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Contents and its learning objectives

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
Objectives:
• This course provides an understanding of apprentice structures and will
Hydraulic structure II able to design hydraulic structures,
Mamuye Tebebal (MSc. in Hydraulic Engineering) It deals specifically with;
• Hydraulic design of structures
• Some practical aspects of hydraulic performance
• Elements of structural design.
Outline Syllabus:
• Dam outlets,
• Spillway classification and choice for various types of dams
• Design of spillways
• Energy dissipation structures
• Stilling basin and plunge pools
2025 • River diversion
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• Gates and valves Mamuye T. 2

Introduction Introduction...........................
 Hydraulic Structures:-are "all structures in contact with water“
Ø Are structures w/c used to divert, restrict, stop or manage the natural Types of Irrigation Structures
flow of water.
 Hydraulic structures in irrigation include:
Ø They can be made from materials ranging from large rock and
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concrete to vague items such as wooden timbers or tree trunks.  Heading up structures/Headwork structures
Ø The structure includes bridges, hydraulic tunnels, dams,
 Water Distribution structures/Canal Networks
reservoirs……
 Application areas of hydraulic structures:  Irrigation Control Structures
vPower production  Canal Regulatory structures (Canal Falls/drop structures, head
vWater supply and sewerage system and cross regulators, check structures, division boxes, etc.)
vIrrigation scheme
 Cross-drainage structures
vBridges, culverts
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vFlood protection works

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WATER SOURCE COMMAND AREA

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Hydraulic Structures

Head works
Network of canals
Control Structures
Cross-Drainage Works

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River Engineering and Hydraulics

CHAPTER ONE
Topic outlines v Rivers are natural channels which carry a huge quantity of water
1. River Engineering and Hydraulics drained from the catchment as runoff.
1.1 River Characteristics
v A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater
1.2 Rivers and their Behaviors
flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river.
1.3 Behaviors of rivers in alluvial stages
1.4 Development process of alluvial stream v Many river systems have been seriously affected by the

1.5 River Morphology construction and operation of major engineering works (i.e. water
1.6 Meandering and braided stream supply, agricultural, municipal, industrial, domestics, power
1.7 River Hydraulics generation, navigation and transportation, recreation, waste disposal
land drainages etc.
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Cont.. Cont..
§ What is river engineering? v The main reason for the complexity of river engineering is that river

§ A branch of civil engineering that involves the control and utilization of

flow in alluvium has no really fixed boundaries and geometry likened
rivers for the benefit of humankind. v The scope of river engineering includes:
§ River engineering is a discipline of civil engineering which studies • River training works
human intervention in the course, characteristics, or flow of a river with • Channel design works
the intention of producing some defined benefit to the community.
• Flood control works
§ River engineering is a practice in which a river is modified with the goal
• Water supply
of creating a change, which can vary from protecting wetlands to
providing navigable water for boats • Navigation improvement
§ River engineering is also necessary to provide protection against floods • Hazard mitigation
and other river disaster . • Environmental enhancement
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1.1 RIVER CHARACTERISTICS

 The primary function of a river channel is the conveyance of

water and sediment.

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 The most aspect of a river channel apart from its size is theamount
of water it carries.

 Periodically flooded land is called the flood plain.

 Whilst in the upper reaches the flood plains are usually narrow or
even non-existent, in the lower reaches of a river the flood plains
could be tens of kilometers wide.
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THE CATCHMENT AREA

 Total area from which surface runoff flows to a given point
of concentration is called a catchment area, drainage
basin, drainage area, or a watershed.

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water dividing line
or water-divide

Confluence

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Drainage Basin features

WATERSHED FORMS

 Form of a watershed varies greatly, and is tied to many factors

including:

§ Climatic regime,
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§ Underlying geology,

§ Morphology,

§ Soils, and vegetation.

o Drainage Patterns: A typical feature of a watershed observed in

planform (map view) is a drainage pattern

ü Drainage patterns are primarily controlled by the overall topography and

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underlying geologic structure of the watershed.

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PHASES OF SURFACE RUNOFF

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1.2 RIVERS and THEIR BEHAVIORS

 Rivers are important arrangements of the hydrological cycle.

Types of rivers

v Rivers can be classified according to different criteria:

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a) Classification based on variation of discharge

§ Perennial Rivers: have adequate discharge throughout the year

§ Non perennial Rivers:

§ Flashy Rivers: There is a sudden increase in discharge. The river stage

rises and then falls in a very short period.

§ Ephemeral rivers: get completely dried up due to large evaporation

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and percolation losses

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1.2 RIVERS and THEIR BEHAVIORS 1.2 RIVERS and THEIR BEHAVIORS

C) Classification based on plan form

b) Classification based on the location of Reach:
§ Straight rivers:
§ Mountainous rivers: The rivers flow in hilly and mountainous regions
§ Meandering Rivers: These rivers follow a winding, curved course, they
§ Rivers in flooded plains: After the boulder stage, a river enters a flooded
consist of a series of bends of alternate curvature in the plan
plains having alluvial soil
§ Braided rivers: The river flows in to two or more channels around
§ Delta Rivers: when a river enters in to a deltaic plain, it sprits up in to a alluvial islands developed due to deposition of silt.
number of small branches due to very flat slopes

§ Tidal Rivers: Just before joining the sea or an ocean, the river becomes as
tidal river
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Tidal Rivers

Meandering
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Straight rivers

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Delta Rivers

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Braided rivers
1.3 BEHAVIORS OF RIVERS IN ALLUVIAL STAGES

v The behaviors of alluvial rivers depends to a large extent on the sediment

carried by it.

v The sediment carried by the river poses numerous problems, such as:

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ü Increasing of flood levels

ü Silting of reservoirs

ü Silting of irrigation and navigation channels

ü Splitting of a river into a number of interacted channels

ü Meandering of rivers

v Specially the meandering causes the river to leave its original course
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and adopt a new course.

CONT.. CONT..
 An alluvial river usually has the following three stages: ü Does not follow a sinuous course.
1.Flow in a straight reach

2.Flow at bends

3.Development of meanders
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v Flow in a straight reach:

ü The river cross section is in the shape of a ditch, with high velocity flow in the
middle of the section.

ü Since the velocity is higher in the middle, the water surface level will be lower in
the middle and higher at the edges.

ü Due to the existence of this transverse gradient from sides towards the center,
transverse rotary currents get developed. 27 28

ü However, straight reaches are very few in alluvial channels.

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CONT.. CONT..

v Bends:

v Every alluvial river tends to develop bends, which are characterized by

scouring on the concave side and silting on the convex side.

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v The silting and scouring in bends may continue due to the action of
centrifugal force.

v These rotary currents cause the erosion of concave edge and deposition
on the convex edge forming shoal on this edge.

v When once the bend forms, it tends to make the curvature large and
larger.
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CONT.. CONT..
v Development of Meanders:

ü The formation of meanders is due to both deposition and erosion and

meanders gradually migrate downstream.

ü The force of the water erodes and undercuts the river bank on the outside
of the bend where water flow has most energy due to decreased friction.

ü Once a bend in the river has been developed, either due to its own
characteristics or due to the impressed external forces, the process
continues furthest downstream.

ü The successive bends of the reveres order are formed. It ultimately leads to
the development of a complete S-curve called a meander
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STAGES OF RIVERS
Fast flowing water
has more energy  As the river flows from its origin in a mountain to a sea, it passes
through various stages. A river generally has the following 4 stages:

1. Rocky stages

Boulder stage

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2.

3. Alluvial stage

4. Deltaic rivers

Slip-off River cliff

slope forms

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CONT.. CONT..
1. Rocky stage: it is also called the hilly or mountainous stage or the 3. Alluvial stage: the river in this stage flows in a zig- zag manner known as
incised stage. meandering.

ü The flow channel is formed on the rock by degradation and cutting. ü The cross section of the river is made up of alluvial sand and silt.

2. Boulder stage: the bed and banks are usually composed of large ü The materials get eroded form the concave side (the outer side) of the
boulders, gravels and shingles. bend and get deposited on the convex side (inner side) of the bend.

ü The bed slope is quite steep ü The bed slope is flat and consequently the velocity is small.

ü The river first flows through wide shallow and interlaced channels and ü The behavior of the river in this stage depends up on the silt charge and
then develop a straight course. the flood discharge.

ü Most of the diversion head works are constructed in this stage. ü River training works are required in the alluvial stage.

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CONT..
1.4 DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF ALLUVIAL STREAM
4. Deltaic stage: is the last stage of the river just before it discharge
into the sea.  The behavior of alluvial rivers depends up on to a large
ü The river is unable to carry its sediment load. extent on the sediment carried by it.
ü As a result, it drops its sediments and gets divided into channels  Every alluvial river tends to develop bends, which are
on either side of the deposited sediment and form the delta. characterized by scouring on the concave side and silting
on the convex side.
v Types of alluvial rivers
 Rivers in flood plains (alluvial stage) is future sub divide
into the following classification:-
1. Aggrading
2. Degrading
3. Stable deltaic
4. Deltaic
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CONT.. CONT..
1. Aggrading (accreting) type: For a river collecting 3. Stable river: If there is no silting or scouring, it is
sediment and building up its bed called an aggrading type. called a stable river
ü is a silting river ü A river that does not change its alignment, slope and its

ü It builds up its slope. regime significant

ü The silting is mainly due to various reasons, such as: heavy 4. Deltaic:
sediment load, construction of an obstruction across a v Is the last stage of the river just before it discharge into
river, sudden intrusion of sediment from a tributary, the sea.
etc. ü The river is unable to carry its sediment load.
2. Degrading type: If the bed is getting scoured year to year, ü As a result, It drops its sediments and gets divided
it is called degrading. into channels on either side of the deposited sediment
ü If the river bed is constantly getting scoured, to reduce and and form the delta.
dissipate available excess land slope 

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1.5 RIVER MORPHOLOGY

 The term morphology is used to describe the shapes of river channels and how
1.6 MEANDERING AND BRAIDED STREAM
they change in shape and direction over time.  Once a bend in the river has been developed, either due to its
 The morphology of a river channel is a function of a number of processes and own characteristics or due to the impressed external forces, the
process continues furthest downstream. The successive bends of
environmental conditions, including the composition and erodibility of the bed
the reverse order are formed. It ultimately leads to the
and banks (e.g., sand, clay, bedrock); development of a complete S-curve called a meander.
 The morphology of a river can be viewed conveniently by considering its  When a large number of such consecutive curves of
longitudinal profile and cross-sectional profile. reverse order connected by short straight reaches called
 Longitudinal profile :slopes in different reaches of the channel, crossings have been developed, the river is called a
meander river.
 Cross sectional profiles: the characteristics of the banks, the natural levees,
 Mechanism of meander development
the meanders, width and depth of the channel, the slopes of the channel, the
a) Inglis theory
slopes of the banks or valley flanks, braiding of the streams, river terraces,
alluvial cones, cones, fans and nature of the channel floor. b) Friedkins theory
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 Geomorphology : The study of landform development under processes C) Joglekars theory
associated with running water

CONT..
Braided Channel
A stream that is characterized by randomly
interconnected channels divided by islands or bars.

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Fast flowing water

has more energy Slow, shallow water and deposition on the inside of the bend

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Slip-off River cliff
slope forms

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Meander Parameters and their Relation Ships

Meander length (ML ): the tangential distance between the consecutive ü The stretch of the river which has sinuosity less
corresponding points of a meander. than 1.5 determine straight river.
Meander width (MB): The distance between outer edges of one clock wise ü Sinuosity varies from a value of unity for a
loop and the adjacent anticlockwise loop of the meander.
straight reach to a value of three or more for
Meander Ratio (MR): the ratio of of meander width to meander length.
curved reach
Khadris: The permanent banks between which a river meanders.
ü A sinuosity of 1.5 is usually taken as the
Crossings: The short straight reaches of a river connecting two consecutive clock wise
and anti clock wise loops. dividing line between meandering and straight
Sinuosity: A measure of meander "intensity. It is the ratio of talwege length to the channels.
length of the valley through which the stream flows. The talwege length is the length
of the river along the line of maximum depth (or centerline).
Tortuosity: the ratio of the length of the channel measured along the curve to meander
length. 47 48
������� ������−������ ������
T��������� =
������ ������

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Relation Rivers in flood Incised rivers

Cont… .
plain
• Meander parameters Relations depending on Q

1. Meander length ML=53.61*Q1/2 ML=46.01*Q1/2

ML=6.06*W ML=11.45*W
2. Meander width MB =153.42*Q1/2 MB =102.16*Q1/2
MB =17.4*W MB =27.3*W
3. River width MB =2.86*ML MB =2.20*ML
W=8.84*Q1/2 W=8.84*Q1/2

Note:
Q= 1.5 to 2 times Qd , where Qd= dominant discharge which determines the meandering pattern.

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CONT... MEANDER RIVER

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 As the outer banks of a meander continue to be
eroded through processes such as hydraulic action the
neck of the meander becomes narrow and narrower.

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1.7 RIVER HYDRAULICS

OXBOW LAKES
v Rivers are complex and dynamic.
v It is often said that a river adjusts its roughness, velocity, slope, depth,
width, and planform in response to human activities and (perhaps
 Eventually due to the narrowing of the neck, the two outer associated) changing climatic, geologic, and hydrologic regimes.
bends meet and the river cuts through the neck of the meander. v The phenomena in rivers may vary considerably in magnitude both in
The water now takes its shortest route rather than flowing
time and space.
around the bend.
 Deposition gradually seals off the old meander bend forming a v The flow in a river can be classified as uniform/non- uniform, steady/
new straighter river channel. unsteady, laminar/ turbulent, Tranquil/rapid in three dimensional.
 Due to deposition the old meander bend is left isolated from the v In natural low land rivers, the flow is non-uniform, unsteady, turbulent
main channel as an ox-bow lake. and tranquil.
 Over time this feature may fill up with sediment and may
v The rapid flow occurs in the vicinity of drop structures and also the
gradually dry up (except for periods of heavy rain). When55the 56
water dries up, the feature left behind is known as a meander mountainous rivers.
scar.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RIVER HYDRAULICS

 Evaluation of the hydraulic characteristics of rivers and open
channels requires analysis of mass and energy conservation
1. Conservation of momentum
�� ��� ��� ��� ��

��
+ �� + ��
+ �� + � ��� = � ………………………… (1)

�� ��� ��� ��� ��


��
+ �� + �� + ��
+ � ��� = �…………………………. (2)

�� ��� ��� ��� � ��


��
+ �� + �� + �� + � �� =− � … …………...…… (3)

1. Continuity equation
�� �� ��

��
+ �� + �� = �………………………………………………. . �

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