A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON
RADIO TELESCOPE
Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements of Degree in
Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering
by
UTKARSH RAGHUVANSHI
Under The Guidance of Seminar Coordinator
Mr. VISHAL DEEP Mr. NISHANT SAXENA





Department of EE & I Engineering
MORADABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MORADABAD (U.P.)
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar entitled Radio Telescope submitted by
Utkarsh Raghuvanshi Roll No. 0908232062 in partial fulfillment of the
requirement of the degree of B.Tech. in Electronics & Instrumentation
Engineering embodies the work done by him under my guidance.



Signature of guide Signature of Seminar Coordinator
Name: Mr. Vishal Deep Name: Mr. Nishant Saxena
Designation: Asst. Professor Designation: Asst. Professor

Date:







ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank almighty for giving the courage perseverance in completing the
seminar report. I am grateful the following persons for various help rendered by
them.
I am greatly indebted to my Seminar Coordinator Mr. Nishant Saxena
(Asst. Professor) for his valuable advices at every stage of this work. Without
their supervision and many hours of devoted guidance, simulating and
constructive criticism, this seminar report would never have come out in this
form.
I also thankful to my Seminar Guide Mr. Vishal Deep (Asst. Professor)
for providing the excellent motivation and valuable guidance throughout the
seminar work. With this co-operation encouragement I completed the seminar
report on time.
Last but not least I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
earnest thanks giving to my dear parents of their moral support and heartfelt co-
operation in doing the seminar. I would also like to thank all the teaching and
nonteaching staff and other friends, whose direct and indirect help has enabled
me to complete this work successfully.

UTKARSH RAGHUVANSHI
E.I 3
rd
YEAR
ROLL NO: 0908232062


ABSTRACT

The following thesis presents a computer and mathematical model of the dynamics of
the tethered subsystem of the Arecibo Radio Telescope. The computer and mathematical
model for this part of the Arecibo Radio Telescope involves the study of the dynamic
equations governing the motion of the system. It is developed in its various components; the
cables, towers, and platform are each modeled in succession. The cable, wind, and numerical
integration models stem from an earlier version of a dynamics model created for a different
radio telescope; the Large Adaptive Reflector (LAR) system.

The study begins by converting the cable model of the LAR system to the
configuration required for the Arecibo Radio Telescope. The cable model uses a lumped mass
approach in which the cables are discretized into a number of cable elements. The tower
motion is modeled by evaluating the combined effective stiffness of the towers and their
supporting backstay cables. A drag model of the triangular truss platform is then introduced
and the rotational equations of motion of the platform as a rigid body are considered. The
translational and rotational governing equations of motion, once developed, present a set of
coupled non-linear differential equations of motion which are integrated numerically using a
fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration scheme. In this manner, the motion of the system is
observed over time.

A set of performance metrics of the Arecibo Radio Telescope is defined and these
metrics are evaluated under a variety of wind speeds, directions, and turbulent conditions.
The general configurations of the Arecibo Radio Telescope, before and after its two major
upgrades, are also compared.






LIST OF FIGURES
1. Fig 1.1 Single-Dish Radio Telescopes Located Around The World... 11
2. Fig 1.2 The Arecibo Radio Telescope. 12
3. Fig 1.3 Tower Base And The Welcome Center... 13

4. Fig 2.1 The Lumped Mass Approach In The LAR (Top) And The Arecibo
(Bottom). 16

5. Fig 2.2 Node and Element Numbering Scheme.. 17

6. Fig 2.3 Flowchart Of Simulation Overview 18

7. Fig 3.1 Unstretched Length Configuration.. 21

8. Fig 3.2 Schematic Representation Of The Internal Forces.. 22

9. Fig 4.1 Tower Cross Section 25

10. Fig 4.2 View of Tower-Top, Mainstay and Backstay Cables.. 25

11. Fig 4.3 Effective Tower Stiffness Model. 26

12. Fig 5.1 A Picture of the Arecibo Platform.. 28

13. Fig 5.2 The Platform Models Body-Fixed Coordinate System.. 29

14. Fig 6.1 Performance Metrics To Equilibrium 33

15. Fig 6.2 Tower-Top Positions To Equilibrium. 34

16. Fig 7.1 Milky Way Galaxy View In Visible Light.. 36

17. Fig 7.2 Milky Way Galaxy View In Radio Radiation. 36

18. Fig 7.3 Milky Way Galaxy View In Visible Light.. 37

19. Fig 7.4 Milky Way Galaxy View In Infrared Radiation.. 37

20. Fig 7.5 Features on Jupiter in visible and ultraviolet light.. 38

21. Fig 7.6 View of M74 galaxy 38

22. Fig 7.7 Milky Way Galaxy View In Visible Light.. 39

23. Fig 7.8 Milky Way Galaxy View In X-RAYS 39
24. Fig 7.9 Milky Way Galaxy View In Visible Light 40

25. Fig 7.10 Milky Way Galaxy View In Visible Gamma Ray 40

26. Fig 7.11 Picture Depicting Azimuth And Altitude 42

27. Fig 7.12 Picture Depicting Right Ascension And Declination 43

28. Fig 7.13 Setup For The Interferometry Process.. 44

































LIST OF TABLES

1. Table 4.1 Tower Properties......... 24
2. Table 5.1 The Platforms Physical Dimensions And Properties As Used In
The Arecibo Model... 30














TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate..................ii
Acknowledgementiii
Abstract.............iv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Radio Telescope
1.1 Radio Telescopes . ... 11

1.2 Radio Telescope Simulations.. 12

1.3 Arecibo Construction Overview................................. 12

Chapter 2 The Arecibo Model

2.1 Overview.......... 15

2.2 Lumped Mass Approach.......... 15

2.3 Simulation Basics 17

Chapter 3 Cable Model

3.1 Cable Properties... 18
3.2 Coordinate Systems.... 18
3.3 Cable Dynamics.. 19
3.3.1 Internal Forces. 20
Chapter 4 Tower Model

4.1 Construction Details.23

4.2 Tower Properties.. ... 24

4.3 Effective Stiffness ... 25

Chapter 5 Platform Model

5.1 Construction Details 27

5.2 Coordinate Systems. 28

5.3 Platform Properties. 29

Chapter 6 Performance Evaluation

6.1 Introduction. ... 31

6.2 Performance Metrics 31

6.3 Additional Parameters of Interest 32
6.4 Equilibrium Condition 32

Chapter 7 Applications of Radio Telescope

7.1 Radio Astronomy 35

7.1.1 The Em Spectrum Radio.. 35

7.1.2 The Em Spectrum Infrared.. 36

7.1.3 The Em Spectrum Ultraviolet.. 37

7.1.4 The Em Spectrum - X-Rays 39

7.1.5 The Em Spectrum-Gamma Rays. 40

7.2 Locating Radio Objects In The Sky (Ra And Dec) 41

7.2.1 Azimuth And Altitude.. 41

7.2.2 Right Ascension And Declination 42

7.3 Interferometry (Advanced Radio Project) 43


Chapter 8

Recommendations For Future Work............ 45


Conclusion


Refrences
























CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO RADIO TELESCOPE

1.1 RADIO TELESCOPE
Radio telescopes are used to detect and image electromagnetic radiation in the radio
wave range. They generally consist of some components that collect the radiation and a
receiver to detect the radiation. Radio telescopes are used by radio astronomers to study our
planets atmosphere as well as asteroids and even distant galaxies. Aradio telescope has the
difficult task of collecting and detecting very weak radio wave signals and hence, bigger is
better when it comes to the collecting area of the telescope. Some examples of the various
shapes and sizes of radio telescopes from around the world are shown in Fig 1.1. In order to
be of practical use in detecting the electromagnetic radiation from celestial bodies, a radio
telescopes receiver must be very accurately held in position and orientation.



Fig 1.1 Single-Dish Radio Telescopes Located Around The World
1.2 RADIO TELESCOPE SIMULATIONS
When a new radio telescope is to be designed and constructed in this day in age, the structural
and mechanical design process often calls on computer models and dynamic simulations; a
cost-efficient and convenient tool. With the advance of computer models, it is of particular
interest to model a design already in use, namely the Arecibo Radio Telescope. The Arecibo
Radio Telescope was designed and constructed in the early 1960s and with no use of
dynamic simulation whatsoever. In developing a computer simulation, the systems behavior
and performance may be observed over time, under various wind and turbulence conditions,
without the expense and complications of experimental work. A sensitivity analysis may also
be carried out in order to identify the parameters that may improve or deteriorate the systems
performance, and all of this done on a personal computer workstation.

1.3 ARECIBO CONSTRUCTION OVERVIEW
The Arecibo Radio Telescope was conceived by William E. Gordon who at the time
was a professor at Cornell University. The original Arecibo configuration became operational
in November of 1963. Since that time the telescope has seen two major upgrades (one in
1974 and the other in 1997), which will be described in the next section. Fig 1.2 shows a
photograph of the Arecibo Radio Telescope next to a close up of one the supporting towers.


Fig 1.2 The Arecibo Radio Telescope
To observe the enormity of the structure notice, in Fig 1.3, the doorway entrance to
the Welcome Center that is found at the base of one of the towers.

Arecibos structural configuration consists of a 305 m diameter reflector dish; of
spherical shape, with a radius of curvature of 265 m. The spherical reflector always points
straight up and unlike many other radio telescopes; it cannot be steered to a different
direction. A natural bowl in the landscape of the region was found to aid in the construction
effort of the enormous mesh surface dish.

The telescopes triangular feed support structure (referred to herein as the platform)
is suspended approximately 150 m above the surface of the reflector. In the original
configuration, the triangular platform had a mass of 550 tons, and was suspended by 12 main
cables (each of 3 inch diameter - braided steel) from 3 towers. The 3 towers, whose tops are
all of equal elevation, are positioned at a radial distance of 213 m from the center of the
receiver. Due to the regions landscape, two of the three towers are of an equal length, 76.2
m, with the third having a length of 111.2 m. Supporting each tower, 5 backstay cables (each
of 3.5 inch diameter - braided steel) run from the tower tops to concrete anchorages in the
ground. Running from each corner of the platform are two 1.5 inch cables called tie downs
(functioning as catenaries) which are anchored to the ground just along the rim of the
reflector.


Fig 1.3 Tower Base And The Welcome Center


The Arecibo Radio Telescope has undergone two major upgrades since it was first
constructed. The first upgrade, completed in 1974, was carried out to improve the smoothness
of the reflecting surface to an accuracy of 2.5 mm r.m.s . Upgrades at that time also included
the addition of a powerful transmitter at 2380 MHz designed for radar studies of the solar
system.

The second Arecibo upgrade, completed in 1997, was the implementation of the new
Gregorian system (receiver/transmitter), whose weight and additional structure increased the
total mass of the platform form 550,000 kg to 815,000 kg. To support this much heavier
platform, using the same three towers, additions to the number of cables were made: 6
auxiliary mainstay cables were added from the tower tops to the ground. A new Gregorian
system was installed on the triangular platform which brings rays from the spherical primary
reflector to a point focus through a series of reflections.

















CHAPTER 2

THE ARECIBO MODEL

2.1 OVERVIEW
A dynamics model of the Arecibo Radio Telescope has been developed in Visual
Studio C++. The model is described in several sections, which come together to form the 3-
dimensional non-linear dynamics simulation.

To make the development of the Arecibo dynamics model tractable requires the use of
certain assumptions and approximations. The kinematics and dynamics of Arecibos physical
components (which include the cables, the towers, and the platform)are very important. In
terms of the overall dynamics of the system; the development of the translational equations of
motion is governed by Newtons second Law, F= ma.


2.2 LUMPED MASS APPROACH

The kinematics and dynamics of the Arecibo Radio Telescope are modeled using the
same approach as that of the LAR system; the so-called lumped-mass approach.This model
has been validated for the LAR tethered aerostat system, as well as a number of underwater
applications. The basic principle is to divide the total unstretched length of the cables into a
number of discrete cable elements, forming a set of nodes bounding each element. The mass
of each cable element is then lumped into its end nodes, which are in turn treated as point
masses. For now it suffices to become comfortable with the geometry and methodology used
in the numbering of the nodes and cable elements. Fig 2.1 shows the geometry of the lumped
mass approach as used in both the LAR and Arecibo models.

The numbering system for the nodes and the cable elements is very important to the
organization within the code of the dynamics model.






` Fig 2.1 The Lumped Mass Approach In The LAR (Top) And The Arecibo
(Bottom)


Fig 2.2 shows the numbering system for the Arecibo model as used in the
performance evaluation, that is, with 5 nodes used for each of the 3 cables. Notice that the
tower-top positions are in fact not considered to be nodes, in that they are not included in the
node numbering system. Also notice the very important shared confluence point, which is
actually the center of mass of the Arecibo platform. In terms of the numbering system, the
confluence point is considered to be the last node (#15). However, also sharing this location
are the nodes #5 and 10.


Fig 2.2 Node and Element Numbering Scheme



2.3 SIMULATION BASICS

Our goal is to develop a model capable of simulating the motion of the Arecibo
system over a given period of time while under particular wind and turbulence conditions.
The dynamics model of the Arecibo Radio Telescope has been reduced through the lumped
mass approach to the dynamics of a finite number of point masses, subject to translational
motion, and a rigid body platform, subject also to rotational motion. We begin by defining the
state vector for the system and then present an overview of the numerical approach to solving
the resulting non-linear, second order, differential equations of motion.



Fig 2.3 Flowchart of Simulation Overview




CHAPTER 3


CABLE MODEL


The lumped mass approach is used to model the Arecibo cable dynamics. The cable
properties, coordinate systems, kinematics and dynamics are all discussed in this section.
Much of what follows may be found in more detail in Nahons work on the LAR system. The
final results and equations from are presented here in order to demonstrate the basics of the
cable dynamics model and its use for the Arecibo Radio Telescope.

3.1 CABLE PROPERTIES

The original arecibo cable configuration consists of 12 braided steel cables,each of
3-inch diameters. each tower-top (considered the cable base points) has 4 of these closely
spaced cables running toward the near corners of the triangular platform. these 4 mainstay
cables are modeled together as one cable having an equivalent effective area.

3.2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

There are two different frames of reference used when describing the position of the
cable nodes and the orientation of the cable elements. The first is the inertial frame of
reference, in which the orthogonal coordinate axes are considered to be fixed with respect to
the Earth. The origin is located at the bottom-centre of the collector dish (i.e. at an elevation
equal to the lowermost point of the collector dish). The Z
i
-axis points vertically toward the
sky, while the X
i
-axis points toward one of the three towers and the Y
i
-axis completes the
coordinate system by the right-hand-rule. The second frame of reference will be called the
body-fixed frame which is fixed relative to each cable element. The q-axis is tangential and
in the direction of the cable element itself, while the P
1
and P
2
- axes complete the orthogonal
coordinate system by forming a plane whose normal is a vector in the direction of the q-axis.





3.3 CABLE DYNAMICS

The forces acting on the cable elements must be applied to the point masses located at
the cable nodes. It is important to distinguish that although the forces are applied throughout
the continuous cable, they are treated as acting only at the nodes. The various forces acting on
the cable elements (but acting at the nodes) are:
(i) Cable Tension
(ii) Cable Damping
(iii) Aerodynamic Drag
(iv) Gravity

The above forces are divided into the internal (tension and damping) and external
(aerodynamic drag and gravity) forces acting on the cables. The effect of the bending
stiffness in the cables is much smaller in magnitude than the tensile stresses and axial
stiffness and is therefore neglected. An important result of this, to the cable kinematics, is that
the angle of rotation about the inertial Z-axis, , is always equal to zero.

3.3.1 INTERNAL FORCES

The internal forces are those forces that are generated within the braided cables. The
first force to consider is the tension. Each individual cable element is treated as an elastic
element subject only to axial deformation. To calculate the unstretched lengths of the
elements, we consider the platforms centre of mass to be at equal elevation as the tower tops,
and take the distance from the cable-platform attachment points to the cable-tower
attachment points, as shown in Fig 3.1.





Fig 3.1 Unstretched Length Configuration


Finally, a condition is imposed in the dynamics model that will always set the tension
and damping forces equal to zero if or when the tension is calculated as negative. That is, if
the cable element is physically slack then there will be no tension or damping forces in that
cable element. Static equilibrium from its unstretched length configuration, slack cable
elements may be found (refer to fig. 3.2).






Fig 3.2 Schematic Representation Of The Internal Forces








CHAPTER 4


TOWER MODEL


The Arecibo Radio Telescope, being the largest single-dish radio telescope in the
world, employs the distinct tower support structure. In this section, the construction details of
the towers are discussed and their properties determined. In modeling the towers we first
calculate their effective stiffness while keeping in mind that our final goal is to solve the
equations of motion for the tower-tops (cable base points) to be implemented in the dynamics
model.


4.1 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

The three tall towers are each made of reinforced concrete with a cross-shaped cross-
sectional area. To keep the platform level, their tower-tops were designed to all be at the
same elevation. Due to the uneven landscape, two of the towers are 250 ft in height and the
third is 365 ft in height. The construction of the towers themselves was a tedious task, rising
at a slow rate of less than 10 inches per hour. It took about 16 days of cement pouring to
construct one of the two shorter towers.

The original Arecibo construction includes 5 backstay cables running from the tower-
tops to the ground where they are anchored to cement blocks. The main purpose of the
backstay cables is to support the towers (in bending) while carrying the heavy load of the
platform. The 5 backstay cables are each of diameter 3.25 inches. The anchorage locations
(both in radius and elevation) are unique to each tower; again due to the uneven landscape.
The towers are labeled as T
4
, T
8
, and T
12
following the numbers on the face of a watch, T
12

being the one due north. Table 4.1 gives the dimensions and angles of each tower-backstay
configuration.




Property Symbol Value Unit
Cross Sectional
Dimension
H 2.74 [m]

Cross Sectional
Dimension
B 1.83 [m]

Area Moment of
Inertia
I 2.64 [m4]
Concrete Elastic
Modulus
E 25 [GPa]
Tower Height
(2)
L 76.20 [m]
Tower Height
(1)
L 111.25 [m]


Table 4.1 Tower Properties



4.2 TOWER PROPERTIES

The tower cross-sectional dimensions are not constant throughout their lengths. In
fact, the cross sectional area decreases from base to top both continuously and in clearly
visible increments at particular heights. The dimensions and geometry of the cross-section is
required to determine the moment of inertia of the towers to be used in determining their
stiffness in bending. As an approximation, the tower cross-section is assumed to be constant
based on dimensions that are available from the AutoCAD drawings of the Towers. Fig 4.1
shows the geometry of the tower cross section.




Fig 4.1 Tower Cross Section



4.3 EFFECTIVE STIFFNESS

Important to the cable and tower models is the fact that the 4 mainstay cables are
completely different than the 5 backstay cables. The reason for the different number of
cables and diameter is related to the different angles at which the cables carry the loads. Fig
4.2 shows a photograph of one of the three tower-tops as seen from ground level. Notice the 5
backstay cables running to the right, the 4 mainstay cables to the left, as well as the main and
backstay auxiliary cables installed during the second Arecibo upgrade.


Fig 4.2 View of Tower-Top, Mainstay and Backstay Cables

Since the mainstay cables are terminated at the tower-tops we may model the
combined effect of both the tower itself and the backstay cables as one. For the purpose of
modeling the system, the tower and backstay cables are replaced by a single-degree-of
freedom spring with an effective stiffness, Keff , and no damping. In order to calculate the
effective stiffness, we first separate the physical problem into two parts: the contribution of
the towers stiffness in bending and the contribution of the backstay cables.




Fig 4.3 Effective Tower Stiffness Model





















CHAPTER 5


PLATFORM MODEL


The receiver of the Arecibo Radio Telescope is held aloft by a very large triangular
truss section, which will be referred to herein as the platform. The motion of the receiver,
which is important to the astronomer , will in fact be modeled by evaluating the dynamics of
the platforms centre of mass. To begin, the construction details and the platform properties
will be discussed. Next a model for the aerodynamic drag experienced by the platform will be
presented. Finally, the platform will be treated as a rigid body, and the rotational equations of
motion governing its orientation in space will be discussed.


5.1 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

The platform is a very heavy structure which upon initial erection had a total
suspended mass of approximately 550 000 kg (or 550 tons). After the second upgrade the
platforms mass was increased to 815 tons . The platform is constructed as a truss structure
on which the receiver may be positioned with millimeter precision. The receiver may move
along an azimuth arm which may rotate about a circular track in order to take on various
zenith and azimuth angles. Since Arecibos collector dish is spherical, the incident radiation
does not reflect to a single focal point, but rather reflects onto a line. For the Arecibo Radio
Telescope, the receivers/transmitters are either in the form of a line feed or a set of enclosed
secondary and tertiary reflectors, known as the Gregorian (as was implemented in the second
Arecibo Upgrade completed in 1997). Important to the model is the fact that Arecibos
platform does not itself take on different azimuth and zenith angles; meaning that there is no
need to consider these angles in the cable model (unlike the LAR in which the cable lengths
are changed using winches to allow the receiver to take on different azimuth and zenith
positions). Figure 5.1 shows a picture of the rather complex truss structure. The azimuth arm
and circular track can be seen, along with the two types of receivers/transmitters (the line
feed on the left and the spherical Gregorian on the right).




Fig 5.1 A Picture of the Arecibo Platform


5.2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

In order to model the platform, we first define the coordinate systems used to describe
its position and orientation in space. Similar to the cable model we use the inertial frame of
reference with axes Xi-Yi-Zi. We also use the body-fixed frame oriented such that the Zb-
axis points upward (toward the sky) in a direction normal to the plane of the triangular shape
truss. The Xb-axis points towards one of the corners of the isosceles triangle and the Yb-axis
completes the orthogonal coordinate system using the right-hand-rule. The origin of the
body-fixed coordinate system is located at the platforms centre of mass. The centre of mass
will be defined in the next section. Figure 5.2 shows the body-fixed coordinate system.





Fig 5.2 The Platform Models Body-Fixed Coordinate System


5.3 PLATFORM PROPERTIES

The following simplifications are imposed on the complex truss structure in order to
model the platform and evaluate its properties.

(i) The platforms structure (which includes the azimuth arm is reduced to a slice of an
isosceles triangular shaped section. The section is of equal dimensions to the outer triangular
truss frame of the actual Arecibo platform.

(ii) The centre of mass is considered to be at the geometric centre of the triangular section.
Important to the dynamics model is the fact that the lower-most node is located at this centre
of mass of the modeled platform.

(iii) The platform is of uniform density such that its mass (defined as the total suspended
mass including the receivers) is evenly distributed over its volume.





Property Symbol Value Units
Mass
Mp
550000
[kg]
Base B 65.84
[m]
Height H 57.02
[m]
Vertical Width W 9.14
[m]
Gross Volume V 34 313
[m3]
Uniform
Density

16.03
[kg/m3]

Table 5.1 Gives The Platforms Physical Dimensions And Properties As Used In The Arecibo Model



















CHAPTER 6


PERFORMANCE EVALUATION



6.1 INTRODUCTION

The performance evaluation of the Arecibo Radio Telescope is a most valuable
exercise that will help us assess the dynamic performance of the system as well as
demonstrate the capabilities of our computer model. We begin by explaining how the
performance of the Arecibo Radio Telescope is defined. We may then use our model to
observe (over time) the motion, performance metrics, and other parameters of interest of the
Arecibo Radio Telescope under turbulent and non-turbulent wind conditions at a variety of
wind speeds and directions. In fact, if we include the sensitivity analysis, the Arecibo model
has been subjected to more than 80 different dynamic test cases which consider a variety of
system configurations and wind conditions.


6.2 PERFORMANCE METRICS

In order to evaluate the performance of the Arecibo system we must first understand
what performance actually means in terms of the systems motion. A performance metric is
defined as a parameter that allows us to quantitatively evaluate the systems performance.
Important to the astronomer are the positional and rotational error of the systems
receiver/transmitter (to and from which the electromagnetic radio waves reflect from the
collector dish). The receiver is defined in our model as the centre of mass of the platform. To
the satisfaction of Steve Torchinsky (Head of Astronomy at the Arecibo Observatory) the
following parameters have been chosen to quantitatively define the dynamic performance of
the Arecibo Radio Telescope:
(i) Error of the receiver position in the focal plane
(ii) Error of the receiver position out of the focal plane
(iii) Tilt angle of the receiver relative to the inertial Z-axis.
The so-called focal plane is defined as the plane locally tangent to a hemisphere of
radius equal to the platforms static equilibrium height above the bottom-centre of the
collector dish (i.e. the origin in the inertial frame). Since the triangular truss platform does not
itself take on any azimuth or zenith angles, the focal plane is in fact always horizontal.


6.3 ADDITIONAL PARAMETERS OF INTEREST

Aside from the performance metrics, there are often additional parameters that may be
of interest, perhaps to a structural engineer, rather than to the astronomer. The parameters
observed in addition to the performance metrics include the tension force in the cables as well
as the tower-top deflections. All tensions, unless stated otherwise, are presented for the entire
effective area of the mainstay cables. That is, the values in the plots that follow must be
divided by the number of mainstay cables in order to find the tension per cable. Furthermore,
the tension forces quoted are those acting specifically in the first cable elements. The tower
deflections are given in the horizontal plane of motion of the tower-tops relative to their
equilibrium position. The deflections are considered positive if the tower is brought closer to
the centre of the system (i.e. due to an increase in tension) and negative if the opposite is true.


6.4 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION

An important feature of the Arecibo model is the equilibrium condition of the system.
This condition must be reached before subjecting the system to various wind configurations.
Given the specific physical parameters of a given configuration of interest, the system is
initially (at time = 0 seconds) released from the unstretched length configuration . The
systems motion will eventually damp out over time and settle at its equilibrium height and
orientation. The following Fig show how the performance metrics vary over the first 400
seconds of the total 1500 seconds required for the original.
Fig 6.1 Performance Metrics To Equilibrium

Arecibo configuration to come to equilibrium. The reason for letting the system run
for 1500 seconds is to ensure that the vertical motion is of the order of millimeters or
less (if possible) before subjecting the system to the various wind conditions. Notice
that the platform remains level and centered as it oscillates in a vertical motion. In
reality, upon initial construction, the supporting cables of the Arecibo structure were
all pre-tensioned prior to lifting the platform into the desired position. The tower-top
radial distances from the centre of the collector dish are also plotted versus time as
they reach their equilibrium values in the simulation.


Fig 6.2 Tower-Top Positions To Equilibrium










CHAPTER 7


APPLICATIONS OF RADIO TELESCOPE



7.1 RADIO ASTRONOMY

Radio telescopes are used to detect and image electromagnetic radiation in the radio
wave range. Radio telescopes are used by radio astronomers to study our planets atmosphere
as well as asteroids and even distant galaxies. A radio telescope is a form
of directional radio antenna used in radio astronomy. The same types of antennas are also
used in tracking and collecting data from satellites and space probes. In
their astronomical role they differ from optical telescopes in that they operate in the radio
frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum where they can detect and collect data
on radio sources. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic ("dish") antennas used singly
or in an array.


7.1.1 THE EM SPECTRUM RADIO

Radio signals are able to reach Earth and so many large radio observatories have been
built to look at objects through this large portion of the EM spectrum. The pictures shows the
Milky Way galaxy in a 360 degree map view in both visible light (refer to fig. 7.1) and radio
radiation (refer to fig. 7.2 - 408 MHz). Remember that radio radiation allows us to look at
objects that emit relatively low energy. This includes dust and gases in the galaxy and solar
system.






Fig 7.1 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Visible Light





Fig 7.2 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Radio Radiation



7.1.2 THE EM SPECTRUM - INFRARED


In terms of energy and frequency, Infrared radiation (IR) is the next band of
radiation above radio frequencies. It is what we associate with heat (the lamps used to keep
food warm at fast-food places). These two pictures show the Milky Way galaxy in visible
light (refer to fig. 7.3) and Infrared (refer to fig. 7.4). Infrared radiation is used to view
moderately warm objects. You can see the galaxy clearly in both pictures but using the IR
image we can now see the dust in the solar system. (The S shaped pink curve in the bottom
picture). This allows astronomers to see dust and gas that is invisible to our eyes and optical
telescopes.





Fig 7.3 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Visible Light





Fig 7.4 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Infrared Radiation



7.1.3 THE EM SPECTRUM - ULTRAVIOLET

Remember that visible light comes after IR and UV comes after visible light in terms
of energy. The picture to the top on the next page shows features on Jupiter in visible light
and the picture to the bottom on the next page shows features on Jupiter in ultraviolet light
The auroras on Jupiter are only seen using the UV pictures because they are created by highly
energetic particles being drawn to the poles by the magnetic field of Jupiter (or any planet
with a magnetic field, including Earth).Ultraviolet radiation shows objects that are fairly
energetic. In the picture of the M74 galaxy (refer to fig. 7.6), we can see the distribution of
energetic particles and gases - things we cannot see as well in visible light.





Fig 7.5 Features on Jupiter in visible and ultraviolet light



Fig 7.6 View of M74 galaxy








7.1.4 THE EM SPECTRUM - X-RAYS

These two pictures show the Milky Way galaxy in visible light (refer to fig. 7.7) and
X-Rays (refer to fig. 7.8). X-Ray radiation is used to view very hot objects. You can see the
galaxy clearly in both pictures but using the X-Ray image we can now see very energetic
objects that are invisible to our eyes and optical telescopes. Note that not all of these objects
are within the plane of the galaxy (majority of mass is oriented horizontally in this view).





Fig 7.7 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Visible Light





Fig 7.8 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In X-RAYS




7.1.5 THE EM SPECTRUM-GAMMA RAYS

These two pictures show the Milky Way galaxy in visible light (refer to fig. 7.9) and
Gamma Ray(refer to fig. 7.10). Gamma Ray radiation is used to image the most energetic
objects. You can see the galaxy clearly in both pictures but using the Gamma Ray image we
can now see the most energetic objects in our part of the universe that are invisible to our
eyes and optical telescopes. Note that not all of these objects are within the plane of the
galaxy.





Fig 7.9 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Visible Light




Fig 7.10 Milky Way Galaxy In A 360 Degree Map View In Visible Gamma Ray




7.2 LOCATING RADIO OBJECTS IN THE SKY (RA AND DEC)

To share information with others, a reference system must be adopted. The system
used by astronomers is the celestial coordinate system. After years of teaching that the night
sky is not a sphere that rotates around the earth, it is ironic that this is what we are going to
envision for our coordinate system. Since both the surface of the earth and the celestial sphere
are surfaces of spheres (or nearly so) we can define any point on those surfaces with two
coordinates. In nearly the same way that we use Longitude and Latitude to find a point on the
surface of the earth, we use Right Ascension (RA) and Declination (DEC) to find objects on
the celestial sphere.


7.2.1 AZIMUTH AND ALTITUDE

If you were to go out tonight and try to show someone the 'Big Dipper' you'd probably
point to the object and use Azimuth and Altitude. Azimuth is the angle around the horizontal
from due north and running clockwise. It corresponds to the compass directions with 0
degrees representing due north, 90 degrees due East, 180 degrees due South, and 270 due
West. Altitude is the height of the object, in degrees above the horizon. Altitude can range
from 0 degrees (on the horizon) to 90 degrees (directly overhead). A good approximation of
these to use at night is your hand at arm's length. Your whole hand (thumb through pinky) is
about 10 degrees and each finger is about 2 degrees. Although Altitude and Azimuth are
useful for observing at night and showing others constellations and other objects, it is not
helpful for us. This is because none of us are at the exact same latitude and longitude and so
my altitude and azimuth information for the 'Big Dipper' would be different for you. Also, as
the object rises and sets, it changes position in the sky. (refer to fig. 7.11).




Fig 7.11 Picture Depicting Azimuth And Altitude
7.2.2 RIGHT ASCENSION AND DECLINATION

Right Ascension (RA) and Declination (DEC) are similar to longitude and latitude.If
you picture the earth's North Pole projected into the sky this would correspond to the
Celestial North Pole. And if you project the earth's equator into the sky this would correspond
to the Celestial Equator. The longitude lines on a celestial sphere are called Right Ascension.
Right Ascension is measured on the celestial equator in an easterly direction. Instead of
measuring in degrees though, it is measured in hours, minutes, and seconds.A full rotation
corresponds to 24 hours, roughly the time it takes for the sphere to rotate once around. Each
hour of right ascension is about 15 degrees on the celestial sphere. The Right Ascension of 0
hours occurs on the Vernal Equinox (first day of spring equal day and night 12 hours
each). Declination corresponds to latitude and is measured in degrees above or below the
celestial equator. An object above the celestial equator has a positive declination; an object
below the celestial equator has a negative declination. Since this coordinate system is relative
to fixed objects in the celestial sphere, the Right Ascension and Declination do not change
and can be shared with anyone on the earth. (refer to fig. 7.12).







Fig 7.12 Picture Depicting Right Ascension And Declination



7.3 INTERFEROMETRY (ADVANCED RADIO PROJECT)

Combining two or more signals into a coherent signal you can study is another real
challenge. Both antennas must be pointing very accurately and timing of the received data is
critical. The receivers must be phase-locked together. A phase-locked loop is a circuit that
uses a stable, generated frequency (usually using a stable crystal)and a circuit that compares a
tuning frequency to the generated frequency. The difference between the two is used to adjust
the tuning frequency to essentially lock the phases of the two signals together. This creates a
lock between the two and a very stable tuning system and allows the tuning between two
radio telescopes to be comparable. The advantage of interferometry is that you can simulate a
much larger antenna with smaller ones. This method is being used by professionals because
of the relatively inexpensive smaller dishes available now and modern computing power and
software. This combination allows them to gather finely resolved data (down to milli
arcseconds). Several SARA members are currently experimenting with this including Bruce
Randall who gave a talk on this topic at the SARA conference in 2010(refer to fig. 7.13).







Fig 7.13 Setup For The Interferometry Process














CHAPTER 8



RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK




The advantage of computer modeling is once again demonstrated in this section.
Upon development of a basic model, such as the Arecibo model, there is always room for
improvement and added features. The key target areas of the model which should be
considered in future development are:

(1) Tiedown Cables: A large effort was in fact put forward in trying to implement the
tie down cables (specifically the vertical tiedowns for the upgraded Arecibo
configuration). Unfortunately, time was a limiting factor and it was decided that the
tie downs were beyond the scope of this thesis. For this reason, the next feature that
should be added to the basic Arecibo model is the tie down cables.

There are two possible approaches:

(a) Develop a code that introduces 3 new cables that are self-contained.
(b) Set the number of cables in the existing code to 6, with different base point
specifications for the mainstay and tiedown cables.

In either case a new method for determining the unstretched length of the tiedowns
must be devised. Finally, it should be noted that the vertical tiedowns of the upgraded
Arecibo and the off vertical catenaries of the original Arecibo present the same
challenges or problems in terms of model development. When one problem is solved,
the other follows.


(2) Gregorian Positioning: Devise a feature, either in the dynamics model itself or
offline, to take into account the different zenith and azimuth angles that the Gregorian
system may take. To do this, the mass-moment of inertia of the platform may no
longer be assumed as a uniform density triangular section that includes the mass of
the Gregorian. Also, the drag of the Gregorian should no longer be taken at the centre
of mass of the platform (this will introduce a moment force acting on the platform due
to its own drag).


(3) Platform Drag Model: Improvements to the triangular truss platform drag model
should be a goal of future development. The drag through multiple truss frame
sections (i.e. more than a pair) should be researched and the platform drag coefficients
should be improved.


















CONCLUSIONS

In summary, a basic model for the dynamics of the Arecibo Radio Telescope has been
developed. The development of the model successfully stemmed from an earlier version of a
dynamics model of the LAR system. Upon developing the model, a successful performance
evaluation and sensitivity analysis was carried out. The following is a list of the key
conclusions that were drawn from the performance evaluation:
(1) The original Arecibo model, even at very high wind speeds, is subject to
motion on the order of tens of millimeters.
(2) The tilt angle is also very small, even at high wind speeds: approximately
0.02

(or3.5.10
4
rad ) at a wind speed of 20 m/s.
(3) The peak tower deflection, even at the hurricane wind speed of 30 m/s, was found
to be very small (6.2 mm), which is well within the permissible limit of
2 inches, or 50.8 mm for the tower-top deflection.
(4) Wind direction has negligible effect on the performance of the system.
(5) Turbulent wind, particularly at mean wind speeds in excess of 10 m/s, has the
effect of increasing the average and peak performance metrics, thus degrading the
systems performance. However the systems motion, even under turbulent
conditions, is still on the order of centimeters.
(6) The recent design changes (studied in the context of these models) were in
fact beneficial to the systems performance










REFRENCES

[1] http://www/pixar.com/companyinfo/research/index.html

[2] http://www.psrope.com/psrope/

[3] http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/sipka.doc

[4] http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/tihanyi.html

[5] http://www.cheresources.com/photochem.shtml

[6] http://www.armadale.org.uk/phototech.htm

[7] http://www.deadmedia.org/notes/38/380.html