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The Politics of Joking Anthropological Engagements 1st
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THE POLITICS OF JOKING

This book engages anthropologically with humor as political expression. It reveals

how humor is in many instances central to human efforts to cope with political
struggle and significant to understanding power dynamics in socio-political life. The
chapters examine humor and joking activities across a diverse range of geographic
areas and cultural contexts. The contributors consider humor as it is constituted in
political anxiety, aggression and power, and when it becomes a tool to resist, repair,
reconcile or make a moral claim. Collectively they demonstrate that humor can
provide a powerful critique, a non-violent form of political protest and a space for
restoring human dignity.

Jana Kopelent Rehak is a Researcher in Anthropology at the University of

Maryland, Baltimore County, USA and a Lecturer at the University of Maryland,
College Park, USA.

Susanna Trnka is Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of

Auckland, New Zealand.
This page intentionally left blank
THE POLITICS OF
JOKING
Anthropological Engagements

Edited by Jana Kopelent Rehak and

Susanna Trnka
First published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 selection and editorial matter, Jana Kopelent Rehak and Susanna Trnka;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Jana Kopelent Rehak and Susanna Trnka to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Rehak, Jana Kopelentova, 1968- editor. | Trnka, Susanna, editor.
Title: Politics of joking : anthropological engagements / edited by Jana Kopelent
Rehak and Susanna Trnka.
Description: London ; New York : Routledge, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018028170 (print) | LCCN 2018044302 (ebook) | ISBN
9780429457265 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138314047 (hbk : alk. paper) | ISBN
9781138314054 (pbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780429457265 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Political satire--Social aspects. | Wit and humor--Political
aspects. | Black humor.
Classification: LCC PN6149.P64 (ebook) | LCC PN6149.P64 P66 2019 (print)
| DDC 808.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018028170

ISBN: 978-1-138-31404-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-31405-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-45726-5 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Taylor & Francis Books
CONTENTS

List of figures vii

List of contributors ix
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv

Introduction 1
Jana Kopelent Rehak
1 You’ve got to be joking: Asserting the analytical value of
humour and laughter in contemporary anthropology 12
John Carty and Yasmine Musharbash
2 Disaster humor in an age of truth-bending politics 21
Noelle Molé Liston
3 “Joke” elections: Satirical activism and political opposition in
Lithuania’s electoral politics 37
Neringa Klumbytė
4 When the fearful becomes funny: Joke-work in the midst of
violence 52
Susanna Trnka
5 Humor against forgetting: Joking in the space of death 70
Jana Kopelent Rehak
vi Contents

6 Chisasibi Cree hunters and missionaries: Humor as evidence

of tension 85
Fikret Berkes
7 Mexican speech play: History and the psychological discourses
of power 96
José E. Limón
8 The flesh of joking relationships: A study of Quechua
sexual farce 109
Camille Riverti
9 Trickster in the mirror of play and anthropological imagination 132
Václav Soukup
10 Trump’s two bodies: The trickster-wrestler as a political type 152
Morten Axel Pedersen
11 “An army of comedy”: Political jokes and tropic ambiguity in
the Trump era 168
Morten Nielsen
Afterword: Not all fun and games: The force of humor in
political life 179
Susanna Trnka

Index 187
FIGURES

3.1 The NRP political advertising in the 2008 parliamentary

campaign. The ad states: “Let us all get into the ship of
fools.” On the left corner, the ship is labeled “Parliament” and
painted in the colors of Russia’s flag. 39
3.2 The NRP political advertising in the 2008 parliamentary
campaign. The ad states: “We will not steal from you! We
know how to earn money …” 39
3.3 The NRP political advertising in the 2008 parliamentary
campaign. The ad states: “We will make the general prosecutor
work.” 40
5.1 Joke: “The Library-Enlightened Workman. Studies didn’t mean
much to me, but as you see our party and government under
the leadership of the Soviet … knew where you belong … you
dunces.” 78
5.2 Joke: “And at the end of our cultural afternoon an orchestra
will perform a song from comrade Tupolev Gershwin.” 79
5.3 Joke: “Guys, it’s not our fault that you are here and it’s not
your fault, it’s the fault of capitalists … Like Bata … we pushed
him out. Or in England it is Ford, but those are not facts, but
reality, you must learn and again learn.” 79
5.4 Joke: “What are you staring at? It’s good to learn foreign
languages. I also study American; an American workingman is a
poor man. The richman … Guns and ku plux plán (ku klux
klan). When we take over America I maybe commander.” 80
viii List of figures

5.5 Joke: “Accessory to censorship. You are writing all kinds of

nonsense and yet you are all doctors and engineers … and many
of you have even high school diploma.” 80
5.6 Joke: “You say we are stupid, but we know it.” 81
5.7 Joke: “Dvorak, don’t be smart, do you want to be smarter than
me? And don’t talk when you are talking to me!” 81
5.8 Joke: “It was discovered that you have all kinds of things on
your shelves, but if you put more there, then you will
have it all.” 82
CONTRIBUTORS

Fikret Berkes is Distinguished Professor at the Natural Resources Institute, University

of Manitoba, and Canada Research Chair in Community-based Resource Manage-
ment. His research is in the area of interconnected human-environment systems, and
deals with commons theory, resilience and traditional ecological knowledge. He has
some 30 years’ experience working with Canadian indigenous peoples (Cree, Ojibwa,
Dene and Inuvialuit) and some international indigenous groups. His books include
Sacred Ecology (third edition, 2012) and Coasts for People (2015).

John Carty is the Head of Anthropology at the South Australian Museum, and Pro-
fessor of Anthropology at the University of Adelaide. He has worked extensively with
Aboriginal artists and custodians throughout Australia on art, history and health pro-
jects. Some of his recent books include Patrick Tjungurrayi: Beyond Borders (2015);
Indigenous Australia: Enduring Civilisation (2015); Desert Lake: Art, Science and stories from
Paruku (2014); and Ngaanyatjarra: Art of the Lands (2012). He has curated and con-
tributed to several major exhibitions, including Yidaki: Didjeridu and the Sound of
Australia (2017), Yiwarra Kuju: The Canning Stock Route (2010). His research
explores new methodologies and models for bringing Aboriginal voices and values
into dialogue with mainstream narratives of Australian history, Australian art history,
and with museum collections.

Jana Kopelent Rehak is a cultural anthropologist, Researcher and faculty member

at the University of Maryland. She is the author of the book Recovering Face: Czech
Political Prisoners (2013), addressing issues of social suffering, violence, national
identity, communication, reconciliation and memory in the context of post-socialist
Central Eastern Europe. Her most recent research embraces a range of issues
such as work and aging in coastal environments, and urban social inequality in
Baltimore, USA.
x List of contributors

.
Neringa Klumbyte is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at Miami University,
Ohio. Her articles have appeared in American Anthropologist, American Ethnologist,
Slavic Review, East European Politics and Societies, and other journals. She is a co-
editor (with Gulnaz Sharafutdinova) of Soviet Society in the Era of Late Socialism,
1964–85 (2012). Her major work explores structures and phenomenology of
power in Soviet and post-1991 Lithuania.

José E. Limón is the Director of the Institute for Latino Studies at the University of
Notre Dame where he also holds the endowed Julian Samora Professorship in
Latino Studies as well as the endowed Notre Dame Professorship in American
Literature in the Department of English. He is also Concurrent Professor of
American Studies and Anthropology. Limón has published on a variety of topics in
US–Mexico cultural studies and on US Southern literature in a wide range of
scholarly journals and in four books. The first, Mexican Ballads, Chicano Poems:
History and Influence in Mexican-American Social Poetry (1992), received an “Honor-
able Mention” award for the University of Chicago Folklore Prize for a “dis-
tinguished contribution to folklore scholarship,” while his second book, Dancing
with the Devil: Society and Cultural Poetics in Mexican-American South Texas (1994)
was named as the winner of the 1996 American Ethnological Society Senior
Scholar Prize for “a vital and contentious contribution to ethnology.” A third
book, American Encounters: Greater Mexico, the United States, and the Erotics of Culture
in 1998, and his most recent book is Américo Paredes: Culture and Critique (2012).
He has also edited the writings of Jovita González, Texas historian and folklorist, in
two volumes, Caballero: A Historical Novel (1995) and Dew on the Thorn (1997). He
also has two other book projects in progress: Hispanic Self-Fashioning: The Making of
a Mexican-American Middle Class Identity and Neither Friends, Nor Strangers: Mexicans
and Anglos in the Literary Making of Texas.

Noelle Molé Liston is a cultural anthropologist and Senior Lecturer in New York
University’s Expository Writing Program. Her widely reviewed book, Labor Dis-
orders in Neoliberal Italy: Mobbing, Well-being and the Workplace, published in 2011,
which emerged as Italy transitioned from a safeguarded to an uncertain neoliberal
labor economy. In addition to receiving research grants from institutions like
Fulbright IIE, The German Marshall Fund, and The Council for European Studies,
her work has appeared in journals including American Anthropologist, Cultural
Anthropology, and American Ethnologist. Her new book, The Truth Society: Science and
Disinformation in Italy, is part of the book series, “Expertise: Cultures and Tech-
nologies of Knowledge.”

Yasmine Musharbash is ARC Future Fellow/Senior Lecturer in the Anthro-

pology Department of the University of Sydney. She works with Warlpiri people
in central Australia, focusing on themes like the everyday, sleep, fear, laughter, and
boredom as well as neo-colonial relations, including those to monsters and dogs.
She is author of Yuendumu Everyday: Contemporary Life in Remote Aboriginal Australia
 List of contributors xi

(2009), and co-editor of a number of special volumes and books, including Monster
Anthropology in Australasia and Beyond (2014).

Morten Nielsen is an Associate Professor in the Department of Anthropology at

Aarhus University and head of the interdisciplinary research project “Digressions: A
cross-disciplinary study of the indirectness of the human imagination.” Based on his
fieldwork in Mozambique, Scotland and, most recently, the USA, he has published
on issues such as urban citizenship, time and temporality, comedy, human creativ-
ity, urban aesthetics, materiality, infrastructure, and political cosmologies. Recent
publications include articles in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, HAU:
Journal of Ethnographic Theory, Social Analysis and Social Anthropology.

Morten Axel Pedersen is Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of

Copenhagen. He is author of Not Quite Shamans: Spirit Worlds and Political Lives in
Northern Mongolia (2011), The Ontological Turn: An Anthropological Exposition (with
M. Holbraad, 2017), Urban Hunters: Dealing and Dreaming in Time of Transition (with
L. Højer, in press) and co-editor of “Inner Asian Perspectivism” (Inner Asia, 2007),
“Technologies of the Imagination” (Ethnos, 2009), “Comparative Relativism”
(Common Knowledge, 2011), Times of Security: Ethnographies of Fear, Protest, and the
Future (2013) and “Infrastructures of Certainly and Doubt” (Cambridge Journal of
Anthropology, 2017). He is also co-editor of the book series Ethnography, Theory,
Experiment.

Camille Riverti specializes in cultural anthropology and the Quechua language.

Supervised by Emmanuel Désveaux (EHESS) and César Itier (INALCO), her PhD
work focuses on erotic humor in Quechua. She has done a year of fieldwork in a
Quechua-Spanish bilingual community of the central Andes of Peru, where she
learned to speak Quechua. She aims to systematically analyze local verbal humor,
revisiting joking relationship classical themes in a critical way.

Václav Soukup is a Czech anthropologist working at the Faculty of Arts, Charles

University in Prague. He is the author of Anthropology: Theory of Man and Culture
(2011) and History of Anthropology (2011). He teaches social and cultural anthro-
pology, cultural studies and paleoanthropology, and is among the founders of the
interdisciplinary cultural studies course that aspires to connect human society and
culture. Soukup is the author of numerous scientific papers and monographs
devoted to the theory of culture, history and paleoanthropological thinking. His
extensive book History of Anthropology was awarded the Rector’s Prize of Charles
University as the best publication in the field of social sciences in 2004.

Susanna Trnka is Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Auck-

land. Her research focuses on the intersections between the body, citizenship and
subjectivity. In addition to her long-standing research interests in the Czech
Republic, she has conducted research in New Zealand, the United States and Fiji.
xii List of contributors

Her most recent book, One Blue Child: Asthma, Personal Responsibility, and the Pol-
itics of 21st Century Patienthood (2017), examines the politics of childhood asthma in
the Czech Republic and New Zealand. She has also recently completed an edited
volume on 21st century perspectives on responsibility, Competing Responsibilities:
The Politics and Ethics of Contemporary Life (co-edited with Catherine Trundle,
2017). Her other major works include Bodies of Bread and Butter: Reconfiguring
Women’s Lives in the Post-communist Czech Republic (co-edited with Laura Busheikin,
1993); Young Women of Prague (co-authored with Alena Heitlinger, 1998); State of
Suffering: Political Violence and Community Survival in Fiji (2008); Up Close and Personal:
On Peripheral Perspectives and the Production of Anthropological Knowledge (co-edited with
Cris Shore, 2013); and Senses and Citizenships: Embodying Political Life (co-edited with
Christine Dureau and Julie Park, 2013).
PREFACE
Neringa Klumbytė

On January 7, 2015, after the assassination of the editorial staff and contributors to
Charlie Hebdo (a French satirical magazine) in Paris, a cartoon by David Pope went
viral on social media within hours and was recirculated tens of thousands of times
on Twitter. It depicted a terrorist, completely covered in black, with a still smok-
ing automatic weapon in his hands. Next to him was a figure of an artist on the
ground: he had been shot, his glasses were bent, and an unfinished cartoon drop-
ped beside him. His pen, just dipped into the ink, was still in his hand. The speech
bubble above the terrorist stated: “He drew first.”1 Following these events, “Je suis
Charlie,” (“I am Charlie”) became a rallying cry across much of Europe. Humor
was declared by the critics of Charlie Hebdo to be a “weapon of cultural imperial-
ism,” while supporters claimed that it is an exercise of the basic right of “freedom
of speech.”
Artist David Pope’s cartoon captured humor’s deadly power. Throughout his-
tory, satirists and cartoonists have faced various punishments—prisons for treason or
anti-government conspiracy, executions or chopping off of their hands. Censors
worried about humor’s corrupting powers, its threat to the crown and the regime,
and its dangers to public welfare and social order. Humor genres have been among
the most troubling because of their ambiguous criticism and indirect language.
Although totalitarian regimes imposed the harshest control on inappropriate
humor, they failed to eliminate it. Joking continued to erode Soviet power even
while the joke tellers could have been sent to Gulag. No wonder George Orwell
argued that “every joke is a tiny revolution.”
Many states, empires, and other sovereign bodies employed humor for their own
political projects. In the Soviet Union, laughter was “a weapon of class struggle,” a
mechanism of governing society. Satires were intended to educate people and
instill moral values. Jokes were created to teach the communist language of humor.
Humor has also served as a military weapon. In Soviet magazines confronting
xiv Preface

Western imperialism with humor, laughter played a role in geopolitical warfare,

and it is still evident in contemporary Russian and NATO humor propaganda.
From Aristotle’s famous claim that “of all living creatures only man is endowed
with laughter” to the Renaissance conception of laughter as divine wisdom and the
essential form of truth, humor has been an important part of our political history.
In contemporary engagements with humor as social and political critique and
resistance, it is a light and powerful weapon that every individual can carry through
economic disasters, social turmoil and political revolutions. Humor is indispensable
in our resistance to power and injustice because of its ability to engage our minds,
senses and feelings, all the while appealing to moral ideals and aesthetic positions.
This volume contributes to expanding our knowledge of historical and cultural
dimensions of humor, which is part of the invaluable social and political capital of
human existence.

Note
1 Gunmen from the terrorist group Al-Qaeda’s branch in Yemen attacked Charlie Hebdo for
its controversial cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad. The cartoon by David Pope was
also published by Buzzfeed News, January 7, 2015, at: www.buzzfeed.com/ryanhatesthis/
heartbreaking-cartoons-from-artists-in-response-to-the-ch#.hw1rVblln.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to all those who contributed to this book. Without their efforts this
book could not exist. Thank you for your professional friendship in humor. I owe
special thanks to Susanna Trnka for her intellectual support and for all her con-
tributions to this book. Thank you to my friends among the group of Czech
political prisoners about whom I wrote. Their sense of humor inspired me to write
about humor and edit this book. Many thanks to political cartoonist Gary Huck for
designing the cover illustration for this book. I must also thank Routledge for their
interest in publishing this book. Especially thank you to Marc Stratton, assistant
editor, and the staff of Routledge for their work.
A full acknowledgment must go to Taylor & Francis and The Anthropological
Forum, Department of Anthropology, The University of Western Australia for
granting permission to reprint You’ve Got to be Joking: Asserting the Analytical Value
of Humor and Laughter in Contemporary Anthropology by Yasmine Musharbasch and
John Carty, which was originally published in Anthropological Forum 18(3): 209–
217. This book was supported by the generosity of a number of people. Thanks
for help with editing go to Ken Ackerman. I want to thank Margaret Supik for
her endless dedication to proofreading all of the chapters in this book. Thanks
too for support from Thomas Rocek and Peter Melichar. Special thanks for
editing and support go to Frank Rehak. I was encouraged to persist in publishing
this book by my family. Thank you to my husband Frank Rehak and my
daughters Frances A. Rehak and Ester L. Rehak for their sense of humor in the
midst of the day-to-day.
Jana Kopelent Rehak

I would like to thank Jana Kopelent Rehak for inviting me to take part in this
volume and all of the contributors for their engaging and broad-ranging contribu-
tions. I would also like to thank the late Professor Alan Dundes, who I was lucky
xvi Acknowledgments

enough to have as a teacher when I was an undergraduate student, for vividly –

and humorously – conveying to us the political and social contexts of humor and
for encouraging me to undertake my own research in this area.
Susanna Trnka
INTRODUCTION
Jana Kopelent Rehak

Charlie Chaplin said, “we must laugh at our helplessness against the force of nature
or go insane.” Chaplin’s politics of joking rising from his criticism of social injustice
and his persistence in hopes of humanity define his comic legacy. His mastery of
the “attitude of defiance” is embodied in his performances of the resilient tramp
who never gives in to the force that aims to destroy him. Humor is a social phe-
nomenon depending on intentionality and consciousness. It often confronts, or
even controls, the moral values within political discourse. Joking and laughter will
not overcome the political realities of violence and injustice, but in Chaplin’s sense
it can provide an alternative space for a powerful critique, a form of political pro-
test or a space for the restoration of human dignity.
Ron Jenkins reminds us, “not all comedy lives up to the context in which it is
used, humor can be ugly, cruel, and fascistic as well as liberating, but one way or
another, it leaves its mark on our collective psyche” (Jenkins 1994:11). A well-
known case of a group raising a claim against the use of humor is the 2015
attack against Charlie Hebdo suggesting that the politics of humor is not confined
to a particular cultural or geographical space but exists across national and state
political spaces. Charlie Hebdo is an example of how the politics of humor is
linked to moral values and power. While this case delineates the limits of humor,
it also leads to questions such as: When can you joke? Where can you joke?
What can’t you joke about?
This publication is a collaborative attempt to show a new direction in anthro-
pological engagements with humor as political expression. The essays in this
volume, written by anthropologists working in very diverse cultural contexts and
geographical areas, discuss the diverse practices of humor and joke-work, joking
relations, comic attitudes, acts of play, and the potential of humor as a political
force. Each author offers insight into a socio-culturally specific humor practice.
Collectively, these scholars provoke further questions about multiple knowledge,
2 Jana Kopelent Rehak

ambiguity, intentionality, falsehood and identity, and mythological imagination

through distinct types of comic modes and textual inquiries. They show how
humor is deployed across various cultures to evoke emotions of anger, fear, despair,
or a sense of the uncertain, as well as hope and solidarity. They examine humor
not only as it is constituted in political anxiety, aggression, power and gender iden-
tity, but also as it becomes a tool to resist, repair, reconcile or make a moral claim.
Focusing specifically on the domain of the socio-political, the chapters in this
volume pave the way to new understandings of how the force of humor reverberates
in culturally specific contexts. In this collection the authors open up a long overdue
conversation about the distinctive power dynamics and limits inherent in humor,
highlighting the unspoken or tacit dimensions of jokes, the ways that humor can
never to be taken at face-value, the benefits and dangers of being able to hide behind
the mask of “just joking” while being deadly serious, and the feelings of pleasure,
pathos, dignity, struggle and absurdity that come to the fore through joke-work.
Taking humor as a political expression, many contributors to this volume
explore interconnected notions of absurdity, ambiguity and incongruity. Drawing
from Bakhtin’s theory of the carnivalesque, some conceptualize political perfor-
mances as political carnivalesque. Others engage in the analysis of clowning as it
evolved across time and space, but also specifically in the climate of political satire
in a post-liberal era. Witnessing the clowning on the current political stage, across
national boundaries, provides us with an example of how laughter can be used by
political leaders to deflect from disturbing political practices. The level of political
absurdity of our time is high. We are provoked to laugh, yet some satire by which
we are collectively amused makes us realize the political realities of the everyday.
The theatrical dimension of political satire and staged absurdity, explored in this
volume, resonates with the phenomenon of political absurdity in plays written by
Václav Havel, Tom Stoppard, Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco. What connects
the absurd political theater and the ethnographic analysis of political absurdity is a
recognition of falsehood and sense of indefinite political identities evolving from
experiential knowledge resources. Václav Havel, for example, in his plays expressed
the dark absurdity of the political life he experienced as a dissident under the
communist regime in Czechoslovakia. Connecting the notions of existential
absurdity in the banality of everyday life and politically staged realities in the 1970s
socialist era in Eastern Europe, Havel addressed the double bond of the painful and
satirical embodied in political subjectivities.
The following section offers a brief discussion about interesting examples from a
comic legacy and satirical voice in anthropology. This is not a comprehensive
review but rather a selection of works that are relevant to the themes of this book.

Comic legacy and satirical voice in anthropological text

Anthropological engagement with humor and laughter has been historically scarce.
While humor has not been considered by many anthropological studies, evidence
suggests that an anthropologist’s engagement with humor and joking has been
 Introduction 3

interwoven into a linguistic analysis of rituals, play and speech as well as social
structure or symbolic interpretations of social relations. In Bateson’s tradition,
sociocultural anthropologists like Sciama (Sciama 2016) and Oring (Oring 2016)
defined humor as a complex cognitive process and a function of consciousness.
Polimeli and Reiss posit that humor may confer physiological benefits such as
immunity and stress release: “Given that even a simple joke can utilize language
skills, theory-of-mind, symbolism, abstract thinking, and social perception, humor
may arguably be humankind’s most complex cognitive attribute” (Polimeni and
Reiss 2006).
Historically anthropological theories of humor could be broadly organized into
three major areas of study: Humor in Religion, Trickster Tales, and Joking Rela-
tions (McGhee and Goldstein 1983). Mahadev L. Apte (Apte 1983) outlined in the
most systematic and comprehensive way some of the major anthropological the-
ories and topics touching on humor. Apte’s work included the functional theory of
joking relations, the structural analysis of Levi-Strauss, the cognitive and psycho-
logical approach explored by Gregory Bateson, and the symbolic interpretative
engagement with humor by Mary Douglas, Victor Turner and Clifford Geertz.
In their discussions of ritual clowning among Native American societies Jacob
Levine and William Guinee reflected upon early ethnographic encounters with
humor (Guinee 1985; Levine 1969). Their evidence provides an interesting insight
into the ritualized joking which mirrors the moral order of society and reveals how
humor techniques can become powerful forces for managing social relations and
supernatural powers. Through the practice of reversal technique, clowns, elected
and respected by Zuni society, as Guinee tells us, draw attention to taboo items
and manage to reduce growing tensions in an otherwise strongly restricted social
structure. The priestly clowns are the mediators of social conflicts and, in Zuni
society, clowns possess metaphysical power or medicine that is necessary for tribal
survival. Zuni clowning rituals, Guinee shows, are connected to Zuni philosophy
and its worldview of conceptions of balance and centrality.
Dell Hymes held that Boasian anthropology in the early part of the 20th century
established a foundation for the analysis and representations of humor in perfor-
mance and play (Hymes 1964). Examples include Amelia Susman who presented
the analysis of joking among the Winnebago in her essay Word Play in Winnebago
(Susman 1941), Edward Sapir who wrote Two Navaho Puns (Sapir 1939) and Ruth
Bunzel who discussed the Zuni clowning ceremonies in relation to Zuni mythol-
ogy (Benzul 1929). Later, Paul Radin in his 1956 book The Trickster discussed the
role of the trickster, sometimes identical with the clown in Native American
mythology. George Herzog then further expanded this claim and discussed less
mainstream forms of communication such as whistling, drumming, horn-calling,
singing or chanting (Herzog 1964).
In a later, more recent context, clowning acts in the Sri Lankan culture, whether
satirical, ridiculous or comic, as Obeyesekere writes, are “used as a conscious tool
of containment and control of demonic, divine or oppressive local power and as a
transformative means of underlining and defining the normative and the real”
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478 MYOLOGY \ obturator nerve reaches the thigh by

passing in front of the muscle, and the posterior branch by piercing
it. Norm.— The Gluteus m&ximua is supplied by the fifth lumbar and
first and second sacrs nerves through the inferior gluteal nerve; the
Glutei mediua and minimus and the Tensor fasciip latffi by the fourth
and fifth lumbar and first sacral nerves through the superior gluteal;
the Piriformis ifl supplied by the first sjid second sacral nerves; the
Gemellus inferior and Quadratus femoris by the last lumbar and first
sacral nerves; the Gemellus superior and Obturator intemus by the
first, second, and third sacral nerves, and the Obturator exiemua by
the third and fourth lumbar nerves through the obturator. Fta, 43S.—
Tha ObtunUtr eiUraiu. Actkou. — When the Gluteus maximus takes
its fixed point from the pelvis, it extends the femur and brings the
bent thigh into a line with the body. Taking its fixed point from
below, it acta upon the pelvis, supporting it and the trunk upon the
head of the femur; this is especially obvious in standing on one leR.
Its moat powerful action is to cause the body to regain the erect
position after stooping, by drawing the pelvis backward, being
aaaisted in this action by the Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, and
Semimembranosus, The Glutxua maxiinus is a tensor of the fascia
lata, and by its connection with the iliotibial band steadies the femur
on the articular surfaces of the tibia during standing, when the
Extensor muscles are relaxed. The lower part of the muscle also acts
as an >«Uucl^u-aad«xteniid rotator of the limb. The Glutei medius
and minimus abduct the thigh, when the limb is extended, and are
principally called into action in supporting the body on one limb, in
conjunction with the Tensor fasciiE latte. Their anterior fibers, by
drawing the greater trochanter forward, rotate the thigh inward, in
which action they are also assisted by the Tensor fascife lats. The
Tensor fascicelate is a tensor of the fascia lata: continuing its action,
the oblique direction of its fibers enables it to abduct the thigh and
to rotate it inward. In the erect posture, acting from below, it will
serve to steady the pelvis upon the head of the femur; asd by
means of the iliotibial band it steadies the condyles of the femur on
the articular surfaces of the tibia, ajid assists the Glutieus maximus
in supporting the knee in the extended position. The remaining
muscles are powerful external rotators of the thigh. In the sitting
posture, when the thigh is flexed upon the pelvis, their action as
rotel^Ta ceases, and they become abductors, with the exception of
the Obturator extemus, which still rotates the femur outward. 4. The
Posterior Femoral Muscles (Hamstrins Muscles) (Fig. 434). Biceps
femoris. Semitendinosus. Semimembranosus. The Biceps femoris
(Biceps) is situated on the posterior and lateral asptet of the thigh. It
has two heads of origin ; one, the lone head, arises from the lower
and inner
 THE POSTERIOR FEMORAL MUSCLES 479^ impression on
the back part of the tuberosity of the ischium, by a tendon common
to it and the Semitendinosus, and from the lower part of the
sacrotuberous ligament; the other, the short head, arises from the
lateral lip of the linea aspera, between the Adductor magnus and
Vastus lateralis, extending up almost as high as the insertion of the
Glutaeus maximus; from the lateral prolongation of the linea aspera
to within 5 cm. of the lateral condyle; and from the lateral
intermuscular septum. The fibers of the long head form a fusiform
belly, which passes obliquely downward and lateralward across the
sciatic nerve to end in an aponeurosis which covers the posterior
surface of the muscle, and receives the fibers of the short head; thb
aponeurosis becomes gradually contracted into a tendon, which is
inserted into the lateral side of the head of the fibula, and by a small
slip into the lateral condyle of the tibia. At its insertion the tendon
divides into two portions, which embrace the fibular collateral
ligament of the knee-joint. From the posterior border of the tendon
a thin expansion is given off to the fascia of the leg. The tendon of
insertion of this muscle forms the lateral hamstring; the common
peroneal nerve descends along its medial border. Yariationa. — ^The
short head may be absent; additional heads may arise from the
ischial tuberosity, the linea aspera, the medial supracondylar ridge of
the femur or from various other parts. A slip may pass to the
Gastrocnemius. The Semitendmosiis, remarkable for the great length
of its tendon of insertion, is situated at the posterior and medial
aspect of the thigh. It arises from the lower and medial impression
on the tuberosity of the ischium, by a tendon common to it and the
long head of the Biceps femoris; it also arises from an aponeurosis
which connects the adjacent surfaces of the two muscles to the
extent of about 7.5 cm. from their origin. The muscle is fusiform and
ends a little below the middle of the thigh in a long round tendon
which lies along the medial side of the popliteal fossa; it then curves
around the medial condyle of the tibia and passes over the tibial
collateral ligament of the knee-joint, from which it is separated by a
bursa, and is inserted into the upper part of 'the medial siurface of
the body of the tibia, nearly as far forward as its anterior crest. At its
insertion it gives off from its lower border a prolongation to the deep
fascia of the leg and lies behind the tendon of the Sartorius, and
below that of the Gracilis, to which it is united. A tendinous
intersection is usually observed about the middle of the muscle. The
Semimembranosus, so called from its membranous tendon of origin,
is situated at the back and medial side of the thigh. It arises by a
thick tendon from the upper and outer impression on the tuberosity'
of the ischium, above and lateral to the Biceps femoris and
Semitendinosus. The tendon of origin expands into an aponetirosis,
which covers the upper part of the anterior surface of the muscle;
from this aponeurosis muscular fibers arise, and converge to another
aponeurosis which covers the lower part of the posterior siurface of
the muscle and contracts into the tendon of insertion. It is inserted
mainly into the horizontal groove on the posterior medial aspect of
the medial condyle of the tibia. The tendon of insertion gives off
certain fibrous expansions: one, of considerable size, passes upward
and lateralward to be inserted into the back part of the lateral
condyle of the femur, forming part of the obliqve popliteal ligament
of the knee-joint; a second is continued downward to the fascia
which covers the Popliteus muscle; while a few fibers join the tibial
collateral ligament of the joint and the fascia of the leg. The muscle
overlaps the upper part of the popliteal vessels. VariatioiiB. — It may
be reduced or absent, or double, arising mainly from the
sacrotuberous b'gament and giving a slip to the femur or Adductor
magnus. The tendons of insertion of the two preceding muscles form
the medial hamstrings.
 480 MYOLOGY Nerves. — The muscles of this region are
supplied by the fourth and fifth lumbar and the first, second, and
third sacral nerves; the nerve to the short head of the Biceps femoris
is derived from the conunon peronecd, the other muscles are
supplied through the tibial nerve. Actions. — ^The hamstring
muscles flex the leg upon the thigh. When the knee is semiflexed,
the Biceps femoris in consequence of its oblique direction rotates the
leg slightly outward; and the Semitendinosus, and to a slight extent
the Semimembranosus, rotate the leg inward, assisting the
Popliteus. Taking their fixed point from below, these muscles serve
to support the pelvis upon the head of the femur, and to draw the
trunk directly backward, as in raising it from the stooping position or
in feats of strength, when the body is thrown backward in the form
of an arch. As already indicated on page 285, complete flexion of the
hip cannot be effected unless the knee-joint is also flexed, on
accoxmt of the shortness of the hamstring muscles. m. THE
MUSCLES AND FASCIA OF THE LEG. The muscles of the leg may be
divided into three groups: anterior, posterior, and lateral. 1. The
Anterior Crural Muscles (Fig. 437). Tibialis anterior. Extensor
digitorum longus. Extensor hallucis longus. Peronseus tertius. Deep
Fascia {fascia cruris). — The deep fascia of the leg forms a complete
investment to the muscles, and is fused with the periosteum over
the subcutaneous surfaces of the bones. It is continuous abcroe with
the fascia lata, and is attached around the knee to the patella, the
ligamentum patellae, the tuberosity and condyles of the tibia, and
the head of the fibula. Behind^ it forms the popliteal fascia, covering
in the popliteal fossa; here it is strengthened by transverse fibers,
and perforated by the small saphenous vein. It receives an
expansion from the tendon of the Biceps femoris laterally, and from
the tendons of the Sartorius, Gracilis, Semitendinosus, s^nd
Semimembranosus medially; in front, it blends with the periosteum
covering the subcutaneous surface of the tibia, and with that
covering the head and malleolus of the fibula; below-^ it is
continuous with the transverse crural and laciniate ligaments. It is
thick and dense in the upper and anterior part of the leg, and gives
attachment, by its deep surface, to the Tibialis anterior and Extensor
digitorum longus; but thinner behind, where it covers the
Gastrocnemius and Soleus. It gives off from its deep surface, on the
lateral side of the leg, two strong intermuscular septa, the anterior
and posterior peroneal septa, which enclose the Peroneei longus and
brevis, and separate them from the muscles of the anterior and
posterior crural regions, and several more slender processes which
enclose the individual muscles in each region. A broad transverse
intermuscular septum, called the deep transverse fascia of the leg,
intervenes between the superficial and deep posterior crural
muscles. The Tibialis anterior (Tibialis arvticus) is situated on the
lateral side of the tibia; it is thick and fleshy above, tendinous below.
It arises from the lateral condyle and upper half or two-thirds of the
lateral surface of the body of the tibia; from the adjoining part of the
interosseous membrane; from the deep surface of the fascia; and
from the intermuscular septum between it and the Extensor
digitorum longus. The fibers run vertically downward, and end in a
tendon, which is apparent on the anterior surface of the muscle at
the lower third of the leg. After passing through the most medial
compartments of the transverse and cruciate crural ligaments, it is
inserted into the medial and under surface of the first cuneiform
bone, and the base of the first metatarsal bone. This muscle
overlaps the anterior tibial vessels and deep peroneal nerve in the
upper part of the leg. VariationB. — A 4eep portion of the muscle is
rarely inserted into the talus, or a tendinous slip may pass to the
head of the first metatarsal bone or the base of the first phalanx of
the great toe. The Tibiofaacialis anterior^ a small muscle from the
lower part of the tibia to the transverse or cruciate crural ligaments
or deep fascia.
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THE ANTERIOR CRURAL MUSCLES The Eztonsor hallncis

longns ( Extensor propriits Mlucia) ia a thin muscle, situated
between the Tibialis anterior and the Extensor diptorum loDgus. It
arises from the anterior surface of the fibda for about the middle
two-fourths of its extent, medial to the origin of the Extensor
digitomm longus; it also arUes from the interosseous membrane to a
similar extent. The anterior tibial vessels and deep peroneal nerve lie
between it and the Tibialis anterior. The fibers pass downward, and
end in a tendon, which occupies the anterior border of the muscle,
passes through a distinct compartment in the cruciate crural
ligament, crosses from the lateral to tiie medial side of the anterior
tibial vessels near the bend of the ankle, and is inserted into the
base of the distal pbalaox of the great toe. Opposite the
metatarsophalangeal articulation, the tendon gives off a thin
prolongation on either side, to caver the surface of the joint. An
expansion from the medial side of the tendon is usually inserted into
the base of the proximal phalanx. Tiristioiia. — Occaaionally united
at its OTigin with the Ex(«DSor digitorum longus. Exlemor. oeais
melaiarsi halIscit, asmall muscle, eometimes found as a slip from the
Eitoisor hsJlucia longus, or from the Tibialis anterior, or FroDi the
Extensor digitorum longus. or as a distinct muscle; it traverses the
same compartipent of the transverse ligament with the Extensor
hftlluds longus. • The Xxteiuot dicttorum longus is a penniform
muscle, situated at the lateral part of the front of the leg. It arises
from the lateral condyle of the tibia; from ihe upp« three-fourths of
the anterior surface of the body of the fibula; from the upper part of
the interosseous membrane; from the deep surface of the fascia;
and from the intermuscular septa between it and the Tibialis anterior
on the medial, and the Peronsei on the lateral side. Between it and
the Tibialis anterior are the upper portions of the anterior tibial
vessels and deep peroneal nerve. The tendon passes under the
transverse and cruciate crural ligaments in company with the
Peronseus tertius, and divides into four slips, which run forward on
the dorsum of the foot, and are inserted into the second and third
phalanges of the four lesser toes. The teadons to the second, third,
and fourth toes are each joined, opposite the metatarsophalangeal
articulation, on the lateral side by a tendon of the Extensor
digitorum brevis. The tendons are inserted in the following manner:
each receives a fibrous expansion from the Interossei and
Lumbricalis, and then spreads out into a broad aponeurosis, which
covers the dorsal surface of the ^"'' *^'
 482 MYOLOGY first phalanx: this aponeurosis, at the
articulation of the first with the second phalanx, divides into three
slips — an intermediate, which is inserted into the base of the
second phalanx; and two collateral slips, which, after uniting on the
dorsal surface of the second phalanx, are continued onward, to be
inserted into the base of the third phalanx. Variations. — This
muscle varies considerably in the modes of origin and the
arrangement of its various tendons. The tendons to the second and
fifth toes may be found doubled, or extra slips are given off from
one or more tendons to their corresponding metatarsal bones, or to
the short extensor, or to one of the interosseous muscles. A slip to
the great toe from the innermost tendon has been found. The
Peronsdos tertius is a part of the Extensor digitorum longus, and
might be described as its fifth tendon. The fibers belonging to this
tendon arise from the lower third or more of the anterior surface of
the fibula; from the lower part of the interosseous membrane; and
from an intermuscular septum between it and the Peroneeus brevis.
The tendon, after passing under the transverse and cruciate crural
ligaments in the same canal as the Extensor digitorum longus, is
inserted into the dorSal surface of the base of the metatarsal bone
of the little toe. This muscle is sometimes wanting. Nerves. — These
muscles are supplied by the fourth and fifth lumbar and first sacral
nerves through the deep peroneal nerve. Actions. — ^The Tibialis
anterior and Peronseus tertius are the direct flexors of the foot at
the ankle-joint; the former muscle, when acting in conjunction with
the Tibialis posterior, raises the medial border of the foot, i. 6.,
inverts the foot; and the latter, acting with the Peronaei brevis and
longus, raises the lateral border of the foot, t. e., everts the foot.
The Extensor digitorum longus and Extensor hallucis longus extend
the phalanges of the toes, and, continuing their action, flex the foot
upon the leg. Taking their fixed points from below, in the erect
posture, all these muscles serve to fix the bones of the leg in the
perpendicular position, and give increased strength to the ankle-
joint. 2. The Posterior Crural Muscles. The muscles of the back of the
leg are subdivided into two groups — superficial and deep. Those of
the superficial group constitute a powerful muscular mass, forming
the calf of the leg. Their large size is one of the most characteristic
features of the muscular apparatus in man, and bears a direct
relation to his erect attitude and his mode of progression. The
Superficial Group (Fig. 438). Gastrocnemius. Soleus. Plantaris. The
Oastrocneinius is the most superficial muscle, and forms the greater
part of the calf. It arises by two heads, which are connected to the
condyles of the femur by strong, flat tendons. The medial and larger
head takes its origin from a depression at the upper and back part of
the medial condyle and from the adjacent part of the femur. The
lateral head arises from an impression on the side of the lateral
condyle and from the posterior surface of the femur inunediately
above the lateral part of the condyle. Both heads, also, arise from
the subjacent part of the capsule of the knee. Each tendon spreads
out into an aponeurosis, which covers the posterior surface of that
portion of the muscle to which it belongs. From the anterior surfaces
of 'these tendinous expansions, muscular fibers are given off; those
of the medial head being thicker and extending lower than those of
the lateral. The fibers unite at an angle in the middle line of the
muscle in a tendinous raph6, which expands into a broad
aponeurosis on the anterior surface of tjie muscle, and into this the
remaining fibers are inserted. The aponeurosis, gradually
contracting, unites with the tendon of the Soleus, and forms with it
the tendo calcaneus.
 THE POSTERIOR CRURAL MUSCLES 483 Yuiations. —
Absence of the outer head or of the entire muscle. Extra slips from
the popliteal surface of the femur. The Soleus is a broad flat muscle
situated immediately in front of the Gastrocnemius. It arises by
tendinous fibers from the back of the head of the fibula, and from
the upper third of the posterior surface of the body of the bone;
from the popliteal line, and the middle third of the medial border of
the tibia; some fibers also arise from a tendinous arch placed
between the tibial and fibular origins of the muscle, in front of which
the popliteal vessels and tibial nerve run. The fibers end in an
aponeurosis which covers the posterior surface of the muscle, and,
gradually becoming thicker and narrower, joins with the tendon of
the Gastrocnemius, and forms with it the tendo calcaneus.
YaiiatUnui. — Accessory head to its lower and inner part usually
ending in the tendocalcaneus, or the calcaneus, or the laciniate
ligament. The Gastrocnemius and Soleus together form a muscular
mass which is occasionally described as the Triceps sura; its tendon
of insertion is the tendo calcaneus. Tendo Calcaneus (tendo AchUlis)
. — ^The tendo calcaneus, the conunon tendon of the
Gastrocnemius and Soleus, is the thickest and strongest in the body.
It is about 15 cm. long, and begins near the middle of the leg, but
receives fleshy fibers on its anterior surface, almost to its lower end.
Gradually becoming contracted below, it is inserted into the middle
part of the posterior surface of the calcaneus, a bursa being
interposed between the tendon and the upper part of this surface.
The tendon spreads out somewhat at its lower end, so that its
narrowest part is about 4 em. above its insertion. It is covered by
the fascia and the integument, and is separated from the deep
muscles and vessels by a considerable interval filled up with areolar
and adipose tissue. Along its lateral side, but superficial to it, is the
small saphenous vein. The Plantaris is placed between the
Gastrocnemius and Soleus. It arises from the lower part of the
lateral prolongation of the linea aspera, and from the oblique
popliteal ligament of the knee-joint. It forms a small fusiform belly,
from 7 to 10 cm. long, ending in a long slender tendon which
crosses obliquely between the two muscles of the calf, and runs
along the inedial border of the tendo calcaneus, to be inserted with
it into the posterior part of the calcaneus. This muscle is sometimes
double, and at other times wanting. Occasionally, its tendon is lost in
the laciniate ligament, or in the fascia of the leg. Nerref . — ^The
Gastrocnemius and Soleus are supplied by the first and second
sacral nerves, and the Plantaris by the fourth and fifth lumbar and
first sacral nerves, through the tibial nerve. Actioiis. — ^The muscles
of the calf are the chief extensors of the foot at the ankle-joint. They
possess considerable power, and are constantly called into use in
standing, walking, dancmg, and leaping; hence the large size they
usually present. In walking, these muscles raise the heel from the
ground; the body being thus supported on the raised foot, the
opposite limb can be carried forward. In st
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fibula. Above, where it covers the PoplJteus, it is thick and

dense, and receives an expansion from the tendon of the
Semimembranosus; it is thinner in the middle of the leg; but below,
where it covers the tendons passing behind the malleoli, it is
thickened and continuous with the laciniate ligament. The Poplitens
is a ttun, flat, triangular muscle, which forms the lower part of
 THE POSTERIOR CRURAL MUSCLES 485 ■ the floor of the
popliteal fossa. It arises by a strong tendon about 2.5 cm. long, from
a depression at the anterior part of the groove on the lateral condyle
of the femur, and to a small extent from the oblique popliteal
ligament of the knee-joint; and is inserted into the medial two-thirds
of the triangular surface above the popliteal line on the posterior
surface of the body of the tibia, and into the tendinous expansion
covering the surface of the muscle. I. — Additional head from the
sesamoid bone in the outer head of the Gastrocnemius. Poplitew
minor, rare, orig;in from femur on the inner side of the Flantaris,
insertion into the posterior ligament of the knee-joint;
PeroneotHnalis, 14 per cent., origin iimer side of the head of the
fibula, insertion into the upper end of the oblique line of the tibia, it
lies beneath the Popliteus. The Flexor hallucis longus is situated on
the fibular side of the leg. It arises from the inferior two-thirds of the
posterior surface of the body of the fibula, with the exception of 2.5
cm. at its lowest part; from the lower part of the interosseous
membrane; from an intermuscular septum between it and the
Peronsei, laterally, and from the fascia Covering the Tibialis posterior,
medially. The fibers pass obliquely downward and backward, and
end in a tendon which occupies nearly the whole length of the
posterior surface of the muscle. This tendon lies in a groove which
crosses the posterior surface of the lower end of the tibia, the
posterior surface of the talus, and the under surface of the
sustentaculmn tali of the calcaneus; in the sole of the foot it runs
forward between the two heads of the Flexor hallucis brevis, and is
inserted into the base of the last phalanx of the great toe. The
grooves on the talus and calcaneus, which contain the tendon of the
muscle, are converted by tendinous fibers into distinct canals, lined
by a mucous sheath. As the tendon passes forward in the sole of the
foot, it is situated above, and crosses from the lateral to the medial
side of the tendon of the Flexor digitorum longus, to which it is
connected by a fibrous slip. Yuiations.-^Usually a slip runs to the
Flexor digitorum and frequently an additional slip runs from the
Flexor digitorum to the Flexor hallucis. PeroneocalcanetLs intemus,
rare, origin below or outside the Flexor hallucis from the back of the
fibula, passes over the sustentaculum tali with the Flexor hallucis
and is inserted into the calcaneum. The Flexor digitorum longus is
situated on the tibial side of the leg. At its origin it is thin and
pointed, but it gradually increases in size as it descends. It arises
from the posterior surface of the body of the tibia, from immediately
below the popliteal line to within 7 or 8 cm. of its low^r extremity,
medial to the, tibial origin of the Tibialis posterior; it also arises from
thV fascia covering the Tibialis posterior. Tte fibers end in a tendon,
which runs nearly the whole length of the posterior surface of the
muscle. This tendon passes behind the medial malleolus, in a
groove, conamon to it and the Tibialis posterior, but separated from
the latter by a fibrous septum, each tendon being contained in a
special compartment lined by a separate mucous sheath. It passes
obliquely forward and lateralward, superficial to the deltoid ligament
of the ankle-joint, into the sole of the foot (Fig. 444), where it
crosses below the tendon of the Flexor hallucis longus, and receives
from it a strong tendinous slip. It then expands and is joined by the
Quadratus plantse, and finally divides into four tendons, which are
inserted into the bases of the last phalanges of the second, third,
fourth, and fifth toes, each tendon passing through an opening in
the corresponding tendon of the Flexor digitorum brevis opposite the
base of the first phalanx. Vaiiafeioiis. — Flexor accesaorkis lorvgus
digUoTurrij not infrequent, origin from fibula, or tibia, or the deep
fascia and ending in a tendon which, after passing beneath the
laciniate ligament, joins the tendon of the long fiexor or the
Quadratus plantse. The Tibialis posterior {Tibialis posticus) lies
between the two preceding muscles, and is the most deeply seated
of the muscles on the back of the leg. It begins above by two
pointed processes, separated by an angular interval through which
 486 MYOLOGY the anterior tibial vessels pass forward to
the front of the leg. It arises from the whole of the posterior surface
of the interosseous membrane, excepting its lowest part; from the
lateral portion of the posterior surface of the body of the tibia,
between the commencement of the popliteal line above and the
junction of the middle and lower thirds of the body below; and from
the upper two-thirds of the medial surface of the fibula; some fibers
also arise from the deep transverse fascia, and from the
intermuscular septa separating it from the adjacent muscles. In the
lower fourth of the leg its tendon passes in front of that of ^e Flexor
digitorum longus and lies with it in a groove behind the medial
malleolus, but enclosed in a separate sheath; it next passes under
the laciniate and over the deltoid ligament into the foot, and then
beneath the plantar calcaneonavicular ligament. The tendon contains
a sesamoid fibrocartilage, as it runs under the plantar
calcaneonavicular ligament. It is inserted into the tuberosity of the
navicidar bone, and gives oflF fibrous expansions, one of which
passes backward to the sustentaculimi tali of the calcaneus, others
forward and lateralward to the three cuneiforms, the cuboid, and the
bases of the second, third, and fourth metatarsal bones. Nerves. —
^The Popliteus is supplied by the fourth and fifth lumbar and first
sacral nerves, the Flexor digitorum longus and Tibialis posterior by
the fifth lumbar and first sacral, and the Flexor hallucis longus by the
fifth lumbar and the first and second sacral nerves, through the tibial
nerve. Actions. — ^The Popliteus assists in flexing the leg upon the
thigh; when the leg is flexed, it will rotate the tibia inward. It is
especially called into action at the beginning of the act of bending
the knee, inasmuch as it produces the slight inward rotation of the
tibia which is essential in the early stage of this movement. The
Tibialis posterior is a direct extensor of the foot at the anklejoint;
acting in conjunction with the Tibialis anterior, it turns the sole of the
foot upward and medialward, i. e., inverts the foot, antagonizing the
Peronsei, which turn it upward and lateralward (evert it). In the sole
of the foot the tendon of the Tibialis posterior lies directly below the
plantar calcaneonavicular ligament, and is therefore an important
factor in maintaining the arch of the foot. The Flexor digitorum
longus and Flexor hallucis longus are the direct flexors of the
phalanges, and, continuing their action, extend the foot upon the
leg; they assist the Gastrocnemius and Soleus in extending the foot,
as in the act of walking, or in standing on tiptoe. In consequence of
the oblique direction of its tendons the Flexor digitorum longus
would draw the toes medialward, were it not for the Quadratus
plantse, which is inserted into the lateral side of the tendon, and
draws it to the middle line of the foot. Taking their fixed point from
the foot, these muscles serve to maintain the upright posture by
steadying the tibia and fibula perpendicularly upon the talus. 3. The
Lateral Crural Musdes (Fig. 439). Peronseus longus. Peronseus
brevis. The' Peronflsos longus is situated at the upper part of the
lateral side of the leg, and is the more superficial of the two
muscles. It arises from the head and upper two-thirds of the lateral
surface of the body of the fibula, from the deep surface of the
fascia, and from the intermuscular septa between it and the muscles
on the front and back of the leg; occasionally also by a few fibers
from the lateral condyle of the tibia. Between its attachments to the
head and to the body of the fibula l^ere is a gap through which the
common peroneal nerve passes to the front of the leg. It ends in a
long tendon, which runs behind the lateral malleolus, in a groove
common to it and the tendon of the Peronseus brevis, behind which
it lies; the groove is converted into a canal by the superior peroneal
retinaculum, and the tendons in it are contained in a common
mucous sheath. The tendon then extends obliquely forward across
the lateral side of the calcaneus, below the trochlear process, and
the tendon of the Peroneeus brevis, and under cover of the inferior
peroneal retinaculum. It crosses the lateral side of the cuboid, and
then runs on the under surface of that bone in a groove which is
converted into a canal by the long plantar ligament; the tendon then
crosses the sole of the foot obliquely, and is inserted into the lateral
side of the base of the first metatarsal bone and the lateral
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THE LATERAL CRURAL MUSCLES 487 side of the first

cuneiform. Occasionally it sends a slip to the base of the second
metatarsal bone. The tendon changes its direction at two points:
first, behind the lateral malleolus ; secondly, on the cuboid bone; in
both of these situations the tendon is thickened, and, in the latter, a
sesamoid fibrocartilage (sometimes a bone), is usually developed in
its substance. Pia. 440. — Grofla^ection ihrouah tniddle of leg.
(EyeififlhyDier And Scho«nuker.) The PeroniBlu brevis lies under
cover of the Peronieus longus, and is a shorter and smaller muscle.
It arises from the lower two-thirds of fiie lateral surface of the body
of the fibula; medial to the Peroneeua longus; and from the
intermuscular septa separating it from the adjacent muscles on the
front and bactc of the leg. Tie fibers pass vertically downward, and
end in a tendon which runs behind the lateral malleolus along with
but in front of that of the preceding muscle, the two tendons being
enclosed in the same compartment, and lubricated by a common
mucous sheath. It then runs forward on the lateral side of the
calcaneus, above the trochlear process and the tendon of the
Peronaus longus, and is inserted into the tuberosity at the base of
the fifth metatarsal bone, on its lateral side. On the lateral surface of
the calcaneus the tendons of the Peroneei longus and brevis occupy
separate osseoaponeurotic canals formed by the calcaneus and the
perineal retinacula; each tendon is enveloped by a forward
prolongation of the common mucous sheath. TuiAtknu.— -FuaiDn of
the two peroiwei is rare, A slip from the Feronieus longus to the base
of the third, fourth or fifth metatarsal bone, or to the Adductor
hallueia is occaHionally seeo. Peronorua actxigonua, origim from the
fibula between the longus and brevis, joins the tendon of the longus
in the sole of the foot. PfTonaua quinH diffiU, rare, origin lower
fourth of the fibula under the brevis, insertion into the Extensor
aponeurosis of the little toe. More conunon as a slip of the tendon of
the Peronieus t« quartus, 13 per cent. (Gruber), origin back of fibula
between the brevis and the Flexor hallucis, insertion into the
peroneal spine of the calcaneum, (peroneocakaneus exiemwn), or
less frequently into the tuberosity of the cuboid
{.TtenmeocvboideiLii). K«T«t. — ^The FeronKi longus and brevis are
supplied by the fourth and fifth lumbar and fint sacral nerves
through the 8i4)erficial peroneal nerve.
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488 MYOLOGY Aetloiui.— The Perotuei loogus and bievia

extend the foot upon fhe leg, in conjuncfion with the Tibialis
poBt«rioT, antagoniii&B the Tibialis anterior and PerooKua tertiua,
which are flexora of the foot. The Feronsus longua also everts the
sole of the foot, and from the oblique direction of the tendon across
the sole of the foot is an important asent in the maintenance of the
transverse arch. Taking their fixed points below, the Peronfei serve
to steady the leg upon the foot. This is especially the case in
standing upon one leg, when the tendency of the superincumbent
wei^t is to throw the leg medialward ; the Perorueus longua
overcomes this tendency by drawing on the lateral side of the leg.
THE FASCIA ABOUND THE AKKLE. Fibrous bands, or thickened
portions of the fascia, bind down the tendons in front of and behind
the ankle in their passage to the foot. They comprise three
ligaments, viz., the tramversfl ctotbI, the crncUto cniral and the
bdnwte; and the superior and inferior peroneal retinacuJa. J'ennuui
brteii feronaut tertina Fin. 441.— Tha mucoui sheithi of the tandoni
anHind the ankle. Lateral aapect. Tnoarerse Crnrtl Lif amant
(ligamentum tranaveraum crurU; upper part of anterior annular
ligament) (Fig, 441). — The transverse crural ligament binds down
the tendons of Extensor digitorum longus, Extensor hallucis longus,
Peronseus tertius, and Tibialis anterior as they descend on the front
of the tibia and fibula; under it are found also the anterior tibial
vessels and deep peroneal nerve. It is attached laterally to the lower
end of the fibula, and medially to the tibia; above it is continuous
with the fascia of the leg. Cruciate Cnir»l Ligament {ligamentum
cruciatum cruris; lower part of anterior annular ligament) (Figs. 441,
442). — -The cruciate crural ligament is a Y-shaped band placed in
front of the ankle-joint, the stem of the Y being attached laterally to
the upper surface of the calcaneus, in front of the depression for the
interosseous talocalcanean ligament; it is directed medialward as a
double layer, one lamina passing in front of, and the other behind,
the tendons of the Peronteus tertius and Extensor digitorum longus.
At the medial border of the latter tendon these two layers join
together, forming a compartment in which the tendons are enclosed.
From the medial extremity of this sheath the two limbs of the Y
diverge: one is directed upward and medialward, to be attached to
the tibial malleolus, passing over the Extensor hallucis longus and
the vessels and nerves, but enclosing
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THE FASCIA AROUND THE ANKLE 489 the Tibialis anterior

by a splitting of its fibers. The other limb extends downward &nd
medialward, to be attached to the border of the plantar aponeurosis,
and passes over the tendons of the Extensor hallucis longus and
Tibialis anterior and also the vessels and nerves. UcinUte ligunent
(ligamevium laciniaium; internal annular ligameni). — ^The liciniate
ligament is a strong fibrous band, extending from the tibial malleolus
above to the margin of the calcaneus below, converting a series of
bony grooves in this situation into canals for the passage of the
tendons of the Flexor musdea and the posterior tibial vessels and
tibial nerve into the sole of the foot. It is continuous by its upper
border with the deep fascia of the leg, and by its lower border with
the plantar aponeurosis and the fibers of origin of the Abductor
halluds muscle. Enumerated from the medial side, the four canals
which it forms transmit the tendon of the Tibialis posterior; the
tendon of the Flexor digitorum longus; the posterior tibial vessels
and tibial nerve, which run through a broad space benea^ the
ligament; and lastly, in a canal formed partly by the talus, the
tendon of the Flexor hallucis longus. Fto. 442,— The i Peroneal
Betinaenla. — The peroneal retinacula are fibrous bands which bind
down the tendons of the Feroneei longus and brevis as they run
across the lateral side of the ankle. The fibers of the superior
retmacolam {exlemal annular ligament) ■ are attached above to the
lateral malleolus and below to the lateral surface of the calcaneus.
The fibers of the inferior retinaculum are continuous in front with
those of the cruciate crural ligament ; behind they are attached to
the lateral surface of the calcaneus ; some of the fibers are fixed to
the peroneal trochlea, forming a septum between the tendons of the
Peromei longus and brevis. The Hocoos Sheatbs of dte Tenduis
Aromid the Ankle. — All the tendons crossing the ankle-joint are
enclosed for part of their length in mucous sheaths which have an
almost uniform length of about 8 cm. each. On ihe front of the ankle
(Fig. 441) the sheath for the Tibialis anterior extends from the upper
margin of the transverse crural ligament to the interval between the
diverging limbs of the cruciate ligament; those for the Extensor
digitorum longus and Extensor hallucis longus reach upward to just
above the level of the tips of the malleoli, the former being the
higher. The sheath of the Extensor hallucis longus is prolonged on to
the base irf the first metatarsal bone, while that of the Extensor
digitorum longus reaches
 490 MYOLOGY only to the level of the base of the fifth
metatarsal. On the medial side of the ankle (Fig. 442) the sheath for
the Tibialis posterior extends highest up — ^to about 4 em. above
the tip of the malleolus — ^while below it stops just short of the
tuberosity of the navicular. The sheath for Flexor hallucis longus
reaches up to the level of the tip of the malleolus, while that for the
Flexor digitorum longus is slightly higher; liie former ts continued to
the base of the first metatarsal, but the latter stops opposite the first
cuneiform bone. On the kUercd side of the ankle (Fig. 441) a sheath
which is single for the greater part of its extent encloses the
Peronsei longus and brevis. It extends upward for about 4 cm. above
the tip of the malleolus and downward and forward for about the
same distance. IV. THE MUSCLES AND FASCLE OF THE FOOT. 1. The
Dorsal Muscle of fhe Foot. Extensor digitorum brevis. The fascia on
the dorsum of the foot is a thin membranous layer, continuous above
with the transverse and cruciate crural ligaments; on either side it
blends with the plantar aponeurosis; anteriorly it forms a sheath for
the tendons on the dorsum of the foot. The Extensor digitorum
brevis (Fig. 441) is a broad, thin muscle, which arises from the
forepart of the upper and lateral surfaces of the calcaneus, in front
of the groove for the Peronseus brevis; from the lateral
talocalcanean ligament; and from the conunon limb of the cruciate
crural ligament. It passes obliquely across the dorsum of the foot,
and ends in four tendons. The most medial, which is the largest, is
inserted into the dorsal surface of the base of the first phalanx of the
great toe, crossing the dorsalis pedis artery; it is frequently
described as a separate muscle — the Extensor hallacis brevis. The
other three are inserted into the lateral sides of the tendons of the
Extensor digitorum longus of the second, third, and fourth toes.
Variatioiis. — ^Accessory slips of origin from the talus and navicular,
or from the external cuneiform and third metatarsal bones to the
second* slip of the muscle, and one from the cuboid to the third slip
have been observed. The tendons vary in number and position; they
may be reduced to two, or one of them may be doubled, or an
additional slip may pass to the little toe. A supernumerary slip
ending on one of the metatarsophalangeal articulations, or joining a
dorsal interosseous muscle is not unconmion. Deep slips between
this muscle and the Dorsal interossei occur. Nerves. — It is supplied
by the deep peroneal nerve. Actions. — ^The Extensor digitorum
brevis extends the phalanges of the four toes into which it is
inserted, but in the great toe acts only on the first phalanx. The
obliquity of its direction coimteracts the oblique movement given to
the toes by the long Extensor, so that when both muscles act, the
toes are evenly extended. 2. The Plantar Muscles of the Foot. «
Plantar Aponeurosis (aponeurosis plantaris; plantar fascia). — ^The
plantar ai>oneurosis is of great strength, and consists of pearly
white glistening fibers, disposed, for the most part, longitudinally: it
is divided into central, lateral, and medial portions. The central
portion, the thickest, is narrow behind and attached to the medial
process of the tuberosity of the calcaneus, posterior to the' origin of
the Flexor digitonun brevis; and becoming broader and thinner in
front, divides near the heads of the metatarsal bones into five
processes, one for each of the toes. Each of these processes divides
opposite the metatarsophalangeal articulation into two strata,
superficial and deep. The superficial stratum is inserted into the skin
of
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