Equation Solutions And Theorems With Proof

Problem 1
Evaluate the integral:
3x − 1
Z
dx
x2 + 10x + 26

solution
To begin, we complete the square in the denominator:

x2 + 10x + 26 = (x + 5)2 + 1

Now, let u = x + 5, so du = dx and x = u − 5. Substituting, we get:

3(u − 5) − 1 3u − 16
Z Z
du = du
u2 + 1 u2 + 1
We split the integral: Z Z
3u 16
2
du − du
u +1 u2+1
The first integral is 3
2
ln(u2 + 1) and the second is 16 tan−1 (u). Substituting back u = x + 5,
the final result is:
3
ln((x + 5)2 + 1) − 16 tan−1 (x + 5) + C
2

1
Problem 2
Use Euler’s method with step size h = 0.3 to estimate y(0.9), given:

y ′ = 3xy + 5y, y(0) = 3

Solution
Euler’s method uses the recursive formula:

yn+1 = yn + hf (xn , yn )

where f (x, y) = 3xy + 5y

Step 0: Initial values

x0 = 0, y0 = 3, h = 0.3

Step 1: Estimate y(0.3)

f (x0 , y0 ) = 3(0)(3) + 5(3) = 0 + 15 = 15
y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ) = 3 + 0.3(15) = 3 + 4.5 = 7.5

Step 2: Estimate y(0.6)

f (x1 , y1 ) = 3(0.3)(7.5) + 5(7.5) = 6.75 + 37.5 = 44.25
y2 = y1 + hf (x1 , y1 ) = 7.5 + 0.3(44.25) = 7.5 + 13.275 = 20.775

Step 3: Estimate y(0.9)

f (x2 , y2 ) = 3(0.6)(20.775) + 5(20.775) = 37.395 + 103.875 = 141.27
y3 = y2 + hf (x2 , y2 ) = 20.775 + 0.3(141.27) = 20.775 + 42.381 = 63.156

Final Answer
y(0.9) ≈ 63.156

2
Problem 3
Evaluate the improper integral: Z ∞
yey dy
1

Solution
This is an improper integral due to the infinite upper limit. We rewrite it as a limit:
Z ∞ Z t
y
ye dy = lim yey dy
1 t→∞ 1

We use integration by parts:

u=y ⇒ du = dy

dv = ey dy ⇒ v = ey
Then: Z Z
y y
ye dy = ye − ey dy = yey − ey + C

Now evaluate:
Z t
yey dy = [yey − ey ]t1 = (tet − et ) − (1 · e1 − e1 ) = (t − 1)et − 0 = (t − 1)et
1

Take the limit:

lim (t − 1)et = ∞
t→∞

Conclusion
Z ∞
yey dy diverges
1

3
Problem 4
Find the solution of the differential equation that satisfies the given initial condition:
√ dy
2x + 3y 3 x2 + 1 = 0, y(1) = 2
dx

Solution
dy
Rewrite the equation to isolate dx
:
√ dy
3y 3 x2 + 1 = −2x
dx
dy −2x
⇒ = √
dx 3y 3 x2 + 1
Separate variables:
2x
3y 3 dy = − √ dx
x2 + 1
Integrate both sides: Z Z
3 x
3y dy = −2 √ dx
x2+1
Calculate the integrals separately:

y4
Z Z
3 3 3
3y dy = 3 y dy = 3 · = y 4 + C1
4 4
For the right side:
Let Z
x
I= √ dx
2
x +1
Use substitution:
du
u = x2 + 1 ⇒ du = 2x dx ⇒ x dx =
2
Rewrite I:
Z Z Z Z
x 1 1 du 1
I= √ dx = √ · x dx = √ · = u−1/2 du
u u u 2 2
1 √ √
= · 2u1/2 + C2 = u + C2 = x2 + 1 + C2
2
Thus, Z
x √ √
−2 √ dx = −2( x2 + 1 + C2 ) = −2 x2 + 1 + C3
x2 + 1
Putting it all together:
3 4 √
y = −2 x2 + 1 + C
4

4
 Apply initial condition y(1) = 2:
3 4 √
(2) = −2 12 + 1 + C
4
3 √
× 16 = −2 2 + C
4
√ √
12 = −2 2 + C =⇒ C = 12 + 2 2
Final implicit solution:

3 4 √ √
y = −2 x2 + 1 + 12 + 2 2
4
Or equivalently,
4 √ √ 
y4 = 12 + 2 2 − 2 x2 + 1
3

Problem 5
Determine whether the integrals are convergent or divergent. justify your answer:

solution
∞
x2
Z
(a) dx
1 x4 + 1
We analyze the behavior of the integrand as x → ∞. For large x, the function behaves
like:
x2 x2 1
4
∼ 4 = 2
x +1 x x
We compare this to the p-integral:
Z ∞
1
dx
1 x2
which converges because p = 2 > 1.
Now define:
x2 1
f (x) = , g(x) =
x4 + 1 x2
For x ≥ 1, we observe:

x2 x2 1
x4 + 1 ≥ x4 ⇒ ≤ =
x4 + 1 x4 x2
R∞
Since 0 < f (x) ≤ g(x) and 1
g(x) dx converges, the Direct Comparison Test tells
us that:

5
 ∞
x2
Z
dx converges.
1 x4 + 1

Z ∞
1
(b) √ dx
1 (1 + x2 ) x
We again study the behavior as x → ∞. For large x, we approximate:
1 1 1
√ ∼ 2 1/2 = 5/2
2
(1 + x ) x x ·x x
We compare this to: Z ∞
1
dx
1 x5/2
5
which converges since p = 2
> 1.
Let:
1 1
f (x) = √ , g(x) =
(1 + x2 ) x x5/2
Note that for x ≥ 1:
1 1 √
1 + x2 ≥ x2 ⇒ 2
≤ 2, and x = x1/2
1+x x
so:
1 1
f (x) ≤ = 5/2 = g(x)
·x x2
1/2 x
Since g(x) is integrable and f (x) ≤ g(x), by the Direct Comparison Test:
Z ∞
1
√ dx converges.
1 (1 + x2 ) x

Problem 6
2x2
Expand as a power series the following function y = 1+x2
what is radius and interval of
convergence?

solution
We start by recognizing that the function
1
1 + x2
can be expressed as a geometric series. Recall the geometric series:
∞
1 X
= rn for |r| < 1
1 − r n=0

6
 So we write: ∞
1 1 X
2
= 2
= (−1)n x2n , for |x| < 1
1+x 1 − (−x ) n=0
Now multiply both sides by 2x2 :
∞ ∞
2x2 2
X
n 2n
X
= 2x · (−1) x = 2(−1)n x2n+2
1 + x2 n=0 n=0

Power Series Representation

∞
2x2 X
= 2(−1)n x2n+2 for |x| < 1
1 + x2 n=0

Radius and Interval of Convergence

The series ∞
X
(−1)n x2n
n=0

converges for |x| < 1, so the radius of convergence is:

R=1

We now test the endpoints:

• At x = 1: ∞
X
2(−1)n = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + · · · (diverges)
n=0

• At x = −1:
∞
X
2(−1)n = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + · · · (also diverges)
n=0

Final Answer
∞
X
• Power series: 2(−1)n x2n+2
n=0

• Radius of convergence: 1

• Interval of convergence: (−1, 1)

7
Problem 7
Solve the initial value problem:
xex
y′ = , y(0) = 1
y2

Solution
Rewrite the differential equation:
dy xex
= 2
dx y
Separate variables:
y 2 dy = xex dx
Integrate both sides: Z Z
2
y dy = xex dx

Left side:
y3
Z
y 2 dy = + C1
3
Right side:
Use integration by parts with

u = x, dv = ex dx =⇒ du = dx, v = ex

Then: Z Z
x x
xe dx = xe − ex dx = xex − ex + C2 = ex (x − 1) + C2

Thus,
y3
= ex (x − 1) + C
3
Apply the initial condition y(0) = 1:

13 1 1 4
= e0 (0 − 1) + C =⇒ = −1 + C =⇒ C = + 1 =
3 3 3 3
Therefore, the implicit solution is:

y3 4
= ex (x − 1) +
3 3
Multiply both sides by 3:
y 3 = 3ex (x − 1) + 4
Finally,
p
3
y= 3ex (x − 1) + 4

8
Problem 8
find the derivative !
Z cos2 x
d
(et + 3 tan(t))dt
dx 0

Solution
By the Leibniz rule for differentiation under the integral sign:
Z u(x)
d
f (t) dt = f (u(x)) · u′ (x)
dx a

Here,
f (t) = et + 3 tan t, u(x) = cos2 x
Compute the derivative of the upper limit:
d
u′ (x) = cos2 x = 2 cos x · (− sin x) = −2 sin x cos x
dx
Therefore,
Z cos2 x
d 2
(et + 3 tan t) dt = (ecos x
+ 3 tan(cos2 x)) · (−2 sin x cos x)
dx 0

 2 
= −2 sin x cos x ecos x + 3 tan(cos2 x)
—
Z cos2 x
d t
 2
cos x 2

(e + 3 tan t) dt = −2 sin x cos x e + 3 tan(cos x)
dx 0

Problem 9
Solve the initial value problem:
y
y′ + = 2 ln x, y(2) = 3
x

solution
This is a linear differential equation. The integrating factor is:
1
R
dx
µ(x) = e x =x

Multiplying through:
d
xy ′ + y = 2x ln x ⇒ (xy) = 2x ln x
dx

9
 Integrating: Z
xy = 2x ln xdx

Using integration by parts:

x2
= x2 ln x − +C
2
So:
x C
y = x ln x − +
2 x
Using y(2) = 3 ⇒ C = 2, final solution:

x 2
y = x ln x − +
2 x

Problem 10
Find the volume generated by rotating y = ex , between x = −2 and x = 3, around the line
y = −1.

Solution
When the region bounded by the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis is rotated around a horizontal
line y = c, the volume using the washer method is:
Z b
R(x)2 − r(x)2 dx
 
V =π
a
where R(x) is the outer radius and r(x) is the inner radius.
Here, - The curve is y = ex , - The axis of rotation is y = −1, - The interval is [−2, 3].
Since the region lies above y = −1, the radius from the axis of rotation to the curve is:

R(x) = ex − (−1) = ex + 1
The inner radius r(x) is zero because the region is bounded below by the curve y = ex ,
and there is no hole inside.
Therefore, the volume is:
Z 3
V =π (ex + 1)2 dx
−2

Expand the integrand:

(ex + 1)2 = e2x + 2ex + 1

So,
Z 3
e2x + 2ex + 1 dx


V =π
−2

10
 —
Evaluate the integral:

e2x
Z
e2x dx = +C
2
Z
ex dx = ex + C
Z
1 dx = x + C

Therefore,
3
e2x

V =π + 2ex + x
2 −2

Calculate the definite integral:

 6   −4 
e 3 e −2
V =π + 2e + 3 − + 2e − 2
2 2
Simplify:

e6 e−4
 
V =π + 2e3 + 3 − − 2e−2 + 2
2 2
e−4
 6 
e 3 −2
V =π + 2e − − 2e + 5
2 2
—
e6 e−4
 
V =π + 2e3 − − 2e−2 + 5
2 2

Problem 11
Write first 5 terms of Maclaurin series of y = x cos x2 . what is the interval of convergence?

Solution
Recall the Maclaurin series expansion for cosine:
∞
X z 2n z2 z4 z6
cos z = (−1)n =1− + − + ···
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!

Substitute z = x2 :
x4 x8 x12
cos(x2 ) = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!

11
 Multiply by x:
x4 x8 x12 x5 x9 x13
 
2
y = x cos(x ) = x 1 − + − + ··· =x− + − + ···
2! 4! 6! 2 24 720
—
First 5 terms:

x5 x9 x13 x17
y =x− + − + + ···
2 24 720 40320
—
Interval of Convergence
Since the Maclaurin series for cos z converges for all real z, and z = x2 is defined for all
real x, the radius of convergence is infinite:

Interval of convergence: (−∞, ∞)

Problem 12
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of f on the closed set D if f (x, y) = x + 2y − xy,
D is the closed rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (0, 2), (4, 0), (4, 2)

solution
Evaluate f at corners:

f (0, 0) = 0, f (0, 2) = 4, f (4, 0) = 4, f (4, 2) = 4 + 4 − 8 = 0

So the maximum is 4 , minimum is 0

Problem 13
Find radius of convergence R and interval of convergence for the following power series:
∞
X (x + 2)n
n=2
5n ln n

Solution
Let
(x + 2)n
an =
5n ln n
To find the radius of convergence, we use the Root Test:
r
n
n |x + 2| |x + 2| 1
p
lim n |an | = lim n
= lim ·
n→∞ n→∞ 5 ln n n→∞ 5 (ln n)1/n

12
 Since
lim (ln n)1/n = 1,
n→∞

we get
|x + 2|
L=
5
For convergence, the Root Test requires

|x + 2|
L < 1 =⇒ < 1 =⇒ |x + 2| < 5
5
Thus, the radius of convergence is:

R=5

—
Interval of convergence
The interval is:
−2 − 5 < x < −2 + 5 =⇒ −7 < x < 3
—
Endpoint check:
1. At x = −7:
∞ ∞ ∞
X (−7 + 2)n X (−5)n X (−1)n
= =
n=2
5n ln n n=2
5n ln n n=2 ln n
1
This is an alternating series with terms ln n
decreasing to zero, so it **converges condi-
tionally** by the Alternating Series Test.
2. At x = 3:
∞ ∞ ∞
X (3 + 2)n X 5n X 1
= =
n=2
5n ln n n=2
5n ln n n=2 ln n

The terms ln1n do not tend to zero fast enough for convergence (the series diverges).
—
Final result:
(
R = 5,
Interval of convergence: [−7, 3)

13
Problem 14
Fing equation of rhe tangent plane for the graph of the Function: z = x2y passing the point
P0 (1, 1, 2).

Solution
The surface is given by
z = f (x, y) = x2 y
The tangent plane at (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is

z = z0 + fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )

where fx and fy are partial derivatives.

—
Calculate partial derivatives:
∂ 2
fx (x, y) = (x y) = 2xy
∂x
∂ 2
fy (x, y) = (x y) = x2
∂y
Evaluate at (1, 1):

fx (1, 1) = 2 · 1 · 1 = 2
fy (1, 1) = 12 = 1
The point on the surface:
z0 = f (1, 1) = 12 · 1 = 1
*Note:* The given point P0 has z0 = 2, but the function value at (1,1) is 1, so check if
the point lies on the surface. Since 2 ̸= 1, the point is not on the surface. If the point is
meant to be (1, 1, 1), use that instead.
Assuming the point is correct as P0 (1, 1, 2), the tangent plane at this point cannot be
found directly since it’s not on the surface.
—
If the point is (1, 1, 1), then the tangent plane equation is:

z = 1 + 2(x − 1) + 1(y − 1)

Simplify:
z = 1 + 2x − 2 + y − 1 = 2x + y − 2
Or equivalently:
z = 2x + y − 2
—

14
problem 15
Let
f (x, 1) = 2727

(a) Find the directional derivative of f (x, 1) at the point P (1, 1) in the direction of the
point Q(3, 4).

(b) In which direction is the directional derivative of f maximal at P (1, 1)?

(c) Find Dmax f at P (1, 1).

solution
(a) Directional derivative at (1, 1) toward Q(3, 4)
D E
Direction vector: ⃗v = ⟨2, 3⟩, unit vector ⃗u = √213 , √313 .
Gradient:  
∂f ∂f
∇f = ,
∂x ∂y
Using quotient rule:

∂f y(x2 + 2y) − 2xyx ∂f x(x2 + 2y) − 2xy

= , = .
∂x (x2 + 2y)2 ∂y (x2 + 2y)2

At (1, 1):
∂f 1(1 + 2) − 2(1)2 1 ∂f 1(1 + 2) − 2(1) 1
= 2
= , = = .
∂x (1 + 2) 9 ∂y 9 3
Directional derivative:
   
1 1 2 3 2 1 11
∇f · ⃗u = , · √ ,√ = √ +√ = √ .
9 3 13 13 9 13 13 9 13

1 1
(b) Direction of maximal directional derivative is the gradient: ∇f = ,
9 3
.
q
√
1 2 1 2 10


(c) Dmax f = ∥∇f (1, 1)∥ = 9
+ 3
= 9
.

problem 16
Use Lagrange multipliers to find the extreme value of the function f (x, y) = 3x + 5y, subject
to the given constraint: x2 + 2y 2 = 6.

15
Solution
Define the Lagrangian:

L(x, y, λ) = 3x + 5y − λ(x2 + 2y 2 − 6)

Take partial derivatives and set them equal to zero:

∂L
= 3 − 2λx = 0 =⇒ 3 = 2λx (1)
∂x
∂L
= 5 − 4λy = 0 =⇒ 5 = 4λy (2)
∂y
∂L
= −(x2 + 2y 2 − 6) = 0 =⇒ x2 + 2y 2 = 6 (3)
∂λ
—
From equations (1) and (2), solve for x and y in terms of λ:
3
x=
2λ
5
y=
4λ
Substitute into the constraint (3):
 2  2
3 5
+2 =6
2λ 4λ
9 25
2
+2· =6
4λ 16λ2
9 50
2
+ =6
4λ 16λ2
Find common denominator:
36 50
2
+ =6
16λ 16λ2
86
=6
16λ2
Multiply both sides by 16λ2 :
86 = 96λ2
86 43
λ2 = =
96 48
Thus, r
43
λ=±
48
—
Calculate x and y for each λ:

16
For r
43
λ= ,
48
√ r
3 3 3 48 3 48
x= = p = · = √
2λ 2 43/48 2 43 2 43
r √
5 5 5 48 5 48
y= = p = · = √
4λ 4 43/48 4 43 4 43
Similarly for r
43
λ=− ,
48
√ √
3 48 5 48
x=− √ , y=− √
2 43 4 43
—
Evaluate f (x, y) = 3x + 5y at these points:
√ √ √ √
3 48 5 48 9 48 25 48
f = 3x + 5y = 3 · √ + 5 · √ = √ + √
2 43 4 43 2 43 4 43
Find common denominator 4:
√ √ √ r r
18 48 25 48 43 48 43 48 43 48
= √ + √ = √ = · = ·
4 43 4 43 4 43 4 43 4 43

Simplify inside the root: r √ √

48 48 4 3
=√ =√
43 43 43
Thus, √ √
43 4 3 3 √ √ √
f= · √ = 43 · √ = 43 · 3 = 129
4 43 43
Similarly, for the negative solution,
√
f = − 129

—
Final answer:
( √
Maximum value = 129
√
Minimum value = − 129

at the points
√ √ ! √ √ !
3 48 5 48 3 48 5 48
√ , √ and − √ ,− √
2 43 4 43 2 43 4 43

17
problem 17
Determine whether the following series converge or diverge:
∞
X 3n + 5n2 + 1
(a)
n=1
3n2 + 10
∞
X 5n
(b)
n=1
n!

Solution
P 3n+5n2 +1
(a) Series: 3n2 +10

Analyze the general term:

3n + 5n2 + 1
an =
3n2 + 10
For large n, highest order terms dominate numerator and denominator:

5n2 5
an ∼ 2
=
3n 3
Since
5
lim an = ̸= 0,
n→∞ 3
the necessary condition for convergence fails.

=⇒ series diverges by the Divergence Test

—
P 5n
(b) Series: n!

Using the Ratio Test:

an+1 5n+1 n! 5
L = lim = lim · n = lim =0<1
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! 5 n→∞ n + 1

Hence, the series **converges absolutely**.

—

Final answers
(
(a) Diverges
(b) Converges (Ratio Test)

18
problem 18
Calculate the indefinite integrals:
Z
(a) sin(3x) cos(5x) dx
Z
(b) sin3 x cos4 x dx

Solution
Z
(a) sin(3x) cos(5x) dx

Use the product-to-sum identity:

1 
sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)
2
Apply with A = 3x, B = 5x:
1 1
sin(3x) cos(5x) = [sin(8x) + sin(−2x)] = [sin(8x) − sin(2x)]
2 2
So, Z Z
1
sin(3x) cos(5x) dx = [sin(8x) − sin(2x)] dx
2
Integrate term-by-term:
 
1 cos(8x) cos(2x) 1 1
= − + + C = − cos(8x) + cos(2x) + C
2 8 2 16 4
—
Z
(b) sin3 x cos4 x dx

Rewrite the odd power of sine:

sin3 x = sin x · sin2 x = sin x(1 − cos2 x)

So, Z Z
3 4
sin x cos x dx = sin x(1 − cos2 x) cos4 x dx

Rewrite integrand: Z
sin x cos4 x − cos6 x dx


=

Use substitution:

u = cos x =⇒ du = − sin x dx =⇒ −du = sin x dx

19
 Rewrite integral in terms of u:
Z Z Z Z
sin x cos x − cos x dx = (u − u )(sin x dx) = (u − u )(−du) = − (u4 − u6 ) du
4 6 4 6 4 6

Integrate:
u5 u7 cos5 x cos7 x
 
− − +C =− + +C
5 7 5 7
—
Final answers:
Z
1 1
 sin(3x) cos(5x) dx = − cos(8x) + cos(2x) + C

16 4




cos5 x cos7 x

 Z
 sin3 x cos4 x dx = − + +C


5 7

problem 19
Calculate the integrals:
Z √
16 − x2
(a) dx
x2
Z
1
(b) √ dx
x x2 + 25
2

Solution
Z √
16 − x2
(a) dx
x2
Use substitution:
x = 4 sin θ =⇒ dx = 4 cos θ dθ
 π π
The domain is θ ∈ − 2 , 2 .
Compute the square root term:
√ p q
16 − x = 16 − 16 sin θ = 16(1 − sin2 θ) = 4 cos θ
2 2

Rewrite the integral:

Z Z
4 cos θ 4 cos θ
I= · 4 cos θ dθ = · 4 cos θ dθ
(4 sin θ)2 16 sin2 θ
Simplify the constants:
16 cos2 θ cos2 θ
Z Z Z
= dθ = dθ = cot2 θ dθ
16 sin2 θ sin2 θ

20
 Recall the identity:
cot2 θ = csc2 θ − 1
So, Z Z Z
2 2
I= (csc θ − 1) dθ = csc θ dθ − 1 dθ = − cot θ − θ + C

Return to x:
Since
x
x = 4 sin θ =⇒ sin θ =
4
and
√ √
q
x2
1−
p
cos θ 1 − sin2 θ 16 16 − x2 1 16 − x2
cot θ = = = x = ·4· =
sin θ sin θ 4
x 4 x
Therefore, √
16 − x2 x
I=− − arcsin +C
x 4
—
Z
1
(b) √ dx
x2 x2 + 25
Use substitution:
x = 5 tan θ =⇒ dx = 5 sec2 θ dθ
Calculate inside root:
√ p p
x2 + 25 = 25 tan2 θ + 25 = 5 tan2 θ + 1 = 5 sec θ

Rewrite the integral:

5 sec2 θ sec2 θ
Z Z Z
1 2
I= · 5 sec θ dθ = dθ = dθ
(5 tan θ)2 · 5 sec θ 25 tan2 θ · 5 sec θ 25 tan2 θ sec θ

Simplify: Z Z
sec θ 1 sec θ
= 2
dθ = dθ
25 tan θ 25 tan2 θ
sin θ 1
Rewrite using tan θ = cos θ
and sec θ = cos θ
:
1
sec θ cos θ 1/ cos θ cos2 θ cos θ
= = 2 = 2 =
tan2 θ sin2 θ
cos2 θ
sin θ/ cos2 θ cos θ sin θ sin2 θ

So, Z
1 cos θ
I= dθ
25 sin2 θ
Use substitution:
u = sin θ =⇒ du = cos θ dθ

21
 Thus,
Z Z  
1 −2 1 −2 1 1 1
I= u du = u du = − +C =− +C
25 25 25 u 25 sin θ
Return to x:
x 5 tan θ x
sin θ = √ =√ 2
=√
x2
+ 25 25 tan θ + 25 2
x + 25
From the triangle interpretation,
√
x 1 x2 + 25
sin θ = √ =⇒ =
x2 + 25 sin θ x
Therefore, √
1 x2 + 25
I=− · +C
25 x
—
Final answers:
Z √
 x2 x x 16 − x2

 √ dx = 8 arcsin − +C
16 − x2 4 2



 √
x2 + 25
Z

 1

 √ dx = − +C
x2 x2 + 25 25x


problem 20
determine whenever the series is convergence or divergence
∞
X n sin2 n
n=1
1 + n3

Solution
Since for all n,
0 ≤ sin2 n ≤ 1,
we have
n sin2 n n
0≤ 3
≤ .
1+n 1 + n3
For large n,
n n 1
3
∼ 3 = 2.
1+n n n
We know that the series ∞
X 1
n=1
n2

22
is convergent (p-series with p = 2 > 1).
By the Comparison Test:

n sin2 n n 1
0≤ ≤ ∼ ,
1 + n3 1 + n3 n2
1/n2 converges, the original series converges absolutely.
P
and since

Conclusion
∞
X n sin2 n
The series converges by Comparison Test.
n=1
1 + n3

23
Theorem 1
Integrating Factor for Linear Differential Equations (with proof)
A first-order linear differential equation has the form:
dy
+ P (x)y = Q(x) (1)
dx
To solve this equation, we multiply both sides by an integrating factor:
R
P (x) dx
µ(x) = e (2)

Multiplying the original equation by µ(x), we obtain:

dy
µ(x) + µ(x)P (x)y = µ(x)Q(x) (3)
dx
Notice that the left-hand side is the derivative of µ(x)y:

d
[µ(x)y] = µ(x)Q(x) (4)
dx
Now, integrate both sides:
Z Z
d
[µ(x)y] dx = µ(x)Q(x) dx (5)
dx
Z
µ(x)y = µ(x)Q(x) dx + C (6)

Solving for y, we find the general solution:

Z 
1
y(x) = µ(x)Q(x) dx + C (7)
µ(x)

Conclusion
This method provides a systematic way to solve any first-order
R linear differential equation.
P (x) dx
The key idea is choosing the integrating factor µ(x) = e to convert the left-hand side
into the derivative of a product.

24
Theorem 2
divergence
P∞ test for a number series (with proof)
Let n=1 an be an infinite series. If

lim an ̸= 0 or the limit does not exist, (8)

n→∞

then the series diverges.

Note: If limn→∞ an = 0, this does not imply that the series converges.

proof
P∞
Suppose the series n=1 an converges to a finite value S. Then the sequence of partial sums

s n = a1 + a2 + · · · + an

must converge to S, that is,

lim sn = S.
n→∞

Since an = sn − sn−1 , and both sn and sn−1 approach the same limit S, it follows that:

lim an = lim (sn − sn−1 ) = S − S = 0.

n→∞ n→∞

Therefore, a necessary condition for the convergence of the series is that limn→∞ an = 0.
Hence, if this limit is not zero or does not exist, the series must diverge.

Theorem 3 (Sum of a Geometric Series)

Let r be a real number. Then the infinite geometric series
∞
X
arn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · (9)
n=0

converges if and only if |r| < 1, and in that case its sum is
∞
X a
arn = . (10)
n=0
1−r

If |r| ≥ 1, then the series diverges.

25
Proof
Consider the nth partial sum:
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 .
This is a finite geometric series. The formula for its sum is:
1 − rn
Sn = a · , for r ̸= 1.
1−r
To find the sum of the infinite series, take the limit of Sn as n → ∞.
• If |r| < 1, then limn→∞ rn = 0, so:
1 − rn
 
a
lim Sn = lim a· = .
n→∞ n→∞ 1−r 1−r

• If |r| ≥ 1, then rn does not tend to zero, so the partial sums do not approach a finite
limit. Hence, the series diverges.

Theorem 4 (Alternating Series Test (Leibniz’s Test))

Let {bn } be a sequence such that:
1. bn > 0 for all n,
2. bn+1 ≤ bn for all n (i.e., {bn } is decreasing),
3. limn→∞ bn = 0,
then the alternating series
∞
X
(−1)n−1 bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + · · ·
n=1
converges.

Theorem 5 (Integral Test (Formulation Only))

Let f (x) be a continuous, positive, decreasing function for x ≥ N , where f (n) = an . Then
the series ∞
X
an
n=N
converges if and only if the improper integral
Z ∞
f (x) dx
N
converges.

26
Theorem 6 (Comparison Tests (Formulations Only))
(a) Direct Comparison Test
Let 0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n ≥ N .

• If
P P
bn converges, then an also converges.

• If
P P
an diverges and an ≤ bn , then bn diverges.

(b) Limit Comparison Test

Let an > 0, bn > 0, and suppose
an
= c,
lim
n→∞ bn
P P
where 0 < c < ∞. Then either both an and bn converge or both diverge.

Theorem 7 (Ratio and Root Tests (Formulations Only))

(a) Ratio Test
Let
an+1
L = lim .
n→∞ an
• If L < 1, the series
P
an converges absolutely.

• If L > 1 or L = ∞, the series diverges.

• If L = 1, the test is inconclusive.

(b) Root Test

Let p
n
L = lim |an |.
n→∞

• If L < 1, the series converges absolutely.

• If L > 1 or L = ∞, the series diverges.

• If L = 1, the test is inconclusive.

27
Theorem 8 (Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integra-
tion of Power Series (Formulations Only))
Let ∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n
n=0

be a power series with radius of convergence R > 0. Then:

(a) Term-by-Term Differentiation

The series ∞
X
′
f (x) = ncn (x − a)n−1
n=1

converges for |x − a| < R and represents the derivative of f (x) on that interval.

(b) Term-by-Term Integration

The series Z ∞
X cn
f (x) dx = C + (x − a)n+1
n=0
n + 1
also converges for |x − a| < R and represents an antiderivative of f (x) on that interval.

Theorem 9 (Maclaurin Series of Exponential and Trigono-

metric Functions (with proof ))
The Maclaurin series for a function f (x) is the Taylor series centered at 0:
∞
X f (n) (0)
f (x) = xn
n=0
n!

1. Exponential Function f (x) = ex

We have:
f (n) (x) = ex ⇒ f (n) (0) = 1 for all n
Maclaurin Series: ∞
X xn
ex =
n=0
n!
Proof of Convergence: We use the remainder term from Taylor’s Theorem:

f (n+1) (c) n+1 ec

Rn (x) = x = xn+1 for some c ∈ (0, x)
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!

28
Since ec ≤ e|x| , we get:

e|x|
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x|n+1 → 0 as n → ∞
(n + 1)!

So the series converges to ex for all x ∈ R.

2. Sine Function f (x) = sin x

The derivatives cycle every four steps:

f (0) (x) = sin x ⇒ f (0) (0) = 0

f (1) (x) = cos x ⇒ f (1) (0) = 1
f (2) (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (2) (0) = 0
f (3) (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (3) (0) = −1

Maclaurin Series: ∞
X x2n+1
sin x = (−1)n
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Proof of Convergence: Using the remainder estimate for alternating series:

|x|2n+3
|Rn (x)| ≤ → 0 as n → ∞
(2n + 3)!

So the series converges to sin x for all x ∈ R.

3. Cosine Function f (x) = cos x

The derivatives also cycle:

f (0) (x) = cos x ⇒ f (0) (0) = 1

f (1) (x) = − sin x ⇒ f (1) (0) = 0
f (2) (x) = − cos x ⇒ f (2) (0) = −1
f (3) (x) = sin x ⇒ f (3) (0) = 0

Maclaurin Series: ∞
X x2n
cos x = (−1)n
n=0
(2n)!
Proof of Convergence: As with sine, the error estimate is:

|x|2n+2
|Rn (x)| ≤ → 0 as n → ∞
(2n + 2)!

Thus, the series converges to cos x for all x ∈ R.

29
Theorem 10 (Taylor inequality for n=1 (with proof ))
Let f be a function with n + 1 continuous derivatives on an open interval containing a.
Suppose that

f (n+1) (x) ≤ M for all x such that |x − a| < d.

Then the remainder Rn (x) of the Taylor polynomial of degree n satisfies
M
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 for all x such that |x − a| < d.
(n + 1)!

proof
We first prove Taylor’s Inequality for n = 1. Assume that |f ′′ (x)| < M . In particular, we
have f ′′ (x) < M , so for a < x < a + d we have
Z x Z x
′′
f (t) dt < M dt
a a
′′ ′
An antiderivative of f is f , so by Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we
have

f ′ (x) − f ′ (a) < M (x − a) or f ′ (x) < f ′ (a) + M (x − a)

Thus
Z x Z x
′
f (t) dt < [f ′ (a) + M (t − a)] dt
a a

′ (x − a)2
f (x) − f (a) < f (a)(x − a) + M
2
M
f (x) − f (a) − f ′ (a)(x − a) < (x − a)2
2
But R1 (x) = f (x) − T1 (x) = f (x) − f (a) − f ′ (a)(x − a). So
M
(x − a)2
R1 (x) <
2
A similar argument, using f ′′ (x) > −M , shows that
M
R1 (x) > − (x − a)2
2
So
M
|x − a|2
|R1 (x)| <
2
Although we have assumed that x > a, similar calculations show that this inequality is
also true for x < a.

30
 This proves Taylor’s Inequality for the case where n = 1. The result for any n is proved
in a similar way by integrating n + 1 times. (See Exercise 95 for the case n = 2.)

Theorem 11 (Theorem about directional derivative (with

proof ))
Suppose f is a differentiable function of two or three variables. The maximum value of the
directional derivative Du f (x) is |∇f (x)| and it occurs when u has the same direction as the
gradient vector ∇f (x).

proof
From Equation 9 or 14 and using Theorem 12.3.3, we have

Du f = ∇f · u = |∇f ||u| cos θ

where θ is the angle between ∇f and u. The maximum value of cos θ is 1 and this occurs
when θ = 0. Therefore the maximum value of Du f is |∇f | and it occurs when θ = 0, that
is, when u has the same direction as ∇f .

Theorem 12 (Fermat’s theorem for functions of two vari-

ables about critical points (with proof ))
If f has a local maximum or minimum at (a, b) and the first-order partial derivatives of f
exist there, then fx (a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0.

proof
Let t(x) = f (x, b). If f has a local maximum (or minimum) at (a, b), then t has a local
maximum (or minimum) at a, so t′ (a) = 0 by Fermat’s Theorem (see Theorem 4.1.4). But
t′ (a) = fx (a, b) (see Equation 14.3.1), and so fx (a, b) = 0. Similarly, by applying Fermat’s
Theorem to the function G(y) = f (a, y), we obtain fy (a, b) = 0.

31