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 Forum for Linguistic Studies | Volume 07 | Issue 07 | July 2025

Forum for Linguistic Studies

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/fls

ARTICLE

Urban Toponymy as Flood Memory: Analyzing Water-Related

Place Names in Jakarta, Indonesia
Asep Mulyadi 1* , Moh. Dede 1,2,3 , Millary Agung Widiawaty 3,4 , Siti Nurbayani 1 ,
Heni Susiati 5 , Bayu Iqbal Anshari 4 , Arif Ismail 1,6
1
Faculty of Social Sciences Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, 40154, Indonesia
2 Environmental Science Program, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, 45363, Indonesia
3
School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United
Kingdom
4
Cakrabuana Institute for Geoinformation, Environment and Social Studies, Cirebon, 45188, Indonesia
5
Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN), Central Jakarta, Jakarta, 10340, Indonesia
6
Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sleman, 5281, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Jakarta, Indonesia’s flood-prone capital, bears a hydrological legacy embedded in its place names (toponyms).
This study examines how urban village toponyms reflect historical water-related landscapes and their implications for
contemporary flood risk. This study examines the relationship between Jakarta's toponyms and its flooding patterns
through qualitative descriptive analysis of 104 urban village names identified in flood-prone zones by Jakarta's Bureau
of Regional Disaster Management (BPBD Jakarta). We identified 14 toponyms explicitly referencing rivers, 27 tied to
water-associated vegetation, and 7 denoting wetlands, revealing a strong correlation between toponyms and ancestral
ecological knowledge. Toponymic data collected from the Indonesia Statistics Agency (BPS) and the Dutch East-Indies
Topographic Maps reveals diverse linguistic origins including Malay-Betawi, Javanese, Sundanese, Chinese, Portu-
guese, and Dutch. From 1940 to 2019, landscape transformation analysis demonstrates that today's flood-vulnerable
neighborhoods are primarily built on former wetlands, lakes, and agricultural fields, often erasing original toponyms.
Historically, toponyms like Danau Sunter or Rawabadak served as implicit flood hazard indicators, yet modern devel-
opment has disregarded these warnings. We argue that toponym conservation, supported by historical maps and legal
frameworks, can preserve indigenous knowledge for disaster mitigation. Water-related names underscore how toponyms

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Asep Mulyadi, Faculty of Social Sciences Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Jawa Barat 40154, Indonesia; Email: asep-
[email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received:19 April 2025; Revised:9 June 2025; Accepted: 20 June 2025; Published Online: 16 July 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i7.9604
CITATION
Mulyadi, A., Dede, M., Widiawaty, M.A., et al., 2025. Urban Toponymy as Flood Memory: Analyzing Water-Related Place Names in Jakarta,
Indonesia. Forum for Linguistic Studies. 7(7): 719–729. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i7.9604
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2025 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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encode landscape vulnerabilities now obscured by urbanization. This study highlights the urgency of integrating top-
onymic wisdom into spatial planning to reinforce flood resilience in rapidly transforming cities, where cultural memory
and environmental risk intersect.

Keywords: Disaster; Java Island; Names Conservation; Urban Area

1. Introduction
[7]
worst peak of Jakarta floods in the last 3 centuries .
Floods in Jakarta tend to increase every year, resulting
The study of place names or toponyms is currently
in extensive inundation. This condition is inseparable
being promoted by various educational and research insti-
from the history of Jakarta’s landscape, formed by the
tutions in Indonesia, because toponym has a hidden mean-
sedimentation of upland areas such as Bogor and Cianjur,
[1,2]
ing behind the naming processes . Toponyms can re-
which have soft soil texture and are downstream for many
cord many events, natural resources, landscape processes, [8]
watersheds . In addition, the presence of rivers such as
and tell the human figures who greatly contributed to the
Ciliwung and Cisadane makes this region vulnerable to
community [3]. With these various purposes, the purpose of [9]
overflowing water from rivers when rain intensifies .
giving place names by humans is the connecting link be-
Apart from its natural conditions, flooding in Jakarta is
tween the past and the present as a form of local wisdom
also caused by human activities. Since 1998, the mainland
that must be maintained by the community. The toponym
of Jakarta has indicated urban sprawl. Potential flooding
peculiarities in Indonesia based on aquatic phenomena, as
has increased, which is exacerbated by land subsidence;
shown in the place names beginning with ci, rawa, situ,
thus, the flood hazard does not only originate from river
kali, kuala, and ranca [4].
overflows but also from tidal activity [10,11].
Recognizing the meaning contained in each top-
Jakarta’s landscape conditions are recorded in top-
onym, people are capable of analyzing all the potential
onyms. Currently, the emergency response effort – aid dis-
in a region, including its disaster aspect. As a means of
tribution option – is by an international NGO also based
identifying the history of the landscape, toponyms can [12]
on toponyms . The relationship between toponyms and
be used as a reference in identifying potential geological,
[5]
disaster has previously been reviewed by several research-
social, and hydrometeorological disasters . This study is
ers. Dall’Ò provided advice on aspects of planning that
very important, especially for regions with rapid develop-
helped to shape the formation of several toponyms in the
ment and is the center of socio-economic activities on a [13]
Aosta Valley as a disaster-prone area . Other studies
national scale with very high disaster potential, where the
also conducted by Ati et al. revealed that the toponymy of
process of landscapes changes is sometimes accompanied
inviting water also signifies the potential for hydromete-
by a change in the original name of the region through the [4]
orological disasters in Cirebon . In contrast to previous
establishment of new administrations at the district and
[6]
studies, this study combines toponym and flood disaster
village levels . This phenomenon can be found in the
assessments with databases from the past to reveal the
Capital Region (DKI) of Jakarta, especially in the main-
naming of areas without Jakarta’s development reforms.
land region, which has been known as a flood-prone area.
Therefore, this study has a single research question: Are
Jakarta floods have occurred since the 5th century
the toponyms related to flood disasters in DKI Jakarta,
AD, when the Tarumanegara Kingdom recorded them
specifically in the mainland region?
through the Tugu inscription. These events continued until
the era of the Pajajaran Kingdom and the Dutch colonial
era. Floods with heights of more than one meter had hit 2. Literature Review
Jakarta in 1621, and floods also occurred in 1699 due to
2.1. Toponyms
the overflow of the Ciliwung river after the eruption of
Mount Salak. Floods were also recorded in 1714, 1854, Toponyms are a term that is known not only in lin-
1918, 1942, 1996, 2002, and 2007, which became the guistics for analyzing names or naming, but also in other

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fields [14]. Toponyms are closely related to semantics that flooding time is longer [34]. In general, floods can be caused
explore the meaning of language, including the meaning by two causes, which are natural causes and human ac-
units such as words, phrases, clauses, and speeches [15]. tions [35]. In addition, the problem of flooding in urban ar-
Toponymy is part of the onomastics branch that studies eas stems from very rapid population growth, but it is not
place names [16]. Onomastics is the study of the origin, offset by the provision of adequate urban infrastructure
form, and meaning of proper names, especially names of and amenities [36,37]. As a result, urban land use becomes ir-
people and places [17,18]. Despite toponymy, there is an- regular and messy, which further complicates the problem
other branch of onomastics, which is anthroponymy, the of urban drainage [38]. Low public awareness and a lack of
study of personal names [19]. Toponymy involves examin- awareness of the importance of fixing the city’s problems
ing their etymology, structure, and socio-cultural context, may also be a factor behind this flooding problem [39,40].
with etymological and structural analysis focusing on their
origins, meanings, and word-formation through historical
and linguistic methods [20,21], while regional and pattern
3. Materials and Methods
analysis investigates their distribution within specific ar- The research location is in the mainland of DKI Ja-
eas to reveal settlement history and cultural influences [22]. karta, which is Indonesia’s capital city. The mainland of
Toponyms carry information about the history, Jakarta is a relatively flat region with an average height
cul- ture, and characteristics of a region, and they are of 7 meters above sea level and bordered by the Java Sea,
con- sidered both linguistic elements and cultural Banten Province, and Java Province. Some watersheds
heritage, reflecting the collective memory and identity of found in DKI Jakarta include Ciliwung, Cisadane, Kali
commu- nities [23,24]. Although synonyms are often Sunter, Kali Grogol, Kali Krukut, and Cipinang. Ciliwung
associated with geography, toponyms mainly discuss is the largest watershed with a total area of 347 km 2 and
scientific names and the origin, as well as the meaning the length of the main river is 117 km [41]. Jakarta has 2000
of places (areas) on the earth’s surface, both natural and
mm of rainfall per year with the highest rainfall occurring
man-made [25,26]. Toponyms function as unique markers of [42]
in January . This study takes toponyms on the urban
a place, making it easier for experts to research, write
village level in the mainland of Jakarta. Toponymy data
documents, and map the area [27]. Toponyms encode
includes 104 toponyms of urban villages (kelurahan) in
universal and local meanings, serving as cultural markers
the flood-prone area according to the Jakarta’s Bureau of
and historical re- cords [28–30]. Land use or policy changes
Regional Disaster Management (BPBD Jakarta) (Figure
can erase tradi- tional toponyms, reflecting power
1). The toponym data is compiled based on the Indonesia
dynamics. Toponyms represent linguistic treasures
Statistics Agency (BPS) and the Dutch East-Indies Topo-
integral to national heritage and collective consciousness.
graphic Maps or AMS (Figure 2).
Toponyms are vital cultural artifacts encapsulating
This research is a qualitative study with a descriptive
community history and worldview, revealing settlement
approach to finding out the meaning of toponyms and
patterns and human-environment relationships.
floods. Qualitative methods are able to explore various
meanings in toponymy (semantics) and can be combined
2.2. Flood Disaster with ethno-linguistic analysis methods [43–45]
. To find out
Flooding is a condition of a river where the flow of the meaning of the toponym, data validation uses liter-
water exceeds the capacity of the existing riverbed, result- ature studies by utilizing previous studies and spatial
ing in a discharge greater than it can bear [31]. Floods can data, especially from the maps and satellite imagery. This
[46]
cause property damage and even loss of life. This situation process used an overlay analysis between the dataset .
occurs when the water overflows the bank because the Therefore, this study revealed the relationship between the
canal bed is not capable of receiving a large water flow [32]
. meaning of places named and flood occurrences. Floods
Upstream, floods tend to have rapid flows and significant are events that have a return period from several years to
[47,48]
erosion, but are short-lived [33]. During this time down- decades . The research process to analyze toponyms
stream, the flow is slower due to the gentler flow, but the and flood events in Jakarta is shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 1. Flood-Prone Area in the Jakarta.

Figure 2. Dataset Sources from the Historical Maps.

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Figure 3. Research Framework.

4. Results prefixes ci and kali, while one refers to a lake (danau).

Meanwhile, the toponym of urban village that refers to
Jakarta’s toponym has actually undergone several vegetation shows the naming that refers to lowland plants
changes during the time of the local kingdom known as that are close to water sources, such as the palm family
Sunda Kalapa, which acts as a port because it is naturally (kelapa, pinang, and gebang), mangrove (bangka), melia-
an estuary that leads directly to the waters of the bay. This ceae trees (dukuh and kedoya), vegetation typical of trop-
name changed after the successful expulsion of the Portu- ical forests (rotan and warakas), the toponym based on
guese by the Sultanate of Demak, Sunda Kalapa changed vegetation amounted to 27 urban villages. The existence
to Jayakarta (sometimes pronounced Jakarta), which of water recorded in toponimi, which means swamp be-
[49]
meant a ‘great victory’ . Its strategic location caused the gins with the word swamp and thorn with a total of seven
Dutch to be interested in making Jayakarta the center of villages – prefix rawa, duri, and roa. Not only that, water
government and trade, then changed its name to Batavia, is also depicted in toponymy based on landforms such as
which commemorates their ancestor in Europe, ‘Bataaf’, estuaries, headlands, basins, and beaches as well as the
[50]
even after independence returned to Jakarta . daily activities of coastal communities such as boats and
Out of 104 urban villages in mainland Jakarta, 14 preserving fish (semper), in addition to naming based on
toponyms explicitly reference river names using the rice fields and cultivations (Table 1).

Table 1. Toponyms Classification in Jakarta.

Aspect Toponym Aspect Toponym
Vegetation Koja, Jati Padang, Pondok Pinang, Kebayor- Social events Cawang, Tugu Selatan, Pegangsaan Dua, Pejagalan,
an Lama Utara, Pondok Labu, Bintaro, Ke- Pasar Minggu, Petogogan, Manggarai, Kampung Me-
bon Manggis, Bidara Cina, Dukuh, Kramat layu, Makasar, Pekayon, Baru, Bale Kambang, Gunung
Jati, Pinang Ranti, Kebon Pala, Kelapa Dua Sahari Utara, Glodok, Tambora, Pekojan, Joglo, Angke,
Wetan, Rambutan, Mangga Dua Selatan, Jati Kembangan Selatan, Kembangan Utara, Semanan,
Pulo, Wijaya Kesuma, Kapuk, Kedoya Sela- Grogol, Petamburan, Karet Tengsin, Mampang Prapa-
tan, Kedoya Utara, Warakas, Kelapa Gading tan, Petukangan Selatan, Ulujami, Pademangan Barat,
Timur, Pulo Gebang, Pondok Bambu, Kebon Marunda, Pejagalan, Pejaten Timur, Kuningan Barat,
Baru, Rorotan, and Bangka. Pengadegan, and Suka Pura.
Swamp Rawabadak Utara, Rawajati, Roa Malaka, Lake Danau Sunter
Rawa Terate, Duri Kosambi, Rawa Buaya,
and Duri Kepa,
Rice field (cul- Tegal Alur, Tegal Parang, and Kebon Landform Lagoa, Tanjung Priuk, Ancol, Kapuk Muara, Kamal
tivation) Bawang. Muara, Bukit Duri, and Lebak Bulus.
Water and Pluit, Penjaringan, Semper Timur, and Sem- River Cilincing, Cilandak Timur, Cilandak Barat, Kalibata,
fisheries liveli- per Barat. Cipinang Besar Selatan, Cipinang Muara, Cipinang
hood Melayu, Cibubur, Kalisari, Kedaung Kali Angke, Ceng-
kareng Timur, Cengkareng Barat, Cililitan, and Cipulir.

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The dominance of toponymy at the urban village mixture of languages was also found in toponymy, such
level, which shows the meaning of water both explicitly as Javanese + Sundanese, Sundanese + Malay, and Java-
and implicitly, indicates that the flood hazard has actually nese + Malay. Uniquely in many toponyms of the urban
been perpetuated by the predecessors through the naming village level implies dispersed water is implied in each
of areas in the mainland of Jakarta. Toponyms in flood- language except Chinese and Sumbawa. From the origin
prone urban villages in the mainland of Jakarta are at of the urban village toponym, it can also be seen that the
least composed of Malay Betawi, Javanese, Sundanese, mainland of Jakarta used to be a region dominated by
Chinese, Dutch, Portuguese, and Sumbawa (Table 2). A Malay Betawi.

Table 2. Jakarta’s Toponyms According to the Origin Languages.

Languages Toponyms
Malay Betawi Penjaringan, Kebon Bawang, Koja, Tanjung Priuk, Tugu Selatan, Pegangsaan Dua, Rawabadak Utara,
Danau Sunter, Kelapa Gading Timur, Rorotan, Marunda, Kapuk Muara, Pejagalan, Kamal Muara, Pasar
Minggu, Jati Padang, Petukangan Selatan, Pondok Pinang, Kebayoran Lama Utara, Bangka, Mampang
Prapatan, Kuningan Barat, Kebon Baru, Bukit Duri, Manggarai, Pondok Labu, Rawajati, Bintaro, Kebon
Manggis, Pondok Bambu, Bidara Cina, Kampung Melayu, Dukuh, Kramat Jati, Pinang Ranti, Makasar,
Kebon Pala, Cibubur, Rambutan, Baru, Rawa Terate, Bale Kambang, Mangga Dua Selatan, Petamburan,
Semanan, Kedaung Kali Angke, Roa Malaka, Wijaya Kesuma, Duri Kepa, Kedoya Utara, Angke, Kemban-
gan Utara, Kedoya Selatan, Kembangan Selatan, Duri Kosambi, Rawa Buaya, Kapuk
Javanese Warakas, Ulujami, Tegal Parang, Pengadegan, Pulo Gebang, Kalisari, Joglo,
Sundanes Ancol, Glodok, Grogol
Chinese Cawang, Karet Tengsin
Dutch Semper Timur, Semper Barat, Pluit, Pademangan Barat
Portuguese Lagoa
Sumbawa Tambora
Javanese + Sundanese Lebak Bulus
Sundanes + Malay Cilincing, Cilandak Timur, Cipulir, Cilandak Barat, Cipinang Besar Selatan, Cipinang Muara, Cipinang
Melayu, Gunung Sahari Utara, Cengkareng Barat, Cengkareng Timur
Javanese + Malay Suka Pura, Pejaten Timur, Petogogan, Kalibata, Kelapa Dua Wetan, Pekayon, Cililitan, Pekojan, Jati Pulo,
Tegal Alur

The dynamics of the regional development seemed ethnicities, this is quite confusing. Toponym conservation
to cause the toponyms in the mainland of Jakarta as if requires a legal basis to prevent developers and society
it had no connection with the phenomenon of flooding. from giving place names that are different from their ori-
Landscape changes analysis in the mainland of Jakarta gin. The toponym is a reminder to the community, as well
in 1940–2019 showed an increase in the amount of built- as waiting for experts to study it carefully, because it con-
up area that was previously in the form of swamps, lakes, tains meanings that can be linked to disasters, especially
agroforestry, and cultivation. The emergence of the built- floods.
up area seemed to ignore the potential aspects of the flood
disaster contained in the toponym. This condition is exac-
5. Discussion
erbated when the construction of several new settlements
and industrial areas eliminates the original toponyms, Since the colonial era, Jakarta has been built based
which should have been maintained, and their historical on urban planning patterns in the Netherlands where the
aspects are known to the population. Toponym conserva- area is prone to flooding due to former swamps and rice
tion does not mean prohibiting society from giving dif- fields. A flood control system is designed to build dams
ferent names or making replacements for them, but rather and ditches that serve as pathways for the surface run-off
[51]
retaining the original names, inserted with new compo- and drainage . Thus, water and other associated objects
nents. Meanwhile, people also often forget the meaning of have become familiar words in toponyms at the village
a name as a place or geographical phenomenon; for some level in various languages used by people of Jakarta.

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Toponym means that water can indicate the connectivity and international collectors due to minimal oversight,
landscape and socio-cultural phenomena related to poten- public awareness and participation, and unclear punish-
tial disaster in a place [52,53]
. However, the topology in the ment-reward systems.
mainland of Jakarta is often composed of more than one Tracing toponyms becomes increasingly difficult
language due to intercultural meetings. when related to darker historical phenomena, leading
The change in the Jakarta landscape which, along communities to propose name changes to create better im-
with the continuous acculturation of the Malay Betawi pressions. The trend of adopting modern names from for-
community with other ethnic groups, has led to an agrar- eign languages makes understanding toponyms even more
ian-coastal pattern that fades and causes livelihood diver- challenging for younger generations. Toponyms connect-
sification, especially as urbanization continues to push ed to plants and animals often confuse today’s generation
it forward [54,55]
. Though the landscape changes rapidly, because these species have become rare or extinct. Top-
it is characterized by shifts in land use for settlements, onyms should be valued as cultural heritage and part of
infrastructure, and industries, which have the potential to national identity [68]. Toponym conservation must be given
lower the environment’s carrying capacity [56–58]
. Urban a legal basis and supervision from the national to the local
[69,70]
sprawl and the reduction of vegetated areas that occur in levels . Toponyms can be a preliminary assessment
all directions ultimately increase the flood risk [59,60]
. At in disaster mitigation, especially determining hazards and
present, it is difficult to find urban villages that retain their vulnerable areas either descriptive or associative [71–73].
toponym character in the form of biophysical evidence or
livelihood; thus the names are only past phenomena that 6. Conclusions
[61,62]
have nothing to do with current events . Jakarta is a lowland area at the upstream of several
In Sundanese, Indonesian people did not realize that watersheds. Interaction of the population with water re-
Ciamis (place) and Ci Amis (river) have different mean- corded in toponymy at the urban village level. The 104
ings. Toponym conservation can refer to historical maps toponyms in flood-prone locations show a link between
[63]
or other artifacts . In Indonesia, this is reflected in the name and water as an element of hydrometeorological
writing of toponyms on maps published by the Dutch East disasters, both explicitly and implicitly composed of
[64]
Indies, which are now archived at Leiden University . Betawi Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Portuguese, and
In another case, ancient manuscripts could be a basis to Dutch as many as 61 urban villages. In locations that have
[65,66]
reveal their meanings . Toponym conservation is an close meaning to water, the landscape has changed, thus
effort to reveal the local wisdom, a community always biophysical and livelihood characteristics are no longer
records past events to become a place name, hence cur- visible. Especially when it began to appear with the re-
rent and future generations will continue to remember gional development trends, toponym naming was ignored.
[67]
that phenomenon . Many places in Indonesia have top- Therefore, toponym conservation is an important effort
onyms seemingly unrelated to current phenomena. This to mitigate flood potential disasters by giving names to
disconnect occurs due to dynamic geological processes the urban anthropogenic landscapes such as settlements,
and ancestral historical legacies that are difficult to trace industrial areas, and commercial areas. Toponym conser-
because of historical sources, technology limitations, and vation should be a shared awareness among all parties,
sometimes deliberate efforts to obscure past memories. not merely an obligation for archaeological and historical
As we know, many landforms have been buried by sed- institutions. Other stakeholders, such as government agen-
imentation, volcanic ash, or damaged by erosion from cies in development and planning, environmental manage-
water, wind, or the sea. Additionally, we must understand ment, and even tourism, must become agents that encour-
that numerous Indonesian historical sources are currently age communities to be more conscious of the toponyms
stored abroad, particularly in the Netherlands and other around them. The loss of toponyms and their meanings
countries. Even newly discovered historical sources face represents a concrete example of the erosion of national
challenges from smuggling and are targeted by both local culture.

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The authors declare no conflict of interest. The
Spatial correlation analysis of land subsidence on
funders had no role in the design of the study; in the col- flooding in North Jakarta (Analisis korelasi spasial
lection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing dampak penurunan muka tanah terhadap banjir di Ja-
of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results. karta Utara [in Indonesian]). Jurnal Geodesi Undip.

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