but if I don't get a better paid job … (shakes head back and forth). I just don't know
what to do.
Counsellor: …. It seems you can't win either way…
Jack: Yes (sigh).
Counsellor: How does Karen react to the situation? You did say she was pushing you towards the
partnership…
Jack: Oh, she thinks the partnership would be a solution to all our problems, and my father wants
it too.
Counsellor: So they both want you to do it … but … you'd have to give up something you love … a kind
of work that is part of you.
Jack: I am one of the best carpenters around here. Lots of people say so!
Counsellor: And you don't want to lose that skill, something which you do so well.
Jack: Yes, and damn it, I shouldn't have to give it up. They don't understand!
Counsellor: Karen and your father don't understand how much carpentry means to you. Yet, you feel
that they are pressuring you to give it up? Is that how it is?
Jack: Yes. My work, what I want to do, doesn't seem to matter.
Counsellor: How have they told you or shown you that they don't care about your interest in carpentry?
Jack: Well, I've been at the job for over five years. They ought to know by now how much I love
it.
Counsellor: They ought to know, but do they? Have you talked this over with Karen?
Jack: She wouldn't understand, anyway!
Counsellor: You don't think she would understand your feelings.
Jack: I don't know, maybe … but I hate to cry on her shoulder!
Counsellor: That's what it would seem like to you?
Jack: And besides, I don't want to burden her.
Counsellor: If she knew how you feel, she'd be burdened?
Jack: Yes, she'd worry.
Counsellor: I think you're right. If she cares for you, she might be concerned about your unhappiness.

Jack's financial problems were not solved in the first counselling session. Indeed, the counsellor
chose to respond more to Jack's feelings and attitudes than address his practical problems. Not
surprisingly, after the first session, Jack expressed his feelings to Karen and a healthier line of
communication was established. Jack related this experience to the counsellor in the second
session, and another aspect of Jack's financial problems was revealed.

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Application to the Case Example

Client-centred counselling attempts to enact Rogers' facilitative conditions. The counsellor

genuinely accepts the person counselled, whatever his thoughts, feelings and behaviour. An
unconditional respect is transmitted through the counsellor's words and non-verbal behaviour, and
deep empathetic understanding is communicated through reflective responses.

In terms of skill or technique, the client-centred counsellor is a master at listening and reflecting
on the intra-personal and experiential domain. On receiving such counselling, clients explore
themselves and describe experiences, feelings and attitudes which they denied, and of which they
became aware. A re-organization of the self takes place, and a more authentic person emerges,
free of previous defences, disturbed emotions and disordered behaviour.

In the case example, an excerpt from the first counselling session demonstrated client-centred
techniques. Most of the counsellor's responses were reflective, attempting to mirror feelings and
meanings, and convey acceptance, respect and honesty. From this feedback, the client would gain
self-awareness and self-acceptance, perhaps leading him to clarify the pressures and conflicts he
felt, to realize that he had not talked over his concerns with Karen, and that she could not be
expected to understand his innermost feelings unless he expressed them. It is also likely that the
first session helped Jack accept his feelings, rather than feel guilt for not wanting to enter a
partnership with his father.

Topic 2.
RATIONAL-EMOTIVE THEORY
Rational-emotive theory was developed by Albert Ellis, a clinical psychologist. Underlying the
practice of rational-emotive theory and its applications to counselling, is a set of theoretical
hypotheses about the emotional-behavioural functioning of humans and how it can be changed
(Ellis, 1977). At the centre of these hypotheses is the concept that events do not force people to
have emotional behavioural reactions. It is rather their interpretation or thoughts about events that
precipitate emotion and behaviour. Therefore, the target for change in psychotherapy is those
thoughts, attitudes, beliefs and meanings, that create emotional-behavioural disturbance.

Ellis theorizes that humans have the capacity to interpret reality in a clear, logical and objective
fashion, and avoid unnecessary emotional-behavioural upsets, but also says that humans are
predisposed to irrational interpretations. They are susceptible to crooked thinking, draw illogical
conclusions which are not objective, and are cognitive distortions of reality.

An irrational interpretation of reality, such as the foregoing, usually has two or three standard
characteristics (Ellis, 1979): (1) it demands something unrealistic of the world, other people, or
yourself; (2) it exaggerates the awfulness of something you dislike; (3) it concludes that you
cannot tolerate the thing you dislike; and (4) it condemns the world, other people, or yourself.
These characteristics are expressed in specific irrational ideas and beliefs, such as the following:

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1. I must be loved or approved by everyone I consider significant.
2. I must be thoroughly competent and adequate in everything I do. I should not be satisfied
unless I am the best.
3. Some people are inherently and totally bad, wicked and evil. They should be severely blamed
and punished.
4. There is something that is not to my liking, and it's awful! I can't stand it!
5. My happiness is caused by events and other people. One's fate determines one's happiness. I
have little ability to control my sorrow and upsets.
6. There are dangers and calamities just around the corner, and I must constantly look out for
them and stay on guard in case they happen.
7. There are difficulties and responsibilities that are best avoided, because it would require too
much discomfort and effort to deal with them.
8. It's best to do what others want, let them have their way, so that I can depend and lean on
them to help me out.
9. Because of the earlier influences in my life, I am what I am, and I will always be this way. I
can't change.
10. There is a proper and perfect solution to all problems, and I must find it in order to be happy
and solve my problems.

For example, an irrational interpretation occurs when (a) parents scold a child because of spilt
milk; (b) the child concludes ‘I am a bad and inept person’ and consequently (c) feels threatened
and hurt and withdraws from the scene.

Case Example
Use the same example of Jack after he has related his experiences with Karen to the counsellor in
the second session.

Excerpt from Second Session

Counsellor: Jack, it seems as if you and Karen had a really good talk about the situation. And she
did understand!
Jack: Yes, and we discussed a number of things we could do to improve our financial situation.
We ruled out Karen going back to work, at least while the children are small. And we
ruled out changing jobs. Karen wants me to stay with carpentry so long as it is what I
want to do.
Counsellor: Talking cleared the air then between the two of you.
Jack: Yes, but no easy solutions turned up. There was only one thing that made sense, but I
want to think it over.
Counsellor: What was that?

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Jack: Well, Karen thought maybe I could get a foreman's job with my father's company, you
know, overseeing the inside carpentry work for his projects. It would probably pay
better than my present job but … (sigh)
Counsellor: I hear hesitancy in your voice … as if you have reservations?
Jack: Well, Dad is bossy and a perfectionist, and I've never been able to please him. We've
had conflicts.
Counsellor: And you've really tried to please him?
Jack: All my life!
Counsellor: And when you don't please him, you sometimes feel hurt? Later, maybe angry? (Jack
nods.) Then a conflict boils up.
Jack: You've got it! Is this common? You sound as though you know about it.
Counsellor: Yes, it's not unusual to have conflicts with a parent. In your case the conflict seems to
stop you from considering doing business with your father.
Jack: You know, if I could get along with Dad, it would be a terrific opportunity. And I think
he would like to have me as a partner. But getting along with him … and presenting the
partnership idea to him … I just don't know.
Counsellor: If you like, we could work out how to improve your interaction. And then you could
decide if you want to pursue the idea with your father.
Jack: OK, but I am warning you, I really get mad at him.
Counsellor: Let's start right there. In what kind of situation do you get angry with him?
Jack: When I do something for him, or do something I'm proud of, and he makes a critical
comment or doesn't have one good word to say.
Counsellor: And you think he should say thanks or be complimentary.
Jack: Well, at least a word or two!
Counsellor: Jack, why should he give you that word or two?
Jack: Because any father would do that…
Counsellor: … if he truly cared for his son? Is that how it seems?
Jack: (Silence, head nod, downcast eyes.)
Counsellor: So, when you look to your father for approval for work well done, and he doesn't give it,
you say to yourself, ‘He doesn't care for me. If he did he'd show it. He ought to pay me
compliments…’
Jack: Something like that.
Counsellor: Jack, let's think that through. Does your father's lack of praise and his critical
comments show conclusively that he has not, and never will, care for you?
Jack: No, but… it would be nice to have it sometimes.
Counsellor: Right. It would be nice, but is it a necessity? Must you have praise from Dad to feel OK
about yourself, to know you've done a good job, and so on?
Jack: No, I guess not.
Counsellor: Why isn't it necessary? How will you know you are a worthwhile person and son, and
that your work is of quality?
Jack: (Long silence) I guess… from other people… and… I can think for myself!
Counsellor: Let's try out some independent thinking… Suppose you are a foreman, and supervised
and helped to complete the interior work on a house… and you did a good solid job. But

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your father says to you, ‘Why didn't you do it differently here and there? It doesn't look like the work my
previous foreman did.’ How would you ordinarily feel and act?
Jack: Usually I would be a little miffed. I'd feel like saying, ‘Do it yourself!’
Counsellor: You would feel angry and what thoughts would be behind that anger?
Jack: Uh… why doesn't he let me do my work?
Counsellor: Or perhaps, ‘He should accept me and my work without comment. He should appreciate
a good job and since he doesn't, he's a louse of a father!’
Jack: (Laughing) Yes, that's close!
Counsellor: Those attitudes bring on anger and resentful behaviour, but what could you think to keep
your cool, to feel only irritated?
Jack: Uh … ‘That's just the way Dad is, a crank.’ And… ‘I think it's a good job even if he
doesn't.’
Counsellor: Right! Does this crankiness mean he dislikes you?
Jack: No, I guess he can care for me and still be cranky… as we said before… there's no rule
that he should be complimentary, even though it would be nice.
Counsellor: How do you feel when thinking about these new attitudes?
Jack: A lot better, still a little peeved, but OK.

In this second excerpt, the counsellor and client have the goal of improving Jack's relationship
with his father. Specifically, this means decreasing Jack's feelings of hurt and anger towards his
father, thus freeing him to deal more effectively with the problem.

The counsellor's style has changed and is now more directive and confrontational. The
Counsellor's responses force Jack to examine the thoughts and attitudes that underlie his anger
and hurt. Other verbal leads ask Jack to examine logically his understanding and dispute what
does not make sense. For example, father should give me approval. I am not worth while unless
Dad says so.

In the last part, Jack is helped to establish more acceptable attitudes towards himself and his
father. These new attitudes, and a lowering of emotional distress, prepare Jack to develop
assertive behaviour when interacting with his father.

Application to the Case Example

The process of rational-emotive counselling passes through four stages (Grieger and Boyd, 1979),
the first being an exploration of the client's emotive-behavioural difficulties, and an
identification/diagnosis of those irrational interpretations that create problems. Next the
counsellor helps the client to gain insight into his or her irrational ideas, and the ways in which
they upset emotions and behaviour. The irrationalities are then challenged and restructured into
more rational interpretations, and a re-education process is followed, so that clients use their
rational thinking to adapt new life patterns of emotion and behaviour.

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In the excerpt from session two in the foregoing example, the rational-emotive approach is
evident. The counsellor targets Jack's demand for his father's approval, helps him see how he
bases his own self-worth on his father's praise, and then encourages him to dispute (think through)
his irrational ideas. The counsellor uses interpretative and confrontational techniques to foster
insight and self-responsibility. Jack quickly lessens his anger and hurt by thinking more rationally
and, with further counselling and work at home, he could make these changes permanent.

Topic 3.
BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING
A general definition of behavioural counselling is that it ‘consists of whatever ethical activities a
counsellor undertakes in an effort to help the client engage in those types of behaviour which will
lead to a resolution of the client's problems’ (Koumboltz, 1965). This definition is perhaps too
general to portray fully the character and colour of behavioural counselling, but it highlights two
important facts: (1) there is no end to the variety of methods, used in behavioural counselling, and
(2) the goals of counselling - to resolve the client's problems - can be stated in behavioural terms.

The methods and procedures of behavioural counselling are based on social-learning theories -
theories about how people learn and change their behaviour. Forms of learning, such as operant
conditioning, classical conditioning, modelling, and cognitive processes, are used to help persons
counselled change unwanted behaviour, and/or develop new, productive behaviour.

Some methods and techniques of behavioural counselling can be grouped into these categories:
 Changing and controlling the antecedents of behaviour.

 Changing and controlling the reinforcement of behaviour.

 Using models to recognize unwanted behaviour and to learn desirable behaviour.

 Using imagery to extinguish and/or practice behaviour.

 Learning social skills.

Stages of Behavioural Counselling

1. The counsellor helps the clients to explore their concerns, and a behavioural analysis
and assessment is conducted through questions and, perhaps, a questionnaire or survey
instrument.
2. The two parties set mutually-acceptable goals, stated in behavioural terms.

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3. Developing and implementing goal-oriented strategies on learning theory principles
(i.e., any set of ethical procedures that helps clients to engage in behaviour that resolves their
concerns).
4. Accountability, when client feedback indicates that the strategy was effective in
promoting target behaviour and problem resolution.

Case Example

Use the same case example of Jack

Excerpt from Third Session

Jack: Our second session helped me see that I can handle a professional interaction with Dad,
that I can control my anger, but it's not easy.
Counsellor: Yes, it's difficult to change attitudes and feelings that have been a part of you for so long.
This kind of change takes time and a lot of work. Can you keep working at it?
Jack: Yes, I'll keep working at it. But - this may sound silly - I am still unsure about how to or
present this partnership idea, bossy. what to say to him at those times when he is unfairly
Counsellor: You're not accustomed to doing that, so it's not surprising that you are unsure. Would it
help us to develop some basic assertive methods to get you started?
Jack: Yes, just some things I could say, so I'm not lost for words.
Counsellor: After this session I'll recommend some reading that will give you a lot of assertive
techniques but, for now, what is one situation we could work on?
Jack: Asking Dad about entering the business as a foreman.
Counsellor: OK, let's decide on what you want to say to him, and then we can practise through role-
playing. (Later in the session.)
Counsellor: Jack, I'll play you and you play your father. So, here we go. ‘Dad, I've been doing some
thinking about my future in carpentry, and I'd like to explore an idea with you.’
Jack: What kind of idea?
Counsellor: Well, I really enjoy interior carpentry, particularly finishing work, and I'd like to stay in it.
But I'd also like more responsibility, such as a supervisor's job. I think I could handle a
job like that…
Jack: Yes, yes, but what you really ought to do is go into building as an owner or partner. There
is more future in that than being a supervisor.
Counsellor: I can see why you say that - builders make more money than supervisors, and I suppose
there's financial security in owning your own business - but I'm too good at interior
carpentry and I want to stay with it - at least for now. I just don't enjoy the management
and paper work of a contractor.
Jack: But don't you see how much better off you'd be?
Counsellor: Financially better off but unhappy, and maybe not doing a good job. But I don't want to
argue. What I want Dad, is to ask if your company has a supervisor's job I could apply
for.

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Jack: (Breaking the role-playing.) I'll never remember to say those things.
Counsellor: I wasn't outlining a speech for you, Jack, just expressing the motives and desires you've
said you want to express. When we try role-playing again, why don't you play yourself
and try a few assertive statements? Just be spontaneous, and gradually build up how to
say what you want to say.
Jack: I see, I'm just not in the habit of saying what I want or how I see things. I need to work on
this.

For the rest of this third counselling session, Jack continued to learn and practise some assertive
techniques - the behaviour of standing up for his rights, expressing his desires, stating differences
of opinion, making requests, resolving conflicts, and so on. As this new behaviour was developed,
Jack also assessed his attitudes and emotions, working through obstacles to assertion. With
readings in assertive techniques, practice, and effective counselling, Jack could reach his goal of
improving the interaction with his father, and securing a financially desirable job.

Application to the Case Example

The excerpt from session three of the example is behavioural counselling. Jack wanted to improve
his communication with his father. He wanted to express himself assuredly and not be ‘lost for
words.’ His behavioural goal was to ask his father for the type of job he wanted.

The strategy for reaching this goal was assertion training - that is, learning to communicate
assertively with his father. Role-playing was the primary training method because it contains
multiple means of learning. The person counselled can play the father's role and gain empathy for
his position. He can observe and model the counsellor's assertion techniques, criticize the role-
playing and make it realistic, perform assertive techniques in a life-like situation, receive
constructive feedback and reinforcement from the counsellor, and practise assertive behaviour until
it is proficient and comfortable.

Activity 2.1: Theories of Counselling

1. Which counsellor sounded like the type of counsellor you want to be? Why? What did you
value in that counsellor's performance?
2. Which counsellor would you choose to help you with a problem? What is there in that
approach that you want when you have a problem?
3. What was the ‘real concern’ of the person counselled?
4. What was the outcome of each approach? Which one was most effective?
5. How would an RET or behavioural counsellor have handled the first session

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Summary

Though similar to helpful conversation and psychotherapy, counselling has its own identity. It
helps individuals with developmental, career, and personal adjustment problems, and where there
are no problems, counselling can foster healthy human development by increasing self-awareness
and resourcefulness.

How is counselling done? Through many different approaches, methods and techniques. The
three approaches reviewed focused on the affective domain (client-centred), the cognitive or
ideational realm (RET), and the behaviour (the behavioural approach) of the person counselled.

There are numerous other approaches and methods that influence these three realms of human
functioning, and aspiring counsellors have many to choose from. Ultimately, one's ‘how’ in
counselling consists of a unique and idiosyncratic manner of helping others, combined with the
skill and knowledge acquired from approaches such as the three reviewed.

Key Terms

Theory
Person counselled
Personality
Therapy
Self-actualization
Innate
Irrational
Cognitive domain
Affective domain
Ethics

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UNIT 3
Counselling Skills

RATIONALE

Many children do not respond to talking in counselling sessions for a variety of reasons.
In Africa, children are expected to be submissive to authority. Girls and boys may not have been
encouraged to express their feelings, or lack the experience of having an adult who listens to
them. They may, therefore, react with suspicion or resistance to a teacher who is a counsellor.
Consequently, children require structured or action-oriented approaches to facilitate counselling.

Effective counselling practice is highly dependent on the skills and techniques of the teacher.
Though people can learn by reading, writing and talking about counselling, if they are to become
competent counsellors, they have to learn by doing it. Trainees also need to develop their skills in
practical groups, prior to being given responsibility for their own students.

It is in the light of this that unit three has been written.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:


 describe the various counselling techniques;
 apply the counselling techniques by demonstrating them in an interview.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Skills Needed in Counselling

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Topic 1.
SKILLS NEEDED IN COUNSELLING
Several skills need to be brought into a one-to-one counselling session. These include:
1. attitudinal skills;
2. listening skills;
3. verbal communication skills; and
4. giving leads.

1. Attitudes

There is probably nothing which has a greater impact on the outcome of a counselling
session than the helper's attitude. Attitudes can be positive or reactive. Attitudes are included in
this unit on skills because good attitudes can be learned and practised. They include the
following:
a) respect
b) guidance/congruence
c) unconditional positive regard
d) empathy
e) self-disclosure
f) confrontation

a) Respect
It is one of the most important human attitudes required. It normally begins with respecting one's
self, so that others respect you in turn. It is having good intentions and warm regard for students.
Respect the students and avoid imposing your values on them. Avoid judgment.

Many times, respect demands praising the individuality of each student, supporting each one's
search for him/herself, and structuring the counselling to the needs, capacities and resources of
the individual student. The teacher needs to ensure that the student accepts the problem and the
solution as his/her own.

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Activity 3.1: Respect

Study the following teacher responses and decide

who is more respectful.
Student: There are a lot of things that greatly affect my daily studies, but I find it hard to
talk about them.

Teacher A: O.K, you mentioned something earlier related to your relationship with your
boyfriend. What kind of trouble does it create, and how did it start?

Teacher B: Well, let's talk for a moment. I feel that if I ask a lot of questions, I will get a lot
of important information that you might think is important. But I am not convinced that it
would be important for you. I think you find it painful to begin.

b) Genuineness/Congruence
Genuineness is at times referred to as congruence. It is the consistency or harmony between what
you say, and what you are, as a teacher. This condition reflects honesty, transparency, and trust.
This element is basic to a counselling relationship. Once it is established, open communication,
warmth and respect for the client gradually develop.

c) Unconditional Positive Regard (Warmth)

You may have experienced situations where a student approached you with a concern, and you
blamed the student, or acted as if the student bothered you. These are negative attitudes which are
ineffective in counselling.

Unconditional, positive regard makes students feel welcomed and valued as individuals. An
example to illustrate this warmth is the following:

‘Hello, Jane. Can I help you?’

Not
‘I am sorry, I am very busy. I prefer you to be very brief.’
‘Hello. Can I help you? I am sorry I am very busy and prefer that you be brief.’

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d) Empathy
Empathy is your ability, as a teacher, to understand what your students experience, and
communicate this kind of feeling. Carl Rogers (1980), defined it as perceiving the internal frame
of reference of another person. Gerald Egan (1990), explains it as entering the private perceptual
world of the client, and being sensitive to his/her feelings, whether good or bad.

As a teacher, you need to be empathetic. You need to be responsive to both the

content and the feelings expressed by students. This attitude helps you to assess students'
concerns and understand them better.

Activity 3.2: Empathy

Read the conversation below between a student and a teacher at the Shimoni Teachers' College
in Uganda.

Student: And so here I am, three months pregnant. I did not want to be pregnant. I am
not married. I do not even love my boyfriend. To tell the truth, it happened by
accident. Oh! Jesus, I do not know what to do. I think I am dreaming, but it is
real that I am pregnant.
Teacher: You think that is impossible to believe.
Student: I am stupid for getting myself into this mess.
Teacher: You are angry with yourself because of the mess you are now in.

Now answer the following questions:

1. Discuss in groups the words used that illustrate empathy.
2. Role-play in small groups a conversation which illustrates empathy.

e) Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure helps your student to communicate easily. It is one of the attitudes that helps your
student to reveal something about him/herself. It helps to create mutual trust, and disarm the
student, so that he/she feels free and talks openly.

This is equally important for both parties in the counselling session. It promotes a relationship
through increased communication and better understanding of the student. It also helps the
student to understand him/herself better, and help him/her get rid of the burden of guilt.

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This is a first step in behavioural change. Opening with self-disclosure helps the student to talk
about his/her problems more concretely and realistically, and allows him/her to act accordingly.
Disclose only what is necessary.

f) Confrontation
This is when you use your student's behaviour, or words, to point out inconsistencies between
what is said and what is done. When handling a response, confrontation, or challenging attitudes,
is a healthy development in counselling. For example, a student may say he/she hates a particular
teacher and, in another instance, may say that he/she likes her. This is inconsistent.

You could draw the attention of such a student to such inconsistency by saying, ‘You said that
you did not like the teacher. Now you are saying that you like her. What exactly do you mean?’
Remember to bring this out in a ‘feeling’ and not in a threatening way. You will, in this way,
initiate action in your student.

2. Listening

Effective listening is more complicated than it seems, since it involves a teacher's own level of
self-awareness, as well as his/her awareness of the spoken and unspoken cues of the other person.
Furthermore, a teacher needs to be able to respond to the student in such a way that he/she feels
understood. Being a good listener entails receiving and sending appropriate messages. In
counselling this is important, because it means meeting the needs of the students.

Listening to students is not just a matter of receiving what they say, but also receiving how they
say it. Sometimes how they communicate is much more revealing that what they actually say,
which may be more concealing than revealing.

Listening skills are basic to all human interaction, whether the purpose is for getting information,
conducting in-depth interviews, or offering informal help. Listening is considered to be the most
important counselling skill.

3. Verbal Communication

The use of words in counselling is a skill which, like any other skill, requires practice to master.
Verbal communication takes place first in the literal or content phase. If inappropriate vocabulary
is used, rapport and understanding will be hindered. When this happens, miscommunication
occurs. Even common words can be misunderstood due to the multiple meanings they carry. Look
up any common English word in an unabridged dictionary, and you will find several different
definitions of this word. So the potential for miscommunication is great.

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In addition to the literal phase of verbal communication, there is also the emotional phase. This
refers to other attributes involved in vocal interactions, such as volume, the emotional edge, and
other non-verbal cues such as gestures. Picture a student saying, ‘I don't care’ while angry, or
while indifferently walking away from you, or while weeping with his head in his hands.
Although the words are the same, the message conveyed is vastly different. As helpers, we must
be sensitive to both the literal and emotional phases of verbal communication.

In addition to the two general phases of communication that we have just discussed, there are five
more levels of communication. Each of these levels is valuable in different contexts. The five
levels of communication are:
a) cliches;
b) facts;
c) beliefs;
d) emotions; and
e) intimacy.

a) Cliches
This is a French word which has been adopted by English speakers to mean a trite, well-worn
phase. A universal example is the greeting, ‘How are you?’ ‘I'm fine. How are you?’

In some African languages, a formal greeting may take ten minutes and yet nothing new is
communicated. Everybody is always good or fine, because that is the pattern the greeting takes.
This is communication at the most superficial level, but an important social obligation is met.

b) Facts
Facts are pieces of information that we pass on to others. They include comments on current
events like, ‘The morning news mentioned that the President is coming to town tomorrow,’ or
making conversation on the weather e.g., ‘Those clouds look as if they could bring rain this
afternoon.’

The communication of facts may transmit valuable information from one to another, but little
interaction takes place.

c) Beliefs
Beliefs include any part of an individual's value system. They may communicate insights and
choices, or facts which are value-laden. The sharing of one's person begins at this level, and the
risk of rejection increases. The sharing of beliefs may include subjects which are considered
‘forbidden’ in some cultures, such as sex, politics, or religion.

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d) Emotions
Emotions include communicating personal feelings. ‘I am thrilled that I was invited to the party’,
or ‘That teacher is rude, he annoys me’. Communication at this level is difficult for most men and
women. It requires a great deal of vulnerability to share feelings with someone else, and more so
when feelings about another are shared.

This is the optimum level for counselling to take place. If the student talks to the teacher at an
emotional level, and the teacher responds at the level of facts or beliefs, counselling may be
derailed. A miscommunication may occur.

Guidance may take place at the facts or beliefs level, but effective counselling rarely
does.

e) Intimacy
Although sometimes used as a euphemism for sexual intercourse, intimacy is more accurately
defined as the intercourse of the soul. At this level, the self becomes united to another person.
This is a level of communication that many individuals never experience. Indeed there is some
debate as to whether such a level is even desirable, since the self may be compromised.

In counselling, this is an inappropriate level, since it may encourage the dependency of the student
on the helping teacher and thereby inhibit the student's personal growth.

Summary

Each of these levels of verbal communication is valuable in an appropriate context. When riding
in a taxi, it is inappropriate to share emotions with the stranger beside you, while a cliché would
be appropriate. Likewise, for a husband and wife to communicate only clichés or facts would be
inappropriate, since by nature the marriage relationship is emotional and intimate.

As helpers, we need to be willing to communicate appropriately at the emotional level for the
good of the students, even though that proves uncomfortable. This helps the students to divulge
their own feelings and get the help that they really need.

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4. Leads

Leads may be defined as statements that counsellors use in communication with the clients.
Leads have been classified into categories of techniques, namely:

a) Restatement of Content
Attempts to convey understanding by repeating or rephrasing the communication.

b) Questioning
Seeks further information and asks the person counselled to elaborate a point.

c) Reflection of Feeling
Understanding from the client's point of view and communicating that understanding.

d) Reassurance
Serves as a reward or reinforcing agent. It is often used to support the client's exploration of ideas
and feelings or test different behaviour.

e) Interpretation
Explains meaning behind the client's statements.

Example

Below is a statement by a client immediately after seating herself in the counsellor's office. The
counsellor had not met the student before. Different leads or counsellor responses are given and
classified.

‘Miss Musonda told me to come down here to talk to you. I don't know why. She said I couldn't
go back to class until I have learnt to stay awake. I work at a restaurant until one o'clock every
morning in a part-time job, and I am tired. Anyway, who could stay awake in there? She bores
you to death!’

Among some of the responses the counsellor could make are the following:

1. ‘You were bored and fell asleep, and Miss Musonda asked you to leave the
class.’ restatement of content = understanding

2. ‘What does she do that you find boring?’

questioning = investigating

3. ‘You feel put off.’

reflection of feeling = understanding

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4. ‘I am sure that something can be worked out between you and Miss Musonda in this
situation.’
reassurance = supporting

5. ‘Do you think that you might be disowning responsibility for what has
happened?’ interpretation = interpreting

Activity 3.3: Leads

Break into groups and role play a counselling situation which uses leads.

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UNIT 4
Peer Counselling and
Self-Help Group

RATIONALE

This kind of counselling is found amongst people with similar problems, who meet
together without the assistance of a professional leader. A professional leader may, in some cases,
be called in to help the group get started, either by taking a pro-active role within their
organization, or because people within the group seek guidance about where to meet and how to
proceed.

Another reason for peer counselling is that people who participate in it appreciate the experience
of talking to others, who ‘know what it feels like’ to have a drink, or a sexual, or financial
problem.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:


 describe the various group counselling populations;

 discuss the purposes of the group;

 demonstrate the skill of forming a group;
 discuss the stages of the group process.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Group Counselling Population
Topic 2. Purposes of Groups
Topic 3. Forming a Group
Topic 4. Stages of the Group Process

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Topic 1.
GROUP COUNSELLING POPULATION
Groups offer particular advantages for working with a variety of people, for groups can be
designed to meet the needs of children, adolescents, young adults, middle-aged persons and the
elderly.

1. Children
In the school setting, group counselling is often suggested for children who display behaviour
problems, such as excessive fighting, chronic tiredness, violent outbursts, extreme withdrawal,
inability to get along with peers, and a neglect of appearance.

In small groups, children have the opportunity to express their feelings about a wide range of
personal problems. Children frequently experience learning difficulties in school as a result of
inner turmoil. Some of these children suffer from anxiety over broken homes and disturbed family
relationships. If the group is structured properly, these children can receive psychological
assistance at an early age, and will stand a better chance of dealing effectively with the tasks they
face later in life.

2. Adolescents
For most people, adolescence is a difficult period. It is characterized by paradoxes. Adolescents
strive for closeness, and yet fear intimacy and often avoid it. They rebel against control, and yet
want direction and structure. While they push and test the limits imposed on them, they see limits
as a sign of caring. They are not treated as mature adults, and yet are expected to act as though
they had gained complete autonomy. They are typically self-centred and pre-occupied with their
own worlds, and yet are expected to deal with social demands and expand their horizons. They
are asked to face and accept reality and, at the same time, many avenues of escape are available in
the form of drugs and alcohol.

With adolescence come some of these conflicts: dependence/independence struggles,

acceptance/rejection conflicts, identity crises, the search for security, pressure to conform, and the
need for approval. Because of the stresses of the adolescent period, these years can be lonely, and
it is not unusual for an adolescent to feel that there is no-one who can help.

Group counselling can be useful in dealing with these feelings of isolation, because it gives
adolescents the means to express conflicting feelings, explore self-doubts, and realize that they
share these concerns with their peers.

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A group allows adolescents to question openly their values, and talk freely about their deepest
concerns. In the group, adolescents can learn to communicate with their peers, benefit from the
modelling provided by the leader, and can safely experiment with reality and test their limits.

A unique value of a group is that it offers adolescents a chance to be instrumental for one
another's growth and change. Because of the opportunities for interaction in groups, the members
can express their concerns and be genuinely heard, and they can help one another gain increased
self-acceptance.

3. Adults
A wide variety of special interest groups can be developed for adults of all ages. For example,
groups can be formed for couples, single parents, parents who want to explore problems they
have relating to their children, middle-aged people who return to college or change careers, and
adults who want to explore developmental concerns, such as the search for identity.

On college campuses, groups have become increasingly popular as a way of meeting the diverse
needs of students, who range from young adults to the elderly. Such groups can be created for
relatively healthy students who experience a developmental crisis, or students who want to talk
openly with others about their concerns. The purpose of these groups is to offer participants an
opportunity to explore ways of changing certain aspects of their lives.

In group situations, college students of all ages deal with several different issues. They may
include issues regarding career decisions, male/female relationships, the need for, and fear of,
love, sex-role identity issues, educational plans, the meaning of life, challenging one's value
system, and the meaning of work. There are also issues regarding feelings of loneliness and
isolation, learning to form intimate relationships, exploring marital conflicts, and other concerns
related to becoming a self-directed adult.

4. The Elderly
As people grow up, they face feelings of isolation, and may struggle with the problem of finding a
meaning to life. Some of these older persons may resign themselves to a useless life, for they see
little in their future. Like adolescents, the elderly often feel unproductive, unneeded, and
unwanted by society. Another problem is that many older people have uncritically accepted myths
about ageing.

Themes that are more common to the elderly than other age groups, include loneliness, social
isolation, losses, poverty, feelings of rejection, the struggle to find a meaning to life, dependency,
and feelings of uselessness, hopelessness and despair. There are also fears of death and dying,
grief over another's death, sadness over physical and mental deterioration, depression, and regrets
over past events.

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Older people have a need to be listened to, and understood. Respect is shown by accepting them.
Acceptance can be through listening to their messages, and by not patronizing them. These
individuals need support and encouragement, and the chance to talk openly about what they feel,
and about the topics which concern them.

A counselling group can do a lot to help the elderly challenge the myths they may have that limit
their lives. It can also help them to deal with the developmental tasks that they face. Like any
other age-group, they must be able to face them in such a way that they retain their self-respect.
Groups can assist the elderly to break out of their isolation, and encourage them to find a new
meaning in life.

Topic 2.
PURPOSES OF GROUPS
The following are the goals and purposes of groups:
 To grow in self-acceptance and learn not to demand perfection.

 To learn how to trust oneself and others.

 To foster self-knowledge and the development of a unique self-identity.

 To lessen fears of intimacy, and learn to reach out to those one would like to be closer
to.

 To move away from meeting other's expectations, and decide for oneself the standards
by which to live.

 To increase self-awareness, and increase the possibilities for choosing and acting.

 To become aware of choices and to make choices wisely.

 To become more sensitive to the needs and feelings of others.

 To clarify values and decide whether, and how, to modify them.

 To find ways of understanding, and resolving, personal problems.

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Topic 3.
FORMING A GROUP

Where to Begin: Formation of the Group

In forming a group, the place to start is by clarifying the rationale for it. It is well worth devoting
considerable time to planning, for if planning is done poorly, and if members are not carefully
selected and prepared, groups can flounder.

Announcing a Group and Recruiting Members

If you are successful in having a proposal accepted, the next step is to find a practical way of
announcing it to prospective participants. How a group is announced influences the way it will be
received by potential members, as well as the kinds of people who will join the group. Personal
contact with potential members is one of the best methods of recruiting members. The leader can,
through personal contact, enthusiastically demonstrate that the group has potential value for
someone.

Screening and Selecting Members

The group leader conducts a pre-group interview with each prospective member for the purposes
of screening and orientation. He then selects group members whose needs and goals are
compatible with the established goals of the group, who will not impede the group process, and
whose well-being will not be jeopardized by the group experience.

Some questions that can be productively explored in a half-hour interview with each candidate are
these:
 Why does this person want to join the group?

 How ready is the person to become actively involved in the process of self-examination
that will be part of the group?

 Does the candidate have a clear idea about the nature and purpose of the group? Does he,
or she, have a view of what is expected?

 Are there any indications that the person might be counter-productive to the development of
cohesion in the group? Might this group be counter-productive to the person?

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Some Practical Considerations in Group Formation

In selecting members for a given group, there are some basic factors to keep in mind.

1. How large should the group be?

The ideal size of a group depends on the age of the members, your experience as a leader, the
type and purpose of a group, and whether you have a co-leader. For instance, a group with
elementary school children might be kept to four or five members, while a group of adolescents
might have eight to ten. The group should be big enough to give ample opportunity for
interaction, and small enough for everyone to feel involved in the group.

2. How often should a group meet, and for how long?

With children and adolescents, frequent short meetings may suit their attention span better. If the
group is taking place in a school setting, the meeting times can correspond to regularly scheduled
class periods. For a group of well functioning adults, a two-hour weekly session might be
preferable. The frequency and duration of a meeting should suit your style of leadership and the
type of people in the group.

3. Where should the group meet?

Physical arrangements and setting contribute to, or detract from, the climate of a group. Privacy
and freedom from distractions are essential. Group leaders sometimes think that meeting outdoors
is a good way to promote informality, but generally such a setting lacks privacy and is a source of
distractions.

4. Will membership be voluntary or involuntary?

Although it is ideal to have a group composed only of those who want to be part of the group,
some groups consist of clients who are required to attend. Attending a group because one has
been ordered to go by someone else greatly curtails the chances of success.

The key to successful participation lies in carefully orienting members, and preparing them for
being a part of the group, as well as in the leader's belief that the group process has something to
offer to prospective members.
5. Should the group be open or closed?
An open group is one characterized by changing membership, while a closed group adds no new
members during the lifetime of the group. Closed groups have some distinct advantages, as trust
can be developed and work accomplished. If membership changes from week to week, as in some
open groups, productive work as a group may be difficult to achieve.

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Conducting a Pre-Group Session

Once the members have been screened, and the group formed, it is useful to conduct a
preliminary or pre-group session with all the members selected. The pre-group meeting can be an
extension of the individual screening process, for it is an ideal way to present basic information,
help members get to know one another, and help them decide whether to commit themselves to
the group or not.

Depending on the nature of the group, certain ground rules will have to be established early on.
For example, the following ground rules could be presented to most types of groups at the
preliminary session, in the form of a written contract that members can sign.
 Members are not to use drugs during the session, and are not to come to a session under
the influence of drugs, or alcohol.

 Members are expected to come to the sessions on time, and be present at all the
meetings, since absences affect the entire group.

 Members must avoid sexual involvement with others in the group throughout its
duration.

 Members may not smoke during the group sessions.

 Members must maintain the confidences of others in the group.

 Members are not to use physical violence in group sessions, nor are they to be
physically or verbally abusive of others in the group.

 Members will be given a list of their rights and responsibilities, so that they know what
is expected of them before they join the group.

 For groups of children or adolescents, written consent must be given by parents or
guardians.

 If members decide to leave the group, they are expected to bring this up for discussion
with the group before they go. Abrupt departures can be detrimental to the member leaving as
well as to the others.

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Topic 4.
STAGES OF THE GROUP PROCESS
Stage 1: Characteristics of the Initial Stage

During the early stages, the central process involves orientation and exploration. At this time,
members get acquainted, learn how the group functions, develop spoken and unspoken norms that
govern in-group behaviour, discuss fears and hopes pertaining to the group, clarify their
expectations, identify personal goals, and determine how safe this group is for them.

Whether or not members actually verbalize some of their thoughts and feelings, questions that are
a part of their awareness early in the group's history include the following:
 Will I be accepted or rejected?

 Can I really say what I feel, or do I have to say what I think others expect?

 Am I like the others in this group?

 Will I really get anything from this group?

 Will I be pressured to perform and meet the expectations of others? If so, will I handle
this pressure?

 What kind of risks will I take here?

 Who can I trust? Is there anyone I do not trust?

 Can I reveal the sides of myself that I generally keep hidden?

 What if I discover aspects of myself that I do not like?

Ways of Creating Trust in the Initial Stage

There is not a single technique, or set of techniques, that creates trust. You can be your most
important technique in fostering trust.
 The person that you are, the attitudes and the way you behave, may be the most crucial
factors in building trust. Teach through example.

 Trust and have faith in the members' capacity to make significant changes in
themselves.

 Listen non-defensively and respectfully.

 Be genuine and willing to engage in appropriate disclosure.

 Accept others for who they are.

 Avoid imposing your values on others
One of the best ways of creating a trusting climate is for the leader to encourage members to
express openly any feelings of mistrust, or absence of trust, they might have. If work is to

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proceed, mistrust must first be recognized, and then dealt with in the group. If it is not, a hidden
agenda develops, the lack of trust is expressed in indirect ways, and the group ceases to progress.

Helping Members Define Goals

As a group leader, one of your tasks at the initial stage is to help members establish their own
goals. Some members typically come to the group with unclear and abstract goals, e.g., ‘I just
want to be able to communicate with others,’ or ‘I hope I can get in touch with my feelings.’
These vague ideas need to be translated into specific and concrete goals. Narrow down some
statements, e.g., ‘I would like to learn to express my feelings.’ The leader might ask, ‘What are
some particular feelings that you have the most difficulty in expressing? With whom do you
experience problems in expressing feelings? What are the situations in which you find it most
difficult to express a certain feeling? How would you like to be different?’

Developing contracts, both orally and in writing, can help members develop concrete goals that
guide their participation in the group. This need not be done in one meeting, and it might well
take several sessions to develop realistic contracts for all members.

Major Member Functions and Possible Problems

Some of the functions of the members are the following:

 Taking active steps to create a trusting climate in the group.

 Learning to express one's feelings and thoughts, especially with regard to in-group
reactions.

 Being willing to express fears, hopes, expectations, reservations and personal
concerns regarding the group.

 Being willing to make oneself known to others in the group.

 Being a part of the creation of group norms.

 Establishing specific and personal goals that govern group participation.

 Learning the basics of the group process, especially how to involve oneself in the
interactions in the group.

 Recognizing and expressing any negative reactions, and learning to pay attention to
one's own resistance.

These are problems that can arise with members:

 They might wait passively for ‘something to happen.’

 They might keep feelings of mistrust or fears regarding the group to themselves, and
thus entrench their own resistance.

 They might choose to keep themselves hidden and reveal only parts of themselves.

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 There is the danger of slipping into a problem-solving and advice-giving stance with
other members.

 They may be content to put up with superficial interactions.


Major Leader Functions

The major tasks of group leadership during the initial stage of a group are these:
 Teaching participants some general guidelines that increase their chances of having a
productive group, and continuing to teach them ways of participating actively.

 Developing ground rules and norms, and helping members see how these are related
to an effective group.

 Assisting members to express their fears and expectations, and working towards the
development of trust.

 Modelling basic conditions such as genuineness, respect, attentiveness, concern,
acceptance, active-listening, support, and caring confrontation (or challenge).

 Being open with members, and being psychologically present for them.

 Clarifying the division of responsibility.

 Assisting members to establish concrete and meaningful goals.

 Helping members see how they might practise what they learned in the group, in and
out of group situations.

 Dealing openly with members' concerns and questions.

 Providing a structure that neither increases member dependence nor promotes
excessive floundering

 Assisting members to share what they are thinking and feeling regarding what occurs
within the group.

 Helping members learn basic interpersonal skills, such as listening and responding
non-defensively.

 Assessing the needs of the group, and meeting them.

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Stage 2: The Transition Stage

Characteristics of the Transition Stage

Some groups remain stuck at the transition stage, because resistance is by-passed or conflict is
ignored or passed over. At this point in the evolution of a group, feelings of anxiety and resistance
to this anxiety are common, and members often are:
 Experiencing anxiety over what they think of themselves if they open up, as well as
concerned at other's acceptance or rejection.

 Testing the leader and other members, to determine how safe the environment is.

 Struggling with wanting to play safe, or risk going beyond safety and becoming
involved.

 Experiencing a struggle for control and power. Conflict among members, and between
members and leaders, is common.

 Being challenged with learning how to work through conflict and confrontation.

 Being reluctant to become fully involved in working on personal concerns, because
they are not sure that others will care.

Anxiety
Anxiety grows out of a fear of letting others see us on a level beyond the public image. Anxiety
also results from a fear of being judged and misunderstood, from a need for more structure, and
from a lack of clarity about goals, norms and expected behaviour in the group. As participants
come to trust the other members and the leader more, they become increasingly able to share, and
this openness reduces their anxiety about letting others see them as they are.

Common Fears Associated with Resistance

If fears are kept inside, then all sorts of avoidance occur. Although group leaders cannot pry, and
force members to discuss fears that could inhibit their participation, leaders can invite members
sensitively to recognize these fears. Fears often include the fear of making a fool of oneself, the
fear of rejection, the fear of hanging, the fear that one will not like what is discovered, the fear of
self-disclosure, the fear of being attacked and being left without defences, and the fear of
becoming intimate with others.

It is important that the group leader understands, and appreciates, the anxiety and resistance of
members. Resistance must be respected, for it is to be expected that members have doubts,
reservations, and fears. The central task of the leader at this time is to help the members
recognize, and deal with, their resistance and defences against anxiety.

Learning to Recognize and Deal with Conflict

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The transition stage is characterized by conflict, and the expression of negative feelings. Members
challenge other members and the leader. Some statements that indicate inter-member conflicts
are, ‘Why do we focus so much on the negative in this group?’ ‘I don't belong here because my
problems aren't as great as most of the others in here.’ ‘Some people in here sound as if they are
all together.’ ‘I feel threatened by Sally.’

Conflicts with leaders are not uncommon at the transition stage, for a key task of members is to
learn how to challenge the leader in a direct and constructive manner. This can be a sign that the
members are moving towards greater independence. The way the leader handles this challenge is
crucial to the future of a group. If leaders are excessively defensive, and refuse to accept criticism,
they inhibit the members from confronting each other in a constructive manner, thus impairing the
level of trust within the group.

At this stage of the group's development, the leader's major function is to help members move
from conflict to a level of relating openly to one another. Some other tasks are:
 teaching members the value of recognizing, and dealing with, conflict;

 teaching them to respect, and work with, their resistance;

 providing a model for members by dealing directly with any challenges they
receive; and

 encouraging members to express their reactions to what is happening within the
group.

Stage 3: The Working Stage

During the initial stage, the group is characterized by tentativeness, for the members are finding
out what the group is about and their place in it. During the transition period, there is an
expression of feelings regarding interactions within the group, as well as individual personal
problems. The working stage is characterized by the commitment of members to explore
significant problems they bring to the sessions.

One of the main characteristics of the working stage is that participants have learned how to
involve themselves in group interaction, rather than wait to be invited to interact. In a sense, there
is a sharing of group leadership functions, for the members are able to assume greater
responsibility for the work that is done in the group.

A central characteristic of the working stage is group cohesion, which results when members are
willing to become transparent with one another. Some indications of the level of cohesiveness (or
‘togetherness’) in a group, are the extent of co-operation among group members, the degree of
initiative shown by the participants, attendance rates, punctuality, the level of trust shown, and the
degree of support, encouragement, and caring that members demonstrate in their interaction.

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How does group cohesion come about? Group cohesion and authentic positive feelings within a
group occur after negative feelings are recognized and expressed, for expressing negative feelings
is one way of testing the freedom and trustworthiness of the group. Participants soon discover
whether this group is a safe place to disagree openly, and whether they are still accepted in spite
of their negative feelings.

Cohesion occurs when participants open up and take risks by making themselves known.
Cohesion, which is a process of bonding, and genuine trust, are things that the group earns by a
commitment to be honest. At this stage the members are able to see common problems, and are
struck by the universality of the issues.

For example, it becomes apparent that there are common human themes that members can relate
to personally, regardless of age, social/cultural background, and line of work. Although in the
earlier stages members are likely to be aware of their differences, and at times feel separated,
these differences recede into the background as the group achieves increased cohesion. Members
comment more on how they are alike rather than how they differ. Some factors that indicate that
the group came together for a common purpose, and that its members are engaged in productive
and meaningful work, are as follows:
 Communication within the group is open and involves an accurate expression of what
is being experienced.

 Leadership functions do not rest solely with the group leader, for now the members
interact freely and directly, and they initiate the direction they want to go, rather than rely on the
leader for direction

 There is a willingness to risk dealing with threatening material, and make oneself
known in significant ways, and members bring personal topics to the group for discussion.

 When conflict is present, it is recognized and dealt with directly and effectively, and
hence hidden agendas and indirect expressions of hostility do not become prominent.

 Feedback is given freely, and is received in a non-defensive manner.

 Confrontation occurs without members making judgements on others.

 Members are willing to work and practise outside the group to achieve behavioural
change.

 Participants are willing to risk new behaviour, for they feel supported in their attempts
to change.

 Members are willing to offer both challenges and support to others, and they engage in
self-confrontation.

 Participants continually assess their level of satisfaction with the group, and they take
active steps to change matters if they see that the sessions need changing.

 Members feel hopeful that they can change if they are willing to take action, and they
do not feel hopeless.

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Stage 4: The Final Stage
During the final stage a number of characteristics can be expected, all of which are associated
with the successful accomplishment of the difficult process of consolidation and termination.
These include the possibility of sadness, and anxiety over the reality of separation, a tendency of
members to pull back and participate in less intense ways in anticipation of the ending of the
group, a concern over one's ability to be able to implement in daily life what one learned in the
group, and decisions about what courses of action to take, and the development of action
programmes. And there may be talk of follow-up meetings or a plan for accountability, so that
members are encouraged to carry out their plans to change.

The final stages of group evolution are vital, for during this time members have an opportunity to
clarify the meaning of their experiences in the group, consolidate the gains they have made, and
revise their decisions about what newly-acquired behaviour they want to transfer to everyday life.

As group members sense that their group is approaching its end, there is a danger that they will
begin to distance themselves from the group experience, and fail to examine closely the ways in
which their in-group learning might affect their out-of-group behaviour.

Other problems that occur at this time include the tendency for some members to avoid reviewing
their experience, and failing to put it into some cognitive framework, thus limiting the
generalization of what they have learned to their everyday existence. Furthermore, members
might consider the group an end in itself rather than a laboratory for interpersonal learning. For
these reasons, group leaders must learn to help participants put into a meaningful perspective
what has occurred in the group.

Some specific functions of group leadership, and some tasks that need to be accomplished during
the final stage, are as follows:
 Members can be encouraged to face the inevitable ending of the group, and discuss
fully their feelings of separation.

 Members can complete any unfinished business they have with other members or
leaders.

 Members can be taught how to leave the group, and how to carry with them what they
have learned.

 Members can be assisted to make specific plans for change, and take concrete steps to
put into effect in their daily lives, the lessons they have learned.

 Leaders can help members develop specific plans for follow-up work, evaluations can
be made, and leaders can help members create their own support systems after they leave a group.

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Follow-up and Evaluation
There are techniques and strategies that can be used after the termination of a group, for the
purpose of follow-up to assess outcomes. Some of these are:

1. Follow-up Interviews
Leaders can try to arrange a private interview with each group member a few weeks, or months,
after the group ends. Such an interview can be beneficial to the member and to leaders, as a way
of evaluating the effectiveness of the group.

2. Contact with Other Members

Members can contact another member of the group periodically after termination by way of
support.

3. Follow-up Group Session

A follow-up meeting can take place a couple of months after the end of the group, to assess the
impact of the group on each member. Such a session is a way of maximizing the chance that
members will receive lasting benefit from the group experience. Many people reported that
simply knowing that they would get together as a group in the future, after the group's
termination, was the motivation they needed to stick to their commitment to carry out their action
programmes.

Activity 4.1: Group Counselling

1. When you think of group counselling or group therapy, what comes to mind? Discuss
with others in your group things you have heard about groups, possible misconceptions, and
any experience you have had with groups.

2. What values can you think of which pertain to the use of counselling groups with
children? adolescents? college students? middle-aged adults? the elderly? What are the
advantages, if any, of using group approaches over individual counselling approaches?

3. Assume that you want to organize a group with people you are working with, and
assume that you begin by developing a proposal for such a group. Discuss some of the things
you will consider when setting up such a group, including how you might structure the group,
the topics to be covered, the methods of screening and selecting members, and how you might
begin the group.

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UNIT 5
Ethics and the Counsellor

RATIONALE
N either the client nor the counsellor is free of ethical views of life. Effective counselling deals
with ethical understanding, legal responsibilities and moral realities.

Counselling does not take place in a fantasy world, but in a world of reality where people are
required to make ethical choices and decisions. Adherence to professional ethical standards
protects both the public and the counsellor.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:


 describe unethical behaviour;
 discuss ethical codes.

CONTENT

This unit includes the following:

Topic 1. Unethical Behaviour
Topic 2. Ethical Codes

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Topic 1.
UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

1. Incompetence, that is, inadequate knowledge and the absence of skills necessary for
professional behaviour.
2. Lack of integrity, moral commitment and sound professional judgement to adhere to
acceptable standards of right and wrong action.
3. Violating confidences. Information presented in a counselling relationship is confidential.
4. Exceeding the level of professional competence. Counsellors must recognize their strengths
and limitations in serving their clients in the most competent manner - or refer them to other
experts.
5. Imposing values on clients. It is a responsibility of counsellors to be aware of his/her values
and of their impact on others.
6. Creating dependence on the part of the clients to meet the counsellor's own needs, e.g., sexual
relations and social interactions.
7. Improper advertising, especially advertising that presents the counsellor as one who has the
skills, competence and/or credentials, that he, or she, does not actually possess.
8. Charging fees for private counselling to those who are entitled to free services through the
counsellor's employing institution, and/or using one's job to recruit clients for a private practice.

Topic 2.
ETHICAL CODES
Ethical codes, or standards, are designed to provide guidelines for behaviour.

Ethical codes serve several purposes:

1. They protect members from practices that may result in public condemnation.
2. They provide a measure of self-regulation, thus giving members a certain freedom and
autonomy.
3. They provide clients a degree of protection from cheats and the incompetent.
4. They help to protect counsellors from the public if they are sued for malpractice.

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Activity 5.1: Ethics and the Counsellor

Questions for Discussion:

1. Were ethical standards devised to restrain, or aid you, in your professional development?
2. Have you accepted the standards because they were always there, or because you
decided that they are consonant with your own value system?
3. What would you be willing to do for money? For example, would you continue a client
relationship when you are aware you can no longer be of any help?
4. On what are the rewards and payments, that you obtain from your work as a counsellor,
based?
5. Under what circumstances would you lie to a client?
6. To what extent would you attempt to provide services for which you are not properly
trained or experienced?
7. When would you find it necessary to divulge confidential information?
8. How tolerant are you of the unethical practices of your colleagues? Under what
circumstances would you take action against an unethical act?
9. How often do you use the counsellor/client relationship to satisfy your own needs?
10. How do you evaluate your effectiveness?
To what extent do your own personal problems interfere with your work as a cou

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